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1 INTRODUCTION
Since the invention by Rudolf Diesel in 1892, the
compression-ignition (CI) engine has been the workhorse
of industry, and has been dominant in applications such
as trucking, construction, farming, and mining. They have
been also extensively used for stationary power generation
and marine propulsion and in large passenger vehicles in
many regions of the world. The main reason for this result is
that the type combustion in diesel engines is very effective
in large-size engines, being the main advantage the high
global efficiency that can reach values in excess of 50%,
considering that the best conventional gasoline engines are
approximately from 30% to 33% efficient, and then only at
wide throttle openings.
On the other hand, small displacement diesel engines are
difficult to design and to operate, and consequently the application to light-duty vehicles such as vans and cars has been
very scarce until some decades ago. The main drawbacks of
the diesel engine in automotive applications have been the
small power/weight ratio, high levels of noise and harshness,
and high nitrous oxides (NOx ) and soot emissions compared
with other plants, especially the spark-ignition (SI) engine
fuelled with gasoline. However, during the past decades, and
thanks to significant improvements in injection technology,
turbocharging and exhaust aftertreatment devices, diesel
engines have been able to challenge and partially beat the
SI engine in many automotive applications, changing some
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in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces079
Reciprocating Engines
2005
2010
Year
2015
2020
(a)
6.5
6
5.5
5
2000 2004 2008 2012
Year ()
60
55
50
45
40
35
2000 2004 2008 2012
(b)
Year ()
Figure 1. Market share evolution of diesel engines in Western European countries and prospective toward 2020. Source: Reproduced with
permission from Bedwell, 2013. LMC Automotive Ltd.
(c)
2.2
2.1
2
1.9
1.8
2000 2004 2008 2012
Year ()
Figure 2. Evolution of the averaged fuel consumption (a), specific power (b), and engine displacement (c) for the light-duty vehicles with
turbocharged direct injection compression ignition engines marketed in Spain (19992013).
less than 5.5 L/100 km, a level markedly lower than that of
an equivalent vehicle with a SI engine. Moreover, the technology breakthrough has pushed the specific power of CI
engines beyond 50 kW/L, strongly reducing the performance
gap with their competitors. It should be also noted that during
past decades, the engines have suffered an impressive reduction in pollutant emissions of around a 95% as a boundary
condition that adds value to the significant improvement in
performance.
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2.2
Control of power
2.4
Pollutants formation
2.3
2.5
Noise emissions
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It may be remembered that the possible tightening of antipollution laws applicable to industrial and marine engines
will cause that the emission reduction will be also an important particular demand for this type of engines. However, this
demand is more an economical challenge than a technological challenge, as the pollutant abatement measures are well
known and validated in automotive applications.
2.6
2.7
2.6.1
2.6.2
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3 INJECTION
3.1
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3.2
Various types of direct injection systems have been developed to meet the particular requirements of each application.
Mainly, direct injection systems can be divided into direct
action systems or accumulation systems.
Direct action systems are those injection systems in which
fuel delivery is controlled by the HP pump and the injector
just atomizes the fuel to create a spray, they are commonly
known as pump-line-nozzle systems (Heywood, 1988). These
systems consist mainly of a cam-driven pump, an HP line,
and the nozzle. The injection pressure is proportional to the
rotational speed of the fuel pump and thus, the engine, and it
is not constant along the injection event. The actual injection
timing is controlled by the phasing of the cam in respect to the
Rail pressure
sensor
Fuel tank
Fuel filter
Fuel injectors
ECU
High pressure
fuel pump
Crankshaft Camshaft
position position
TPS
MAP
IAT
ECT
1
3
5
6
7
3.3
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Dense spray
Dilute spray
Dispersed
flow
Fuel
flow
Injector
nozzle
Liquid
core
Detachment of ligaments
(primary atomization)
Formation of droplets
from ligaments
(secondary atomization)
Figure 5. Illustration of the macroscopic structure of the direct injection diesel spray.
3.4
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10
0
40
30
20
50
40
30
20
Square
Boot
Vapor phase
Liquid phase
10
10
0
0
Time (ms)
duration is, the larger will be the total heat release and
thus the torque output. As exposed earlier, the actual
timing (in respect to the crankshaft or piston position)
and duration of the main injection are instructed by
the ECU, which interpolates these values out of pre-set
two or three dimensional look-up tables. The injection
duration and timing depend mainly on driver torque
demand, engine rotational speed and phase, but a large
set of correction factors may be applied to account for
the effects of variables such as intake air pressure and
temperature, coolant temperature, electric system voltage,
current gear selection, and transient effects such as sudden
acceleration.
3.5
60
20
Intensity (A)
0
40
20
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Time (ms)
4
4.1
COMBUSTION
Conventional diesel combustion
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Injector control
electrical signal
Injection rate
10
SoI
Injection
rate
Premixed
combustion
EoI
HRL/RoHR
Fast
diffusion-controlled
combustion
Late slow
diffusion-controlled
combustion
Autoignition
delay
RoHR
HRL
10
SoC
10
15 EoC 20
CAD
4.2
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(a)
(b)
11
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12
Reciprocating Engines
Maximum
liquid length
Lift-off length
RoHR (%)
100
50
RoHR 10 15%
NOx (rel)
Soot (% fuel)
T/100 (K)
0
2
T 1600 K
T 700 K
T 2700 K
0
30
Soot
precursors
formation
20
10
0
1
0.5
0
Mixture formation
Rich premixed
combustion
(Fr 4)
Post-flame
Diffusion
flame
(Fr 1)
Figure 10. Sketch of the structure of the quasi-steady flame during the fast mixing-controlled combustion stage according to the conceptual
model described by Dec (1997) and Flynn et al. (1999).
4.3
Looking at the combustion process from the local equivalence ratio and temperature conditions inside the combustion
chamber as shown in Figure 11 (Kamimoto and Bae, 1988),
it is clear how different suitable options arise for avoiding
both NOx and soot formation processes. A comprehensive
review of the advanced combustion concepts recently developed in the frame of CI engines is already available in
the literature (Dec, 2009; Musculus, Miles, and Pickett,
2013).
Research works performed in the past two decades have
confirmed how promoting a lean premixed combustion by
detaching the fuel injection event from the combustion
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Soot
CDC
Equivalence ratio ()
7
6
5
4
CO
oxidation
MC-LTC
2
1
0
600
HCCI
1000
HPC
1400
NOx
1800
2200
2600
3000
Temperature (K)
process is an interesting alternative for reducing these pollutant emissions. This combustion concept based on attaining
sufficiently lean and homogeneous local equivalence ratios,
well below the stoichiometric value, is widely known as
homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI). This
lean combustion slows down or even avoids the chemical
reactions leading to thermal NOx formation owing to the
drastic reduction of the local temperatures inside the combustion chamber, while soot formation is also hindered by the
absence of high local equivalence ratios during the combustion process.
The injection strategies commonly reported in the literature as suitable for implementing a highly premixed combustion (HPC) concept, with different levels of local air/fuel
mixture homogeneity, are the port-fuel injection, where the
fuel is injected at the intake port and mixes with the air before
entering into the cylinder, and the direct injection characteristic of current CI engines. However, despite producing a
perfectly homogeneous lean air/fuel mixture, port fuel injection of usual fuels for CI engines is not a realistic alternative
because of its limited efficiency, high HC and CO emissions,
early onset of the combustion process, lack of combustion
phasing control and high noise. In addition, as diesel fuels
have poor evaporation characteristics, they create a wall film
that does not evaporate from the intake port walls because
the temperatures there are not high enough.
13
The direct injection strategy comprises two different alternatives suitable to produce an HPC, consisting of injecting
the fuel early during the compression stroke or late during
the expansion stoke. In the late direct injection alternative, as
in the modulated kinetics (MK) or the highly premixed late
injection (HPLI) concepts, the injection is placed just after
the TDC and the fuel should ignite also relatively close to
the TDC as displacing the combustion toward the expansion
stroke produces combustion instability, high levels of CO
and HC, and the sharp decrease on engine efficiency caused
by a delayed combustion phasing observed in Figure 12
(Benajes et al., 2004). Then, the practical application of the
late direct injection alternative is limited by the available
mixing time and the high sensitivity of the engine efficiency
to combustion phasing, especially at high engine speed or
loads, where it requires an extremely fine tuning and control
of different engine parameters, such as the EGR rate and the
swirl level.
In the early injection alternative, the injection event can
be arbitrarily advanced toward the compression stroke while
combustion starts relatively close to the TDC, increasing
the mixing time available for producing a suitable premixed
combustion without intrinsically compromising the engine
efficiency. However, injection timing is usually set close to
the TDC as in the case of the premixed charge compression
ignition (PCCI) concept, and the lack of homogeneity caused
by a shortened mixing time is compensated by introducing
EGR to reduce the temperatures in those zones of the mixture
that reacts in locally stoichiometric combustion. This early
direct injection represents the most promising alternative for
implementing the HPC concept, as it is also confirmed by
numerous investigations reported in the literature. However,
the HPC concept attained by advancing the injection timing
is still under investigation as it presents important challenges
mainly related to avoiding liquid fuel impingement onto the
cylinder liner surface, controlling the combustion phasing
and burning rates, and extending the range of operation of
the concept in terms of engine load. Figure 13 evidences
the differences between the burning rates generated with the
CDC and the early injection HPC concepts, which are much
shorter and faster.
As discussed, HPC concepts have been widely investigated as combustion technologies to avoid soot and NOx
engine-out emissions. However, despite the research efforts
and promising results obtained by means of these HPC strategies, ignition timing control and load limits are still the main
challenges for its practical application. Owing to these drawbacks, the mixing-controlled low temperature combustion
(MC-LTC) strategy arises as an alternative to overcome the
lack of ignition timing control of the highly premixed strategies as well as the NOx -soot trade-off characteristic of the
conventional diffusive combustion.
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14
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16
2 aTDC
4
0
0.05
Dry soot (g/kwh)
BSFC (%)
12
0.04
0.03
0.02
4 aTDC
0.01
51%
0
6
10
11
12
13
14
sNOx (g/kWh)
Figure 12. Pollutant emissions and fuel consumption trends observed while retarding the injection event for achieving a late injection HPC
concept. Source: Reproduced with permission from CMT-Motores Termicos.
200
Diesel low NOx
RoHR (J/cad)
160
120
80
40
0
20
10
10
20
30
40
Figure 13. Different RoHR profiles comparing the CDC concept for low NOx (with DeNOx catalyst), CDC concept for high NOx (without
DeNOx catalyst), and early injection HPC concept.
5
5.1
POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
Regulated pollutants in CI engines
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15
1
0.85
6
0.6
11%O2
4
10%O2
(%)
Soot (g/kgfuel)
0.8
12%O2
0.4
40 kg/m3
35 kg/m3
30 kg/m3
26 kg/m3
2
9%O2
0
0.0
0.5
0.2
0.08
0.05
CO
HC
0
NOx
0.005
PM
1.0
NOx (g/kgfuel)
Figure 14. Pollutant emissions trends observed during the implementation of the mixing-controlled LTC concept. Source: Reproduced from Benajes et al., 2010. Elsevier.
5.2
Pollutants formation
Carbon dioxide
12
Pollutants
1
Nitrogen
67
Water
11
16
Reciprocating Engines
Others
13
SOx + H2O
14
Soot
41
HC
32
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
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Soot (g/m3)
Concentration (ppm-Vol)
1500
0.15
NOx
0.1
1000
HC
0.05
500
CO
Soot
0
0.15
0.3
0.45
0.60
17
5.3
very rich mixture, and that cannot be oxidized later owing
to defective mixing or reduction in the chamber temperature
during expansion stroke. Another eventual source of HC is
the impingement of the spray on the piston, especially if the
fuel wets the piston/cylinder walls. Aside from the gaseous
emission of HC, some HCs can be adsorbed in the particle
matter after condensation on the particles surface, adhering
to them and being included in their structure.
One way of globally understanding the pollutant formation
trends in CI engines is representing the emission concentration as a function of the global equivalence ratio, as represented in Figure 18. The plotted trends evidence that there
is not an optimal range of equivalence ratio, where all the
emission are low, except perhaps at very lean mixtures, which
correspond with low load operating conditions of the engine,
being CO and HC relatively high in this zone.
0.25
Nucleation mode
Accumulation mode
0.2
Mass
Number
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1
10
100
1000
Figure 19. Typical distribution of exhaust particulate size and their contribution to total mass.
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10,000
18
Reciprocating Engines
5.3.1
Internal techniques
Particulate trap
Soot emissions
Injection + combustion
+ EGR
Target
State of
the art
Injection +
combustion +
air management
New combustion
concepts
DeNOx-SCR
NOx emission
Figure 20. Possible internal and external measures for tailpipe NOx or soot reduction.
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BSFC (g/kWh)
210
205
200
195
0.2
19%
BP = 3.45 bar
IP
0.15
0.1
20%
0.05
20%
840 bar
970 bar
1100 bar
13%
8%
0% EGR
0
2
10
12
SNOx (g/kWh)
19
Pilot I
Pilot II
Main
After
Soot oxidation
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EGR. A general and widely used measure for the reduction in NOx emissions is the EGR that introduces gases
from the exhaust into the intake line, replacing and mixing
with fresh air, and so reducing the oxygen concentration of
the gas that later mixes with the fuel during the injection
process. There are different effects affecting the NOx formation, but the most important in usual combustion conditions
is the lower oxygen concentration that reduces the flame
temperature. As a counter effect, the less oxygen contributes
to higher soot emissions by reducing the soot oxidation
rate. Moreover, the slower reaction rates are responsible
for a trend to increase fuel consumption, and a proportional
increase in the production of CO2 (Ladommatos et al.,
1996a, b). The EGR strategy is currently always combined
with some degree of cooling of the recirculated gases, as
this measure contributes further to the reduction in the flame
temperature and NOx formation.
Figure 21 shows some results of the clear effect of
increasing EGR in a heavy-duty engine. In this case, introducing an EGR rate of about 20% can reduce NOx emissions
by a factor of 4. In modern engines, EGR rates can range up
to 40% and 50% at low load operation conditions. EGR is a
necessary measure for controlling the alternative combustion
modes based on a premixed charge auto-ignition. More
details on the techniques for producing EGR are given in
Section 8.
Increase in boost pressure. Increasing boost pressure is
a desirable measure that has an already commented potential
for largely increasing engine power if fuel mass is increased
in proportion to the increase in intake air. However, if equivalence ratio is reduced, the general effect is a reduction in soot
formation, owing to the excess in air. The faster combustion
with plenty of available oxygen produces a benefit in fuel
efficiency and so in CO2 reduction. The familiar repercussion
is an increase in NOx emissions.
New combustion modes. The trend in future active solutions focuses mainly in new combustion modes, which have
been introduced in Section 4. These combustion modes
are focused on shifting the combustion curve illustrated
in Figure 11 into areas where NOx and soot formation
does not occur. On the one hand, systems known as PCCI,
which perform the injection process at a lower temperature,
thus increasing the delay period. This controls the combustion evolution below the NOx -forming temperatures. In this
sense, this type of combustion reduces NOx emission but may
produce a tendency to not to oxidize the CO and HC owing
to the decrease of temperatures.
5.3.2
External measures
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6
6.1
FUELS
Suitable fuels for CI engines
21
Specific gravity
Cetane rating
Viscosity at 40 C (mm2 /s)
Sulfur (ppm)
HFRR lubricity (mm)
Lower heating value (MJ/kg)
H/C ratio
Biodiesel
Fischer-Tropsch
0.830.87
4055
1.93.3
715
0.400.55
42.7
1.84
0.870.89
4570
3.55.0
024
0.270.32
39.0
1.80
0.770.79
>70
2.12.8
<1
0.400.64
42.7
2.15
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6.2
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7 TURBOCHARGING
Heavy-duty and large marine CI engines have used
turbocharging as soon as this technology was available, as the engine size (mainly the huge exhaust and
intake mass flow rates) and the operation conditions
(with long time at full or constant power) were pretty
compatible with the turbocharger design and operation. However, small displacement engines, typically
in automotive or light-duty applications, with opposite
features, such as fast changes in load and speed and
very small intake and exhaust mass flow rates, have not
been successfully boosted until recent decades. The overcoming of those limitations in design and coupling of the
turbocharger has led to the situation where almost every
manufactured CI engine uses turbocharging technology
today.
7.1
23
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Reciprocating Engines
7.2
Turbocharging systems
7.3
Turbocharging challenges
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Inlet
Exhaust
I.P stage
T
VGT
HP stage
Charge air
cooler
T
HP turbine
bypass
Hp compressor
bypass
its rotational speed, reducing the turbo lag and the emissions
during transient operation. During braking, the extra power
generated by the turbine can be stored to be later used during
the speed-up phase.
Another method to get higher boost pressures, improve
transient behavior, and get broader range of operation is
to use two compressor stages in series, the closer one
to the engine smaller (the HP stage) and the other one
bigger (the LP stage), as illustrated in Figure 23. One of
the compressors is turbine driven, while the other may be
part of a turbocharger, be a supercharger or electrically
driven. When the LP stage is a supercharger, this technique is also called mechanical auxiliary supercharging.
For better flexibility of operation, a sequential serial boost
system can be used, in which the stages are regulated.
One common method to achieve the regulation is to bypass
the flow of the HP turbine at high mass flow rates, but
better performance can be achieved using VGTs instead.
The HP compressor may also have a bypass valve, so all
the boosting can be produced by the big, LP stage. A
charge air cooler is needed after the HP compressor in
order to reduce the intake manifold temperature. Two-stage
charging systems allow the engine characteristic curves to
run through the central zone of the turbocharger maps more
easily, where the efficiency is higher, and they also rise
the low end torque and the rated power while reducing
the turbo lag, so the engine can be further downsized.
The use of two stages also gives more EGR flexibility,
allowing adapting better the needed EGR rate. While the
use of a supercharger or an electric booster as the LP stage
may reduce the response time, it has lower fuel consumption and emission reduction potential than turbochargers.
When using two turbochargers, reduced fuel consumption
is expected to be between 5% and 10%, comparing to
a single-stage equivalent engine (Nefischer et al., 2010).
Although great boosting pressures, ranges of operation,
and transient behavior can be achieved with a sequential serial two-stage boosting system, packaging constraints,
cost, and control complexity may limit its application in
small engines.
Turbocompounding, in which part of the exhaust gases
residual energy is recovered with a turbine connected to the
crankshaft, is also expected to get wider adoption and development in the future. If mechanically connected, a variable
transmission can be used in order to maintain the turbine
working closer to its maximum efficiency independently of
the crankshaft speed. The turbine can also drive a reversible
electric generator, powering an electric engine connected to
the crankshaft (Figure 24). In both cases, the turbine can be
part of a turbocharger, which gives the additional benefit of
not only recovering part of the residual energy and feeding it
to the crankshaft but also by giving power to the turbocharger
25
Engine
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Reciprocating Engines
Exhaust
Turbo generator
Inlet
Generator
motor
Turbocharger
VGT
Electric power bus
Crankshaft
Generator
motor
Engine
Figure 24. Electrical turbcompounding in series with a turbocharger. The generators are reversible.
8.1
EGR circuits
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27
20
15
50
25
40
20
30
25
30
15
20
10
10
20
10
15
10
5
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
(a)
1000
1500
2000
(b)
Figure 25. Typical EGR rate distribution on the operation map of two diesel engines: (a) light-duty engine and (b) heavy-duty engine.
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Reciprocating Engines
Back pressure
valve
After
treatment
LP EGR
cooler
HP EGR
valve
LP EGR
valve
HP EGR
cooler
TGV
COM.
Charge air
cooler
Figure 26. External EGR architecture: low pressure and high pressure EGR circuits.
8.2
In all the cases, the proper burnt gas mass flow rate to
be recirculated is controlled by means of a valve placed
in the EGR circuit, typically downstream of the cooler. In
modern engines, the amount the EGR mass flow rate is
estimated in operation by measuring the mass flow rate of
the fresh air induced from the atmosphere charge that enters
the engine (which is easy to measure with hot wire devices
and similar equipment), along with intake gas pressure and
8.3
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29
Venturi
Intercooler
EGR cooler
EGR cooler
Turbina Compressor
Figure 27. Use of an EGR venturi to reduce the mean intake pressure.
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30
Reciprocating Engines
Experimental data
12l HD engine
Full load 1600 rpm
p3
3.6
3.4
3.2
Pressure (bar)
p2
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
0
180
360
Crank angle ()
(a)
C6
C5
C4
C3
C2
540
720
L minas
Reed
valves or
rotary
disc
Anti
-retorno
C1
(b)
Figure 28. (a) Instantaneous exhaust and intake pressures. Heavy-duty turbocharged diesel engine. (b) Devices in the EGR circuit to take
advantage of exhaust pressure pulses.
VVA system, whereas in CI engines, less expected benefits and usual more conservative designs have hindered this
application (Kapus et al., 2006). A mechanical limitation
in CI engines is the reduced space between the valve and
the piston at TDC, which hinders the advance in the intake
valve opening, and the retarding of the exhaust valve closing.
On the other hand, the important advances in injection and
turbocharging systems have discouraged the application of
flexible VVA systems.
Nevertheless, the application of a VVA system can still
improve several processes in the conventional CI engine and
also make possible several more modifications to the basic
cycle that could even be combined with new combustion
modes (Sommer et al., 2006). A view of the different possible
applications of a VVA system in CI engines is shown in
Figure 29.
In general, these strategies can be designed to optimize
the process of the air loop management (including the
behavior of the turbocharger) and the combustion processes
and pollutant formation. In some cases, the goal is to
improve engine performance under particular operating
9.1
9.2
Swirl modification
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Other strategies
with application in
diesel engines
Volumetric efficiency
maximization
Improvement of the
behavior during the cold
starting
Cylinder deactivation at
partial loads
Brake engine by
decompression
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32
Reciprocating Engines
pesc
9.3
IVC
padm
VD
VD,Atk
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pesc
padm
pesc
padm
IVC
Late IVC
IVC
Early IVC
VD
VD, Atk
(a)
VD
VD, Atk
(b)
Figure 31. Shortening of the compression stroke (red dotted line) in a four-stroke engine by advancing (a) and retarding (b) the intake
valve closing.
100%
80%
60%
9.5
40%
20%
EIVC
0%
LIVC
TDC
9.4
9.6
Engine braking
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Reciprocating Engines
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DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces079
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Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces079