1

INSTRUMENTS
General. Prior to understanding the functioning of air data instruments it is necessary to
understand basic relationship of effecting variables like Pressure, Temperature, Density and
Relative Humidity. These factors directly affect the medium i.e. air in which an aircraft
operates.
Pressure, Temperature, Density and Relative Humidity Relationship.
Pressure Density (Directly Proportional) i.e if Pressure increases Density increases
Temperature 1/ Density (Inversely Proportional); Temp increases Density reduces
Relative Humidity 1/ Density(Inversely Proportional); RH increases Density reduces
Density of Saturated air =0.960 kg/m3 whereas Density of Dry air =1.225 kg/m3
At mean sea level (msl) a change of 30 ft of height causes a Pressure change of 1 Hpa
At 10,000 ft a change of 34 ft of height causes a Pressure change of 1 Hpa
At 20,000 ft a change of 46 ft of height causes a Pressure change of 1 Hpa
At 40,000 ft a change of 54 ft of height causes a Pressure change of 1 Hpa
Fact File
1. Pressure exerted by a column of air above us is called Atmospheric Pressure.
2. With increase in altitude, pressure decreases.
3. Rate of fall of pressure with increase in altitude is not linear, its exponential.
4. Rate of fall of pressure decreases with increase in altitude.
5. With increase in altitude temperature reduces which causes density to increase. At the same
time with increase in altitude pressure falls which causes density to decrease. Effect of rate of
fall of pressure with increase in altitude is higher than the effect of rate of fall of
temperature, which causes atmospheric density to reduce with increase in altitude
6. International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). By definition adopted as a standard and
certain values assigned for temp, pressure, density and lapse rate at mean sea level, these are
sacrosanct and do not change in any part of the world.
Temp = +15C, Pressure = 1013.25 Hpa/29.92 mm of Hg/14.7 lbs/sq in/760mm of Hg
Density = 1.225 kg/m3 , Temp Lapse Rate = 1.98C till 36090 ft/11 km thereafter constant
at - 56C. All values at MSL (Mean Sea Level)

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Simple Altimeter
Purpose. It gives altitude of an aircraft with respect to a specific datum.

Construction: Simple Altimeter

Servo Assisted Alt

(Unreliable above 10000 ft due errors)

Sensitive Altimeter. Two or more aneroid capsules are placed in series to make altimeter
sensitive to pressure changes at higher altitude. Besides this a rocking/knocking mechanism/
vibrator is placed on mechanical linkages to increase sensitivity of capsules so as to respond
to the smallest pressure change. Both the simple and sensitive altimeter suffers from Lag
Error.
Q. In a sensitive altimeter sensitivity is improved by (a) Servo Motor (b) Electro mechanical
pick off drive (c) Rocking Shaft mechanism (d) All the above. A. (c).
Q. Advantage of sensitive altimeter is
(a) No Lag (b) Accuracy is increased (c) Can be
used upto higher altitudes (d) All the above
A. (c).
Servo Assisted/Servo Altimeter. Both simple and sensitive altimeters suffer from Lag Error.
This error is caused due to friction between mechanical linkages and delay in response of the
capsule to any pressure change. In Servo altimeter lag error is virtually eliminated, by using
electromechanical pick off devices or transducers. Linear motion of capsule is converted to
electrical pulses which in turn rotates the servo motor.
Q. In servo assisted altimeter lag error is virtually removed by (a) Using number of capsules in
series (b) Knocking mechanism (c) Electro mechanical transducers (d) All of the above.
A. (c).
QNH. It is the pressure prevailing at Mean Sea Level at a given time and when set on the
altimeter sub-scale, the altimeter gives indication with respect mean sea level which is termed
as altitude, when aircraft is flying in the air and when on ground altimeter indicates the
elevation of that point.

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QFE. It is pressure prevailing at an airfield and when set on the altimeter sub-scale it shows
zero on ground and in the air with respect to the airfield which is called height.
QNE. When altimeter sub-scale is set to Standard Pressure setting of 1013.2 Hpa it is termed as
QNE. When altimeter is set to QNE indications are termed as Flight Level or Pressure
altitude.
Transition Level (QNE -1013.2 Hpa) (Flight Level)
Transition Layer
Change to QNH
Transition Altitude (QNH)
(Altitude)

(Change To QNE)

Density Altitude
PA = 6000 ft
=1.1 kg/m3

PA = 7000 ft
=1.1 kg/m3

PA = 5000 ft
=1.1 kg/m3

At ISA 15C, =1.225 kg/m3 T = 25C, =1.2 kg/m3 T = 5C =1.24 kg/m3

1. Density Altitude. This is defined as the height in ISA at which prevailing density will
occur. Density altitude is mainly used in ascertaining the performance data of aircraft. It is the
same as pressure altitude when local temperature is ISA temperature. If the local temperature is
lower than ISA the density altitude is lower than the pressure altitude, and vice versa. 1 oC
difference of temperature causes density altitude to separate from, pressure altitude by
approximately 119 ft. A higher density altitude results in deterioration of aircraft performance,
especially noticeable for taking-off and landing. Density altitude is pressure altitude
corrected for non-standard ISA temperature.
True Altitude = PA + [ 4 x (Deviation from ISA temp) x PA] / 1000 or
True Altitude = PA + [ 4 x (Actual ISA temp) x PA] / 1000
Density Altitude = PA + 118 x Temp Devn from ISA (Actual-ISA)
Q. An aircraft is flying at PA = 20000 ft. OAT at this altitude is -35C. Find True alt.
A. TA = 20000 + [ 4 x (-35 + 15) x 20000] / 1000 = 20000 (40 x 20) = 19200 ft

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Thumb Rule.

Correction for temp deviation is 4% of PA for every 10C change.*

Q. An aircraft is flying at 10,000 ft, ambient temp = +20C. Find True Alt.
A. ISA Temp = -5C; TA =PA+[ 4 x [20 (-5) x 10000]/1000 = 11000 ft.
Q. Indicated PA is 25,000 ft, Ambient air temp = -15C. Find corrected PA.
A. ISA = -35C, Actual Temp = -15C, Deviation = 20C, 4% of 25000 = 1000 for 10 change
of temp*. Hence for 20 change in temp = 2000 ft. Corrected PA = 27000 ft. Alternatively,
ISA Temp = -35C; TA =PA+[ 4 x [-15 (-35) x 10000]/1000 = 27000 ft
Q. Aircraft at PA= 15,000 ft. OAT = -30C. Find TA.
A. ISA Temp = -15C, Actual Temp = -30C, Deviation = 15 i.e 4% + 2% = 6% of 15000 ft =
900 ft. Since actual is colder True alt will be lower than PA, hence = 14100 ft
Q. Pressure exerted by a column of air above a point is called (a) Dynamic Pressure (b) Static
Pressure (c) Hydrostatic Pressure (d) Pressure. A. (c)
Errors of Altimeter. These are :B

(a) Barometric

(b) Lag

(c) Instrument

(d) Position/Pressure

(e) Temperature

(f) Blockage

Barometric Error. This error occurs when actual datum pressure differs from that selected on
the sub-scale of the altimeter. The same is depicted below.

High Low - High

Q. An aircraft takes off from X with altimeter set to QNH 1010 HPa and climbs to 8000 ft
indicated. It goes to Y, where QNH is 990 HPa and elevation is 300 ft. Find (a) True altitude of
aircraft over Y (b) Height of aircraft over Y (c) altimeter reading while it lands at Y (sub-scale
not reset).

8000 ft

7400 ft
300 ft (Elev)

1010 HPa (-20 HPa) 990 HPA

20 HPa = 20 x 30 = 600 ft (H-L-H)

(a) Ind = True +BE, True = 8000-600 =
7400 ft (b) Ht = 7400-300 = 7100 ft (c) If
990 was selected, alt reads 300 ft but
selection is 1010, so alt will read 600 (20
HPa more) + 300 (elev) = 900 ft

Q. An aircraft takes off from X with altimeter and climbs to FL 80. QNH of X is 1013 HPa. It
goes to Y, where QNH is 990 HPa and elevation is 300 ft. Find (a) True altitude of aircraft over
Y (b) Height of aircraft over Y (c) altimeter reading while it lands at Y (sub-scale not reset).
8000 ft

7310 ft
300 ft (Elev)

1013 (-23 HPa) 990 HPA

23 HPa = 23 x 30 = 690 ft (H-L-H)

(a) Ind = True +BE, True = 8000-690 =
7310 ft (b) Ht = 7310-300 = 7010 ft (c) If
990 was selected, alt reads 300 ft but
selection is 1013, so alt will read 690 (23
HPa more) + 300 (elev) = 990 ft

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Q. An aircraft takes off from X (Elev =90 ft) with altimeter reading Zero and climbs to 8000 ft.
QNH of X is 1010 HPa. It goes to Y, where QNH is 990 HPa and elevation is 300 ft. Find (a)
True altitude of aircraft over Y (b) Height of aircraft over Y (c) altimeter reading while it lands
at Y (sub-scale not reset).
Alt reads 0, QFE selected which is 3HPa
8000 ft
7490 ft
lesser than 1010 HPa = 1007 HPa
17 HPa = 17 x 30 = 510 ft (H-L-H)
300 ft (Elev)
(a) Ind = True +BE, True = 8000-510 =
7490 ft (b) Ht = 7490-300 = 7190 ft (c) If
1007 (QFE) (-17 HPa) 990 HPa
990 was selected, alt reads 300 ft but
selection is 1007, so alt will read 510 (17
HPa more) + 300 (elev) = 810 ft
Q. An aircraft takes off from X (Elev =90 ft) with altimeter reading 180 ft and climbs to 8000 ft.
QNH of X is 1010 HPa. It goes to Y, where QNH is 990 HPa and elevation is 300 ft. Find (a)
True altitude of aircraft over Y (b) Height of aircraft over Y (c) altimeter reading while it lands
at Y (sub-scale not reset). A. Same as above except selection is 3HPa more, (a) 7310 ft (b)
7010 ft (c) 990 ft
Q. An aircraft takes off from X & climbs to FL 80. Enroute there is a hill of 2020m (elev).
Regional QNH is 1003 HPa. Find (a) Clearance of aircraft while crossing hill (b) What
indication will give clearance of 1000 ft while crossing.
2020 m = 2020 x 3.28 = 6625 ft
8000 ft
10 HPa = 10 x 30 = 300 ft (H-L-H)
(a) Ind = True +BE, True = 8000-300 =
6625 feet
7700 ft (b) Ht = 7700-6625 = 1075 ft (c)
Ind =True + BE = 7625+300 = 7925 ft
1013
1003
Q. An aircraft takes off from A (Elev=450 ft) & PA =600 ft. It lands at B (Elev=120 ft) & PA
=60 ft. Find (a) QNH & QFE at A & B (b) Altimeter reading while landing at B, aircraft had
taken off from A with altimeter reading 330 ft.
A. QFE at A =1013.2 (PA/30)=1013-(600/30)=993 HPa, QFE at B = 1013-2 =1011hpa QNH
at A = 993 + (450/30) = 1008, QNH at B = 1011 + (120/30) = 1015, Aircraft took off with sub
scale set to 1008 and landed where QNH was 1015 Diff in QNH = 7 HPa = 7x30 = 210 (L-HL), Altimeter will read -210 ft

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Q. An aircraft flying from A to B, (Dist = 2000 Nm,) QNH at A = 990 HPa, Elev = 90 ft and
QFE at B = 1010 HPa, Elev = 180 ft. Midway there is a hill of 6280m (Elev). Aircraft takes
off with altimeter reading 30 ft. Find (a) QFE at A (b) QNH at B (c) QNH at base of the hill
(d) What indication of altitude will give a clearance of 1000 ft. (e) If aircraft is flying at 24000
ft, what will be the clearance.
A.

90 ft

(20600 ft)

990 (QNH)

1003 (QNH)

6280m =6280 x 3.28 = 21600 ft

QFE (A) =QNH 90/30 = 990-3=987
QNH (B)= QFE+180/30=1010+6=1016
QNH (Hill)=1016+990=2006/2=1003
180 ft (Elev) True Alt = 21600-(15x30) = 21150
For Elev of 90 ac has set 30, 60 ft less
1010 (QFE)
=2HPa less = 990-2=988, 1003-988=15 x
30 =450ft TA=24000+450= 24450 ft
Clearance = 24450-20600=3050 ft

Q. An aircraft takes off from A, Elev =390 ft, QFE 1004 HPa with altimeter reading 450 ft and
lands at B, Elev =480 ft. Altimeter reads 600 ft at landing. Find (a) QNH & QFE at A & B, if
altimeter was not reset after take off.
A. QNH at A = 1004 + 390/40 = 1017. Set at 1017 indication 450 or +60 (450-390) or + 2HPa,
Hence QNH set was 1019. With 1019 aircraft lands at B and the altimeter reads 600 whereas it
should have read 480 i.e. +120 or + 4 HPA. Hence QNH at B is 1019-4 = 1015 HPa. QFE at
B = 1015 480/30 = 999 HPa.
Thumb Rule. QFE = QNH (Elevation / 30); QNH = QFE + (Elevation / 30)
QFE = 1013.2 (PA/30)
Lag Error. The error is caused due to delay between registering of atmospheric pressure
changes and indications shown. The error is combination of hysterisis (inertia of capsule) and
mechanical friction. In sensitive altimeter the error is reduced by knocking mechanism. In
servo assisted altimeter lag error is virtually removed by using electro-mechanical pick off
device.
Instrument Error. This error is induced during manufacture of equipment with small
tolerance, a correction table is provided with the instrument. For altimeters with a test range of
0 9000m (30,000 ft) it is 2 HPa or 60 ft. For altimeters with a test range of 0 15000m
(50,000 ft) it is 2.5 HPa or 80 ft. (Note: Test is required to be carried out prior to flight
on ground and max tolerance permitted is 2 HPa)

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Position Error. This is caused due to interference of dynamic pressure at static source. The
error is due to :(a) Position of Static Source.
(b) Manoeuvre Induced (Side Slip, Skid etc)
Position Error causes altimeter to UNDEREAD. The error is maximum at low speeds and
high angle of attack. [Note: (a) Two static source are provided at opposite side to reduce
position error. (b) Standby or alternate source is provided for use in emergency only
arising due to blockage of main static source. (c) Position error will increase when using
standby or emergency static source.]
Q. An aircraft is side slipping towards blocked side of static source. This would cause
altimeter to (a) Under read (b) Over read (c) Freeze (d) will be compensated by ADC.
A. (b) (Note: If aircraft side slips towards unblocked static source, altimeter will Under
Read).
In sensitive altimeter a correction card is provided for position error. In servo assisted
altimeter correction for position error is incorporated in the transducer system.
Temperature Error. Altimeter is calibrated with the assumption of a Standard Lapse rate as
per ISA conditions i.e 1.98 C / 1000 ft. However, actual temperature at any given altitude may
differ causing error due to this assumption.
Q. Temperature error in an altimeter is caused due to (a) Non standard MSL Temp (b) Nonstandard temperature Lapse Rate. (c) Non standard MSL pressure. (d) None of the above.
A. (b)
Blockage. This error is caused due to blockage of the static source. The altimeter would
register the last value of static pressure trapped inside the capsule and will thereafter freeze and
indicate a constant value corresponding to the height recorded prior to blockage with change in
altitude.
Q. If Static Source is blocked during climb the altimeter would read (a) Under read (b) Over
Read (c) Zero (d) Correct altitude. A. (a)
Q. Position Error will be maximum when (a) Aircraft flying at high altitude at high speed (b)
Aircraft is flying at low angle of attack (c) Aircraft is under ground effect (d) All the above.
A. (c)
Q. An, altimeter has been set to 1030 HPa whereas MSL is 1010 HPa. If the pressure at height
which aircraft has to fly is 930 HPa, altimeter would (a) Over read (b) Under read (c) Read
Correct. A. (a)

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AIR SPEED INDICATOR (ASI)

Principle. Gives air speed indications by measuring ratio of Pitot pressure to Static pressure,
where Dynamic pressure = V2 = q. Total pr = Dynamic Pr + Static Pr.

TOTAL PRESSURE
STATIC PRESSURE
CAPSULE
LINKAGE

BI-METTALIC
STRIP

DIAL & POTMETER

Fig : Construction of an ASI

ASIR (ASI Reading) when corrected for Instrument Error gives IAS
IAS when corrected for Position Error gives CAS/RAS
CAS when corrected for Compressibility Error gives EAS (upto 300 Kts)
EAS when corrected for Density Error gives TAS
TAS when corrected for Winds gives Ground Speed
Formula to find TAS.
TAS = RAS + [ (1.75 x RAS x Alt)/ (100 x 1000)]
For example, RAS is 130 Kts and height 10000 ft, Find TAS
TAS = 130 + [ (1.75 x 130 x 10000)/ (100 x 1000)] = 130 + 22.7 = 153 Kts

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Errors of ASI
B

Blockage

Lag

Instrument

Position/Pressure

Density

Compressibility

Blockage. This is due to blockage of either the Static or Pitot source.

Q. If the static source is blocked during level flight, ASI will (a) Unde read (b) Over read (c)
Correct (d) Freeze. A. (c) Note: If blocked during climb- under read, descent over read.
Q. Which is the most dangerous situation (a) Pitot blocked during climb (b) Pitot blocked
during descent (c) Static blocked during climb (d) Static blocked during descent. A. (d)
Q. Blocked static during climb would cause an ASI to ______ and Atimeter to _____. (a)
Over read, under read (b) Under read, over read (c) Over read, Over read (d) Under read,
under read. A. (d)
VS0 Stall speed in Landing Configuration
VS1 - Stall speed in Clean/Flying Configuration
VFE Max Speed with Flaps Extended
VN0 Normal Operating Speed / Max Speed in
turbulence( can exceed in smooth flying cond)
VNE Never Exceed Speed
VMO/MMO Max operating Speed/ Mach No

Lag Error. This is caused due to delay between atmospheric pressure change and indications
shown. It is a combination of Hysterisis (inertia of capsule) and mechanical friction.
Instrument Error. This is due to small manufacturing imperfections and the fact that a very
minute movement of the capsule is expanded to give reasonable movement of the pointer. The
extent of this error can be determined by comparing the readings at various air speeds against a
standard ASI. The errors so found are recorded on a card. The reading you take from the Air
Speed Indicator is known as Indicated Air Speed (IAS).

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Position Error. This error is entirely due to the location of the pitot head and static vent, and
the magnitude of the error depends on this. It causes the ASI to under read.
Compressibility Error. At speeds higher than 300 Kts air is brought to a rest and is
compressed to a pressure greater than the dynamic pressure. Compressibility causes the ASI to
over read. Error for compressibility is always subtracted.
Q. Compressibility effect on ASI (a) increases with speed. (b) increases with speed and FL
(c) decreases with speed and FL. A. (b)
Colour Indications on ASI
White Arc. Ranges between minimum and maximum speeds for flight with flaps extended to
the take off position. The lowest flight speed in this condition is the stalling speed, which is
VS0. The highest velocity for flight with flaps extended is VFE. But to avoid stalling a 10%
safety margin is provided at VS0. The ends of the white arc are 1.1 times VS0 and VFE. s flaps up
1G stalling speed.
Yellow Arc. A yellow arc is intended to indicate cautionary high speed zone, where extra care
must be observed to avoid over stressing of the aircraft. The zone is between maximum
velocity for Normal Operations, VNO to the velocity that must be Never Exceeded VNE. The
lower end marks VNO and the upper end VNE. However, it may be noted that on some altimeters
the upper end of the yellow arc band marks the rough air penetration speed VRA.
Green Arc. A green arc indicates the speed ranges for normal operations. The lower end of the
green arc represents 1.1 x VS1 at maximum AUW. The upper end indicates the maximum
cruising speed VNO or in some case the rough air penetration speed VRA.
VMCG It is the minimum speed at which it is possible to maintain control of aircraft close to
ground, following a critical engine failure in the take off configuration.
V1 It is the take off decision speed and is the maximum speed at which the aircraft is capable of
completing the take off or aborting it in the event of a critical engine failure. In order for such a
decision to be made, the aircraft must be capable of being controlled. V1 is therefore greater
than VMCG.
V2 It is the take off safety speed.
VMCA It is the minimum speed at which it is possible to maintain control following a critical
engine failure in the air in climb configuration.
VR It is the speed at which an aircraft must be rotated into the lift off attitude during the take off
run. In order to do this safely the aircraft must already be above ensure that it remains
controllable in the initial climb out. Hence VMCA < VR and VR > VMCG.

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MACH METER

Purpose. The purpose of the Mach Meter is to provide the pilot with a continuous indication of
the ratio of the true airspeed (TAS) of an aircraft to the local speed of sound (LSS) at the same
height.
M No = TAS/LSS, where LSS = 38.4 T (absolute); K (absolute)= C+273
At MSL in ISA conditions LSS = 661 Kts, MNo = 39273 +15C
MMO It is the maximum mach number at which an aircraft may be operated without incurring
shock wave induced stall or buffet.
VMO This is the CAS above which the dynamic pressure is sufficiently strong to damage the
aircraft structure.
Limiting factor at high altitude is M No and not TAS. Hence MMO
Limiting factor at low altitude is TAS (vel) and not M No. Hence VMO
If an aircraft climbs with constant M No, the TAS reduces, during descent TAS increases.
Principle. Obtain M No by measuring the ratio of Dynamic Pressure to Static Pressure.
M No = TAS/LSS = (P-S)/S = Dynamic Pr Static Pressure
Descent in Inversion Layer
Constant TAS

M No

IAS

CAS

Increase

Increase

Increase

Constant RAS

Cant Say

TAS

= IAS

Constant M No

TAS

Cant Say

Cant Say

Descent in Isothermal Layer

Constant TAS

M No

IAS

RAS

Same

Increase

Increase

Constant RAS

Dec

TAS

IAS same

Constant M No

TAS same

Increase

CAS

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Climb in Inversion Layer (Temp increases with Altitude)
Constant IAS
Constant TAS

TAS
IAS

M No Cant Say
M No

CAS ~

CAS

Constant M No

TAS

IAS

CAS Cant Say

Constant CAS/RAS

TAS

M No Cant Say

IAS ~

Climb in Isothermal Layer (Temp same with Altitude)

Constant IAS
Constant TAS

TAS
IAS

M No
M No

CAS ~
CAS

Constant M No

TAS ~

IAS

CAS

Constant CAS/RAS

TAS

M No

IAS ~

TAS

RAS Same

Descent in Standard Normal Conditions

Constant IAS (RAS)
Constant TAS

M No
M No

Constant M No

IAS
TAS

RAS
IAS

RAS

M No

CAS ~

Climb in Standard Normal Conditions

Constant IAS
Constant TAS

TAS
IAS

M No

CAS

Constant M No

TAS

IAS

CAS

Constant CAS/RAS

TAS

M No

IAS ~

Errors of Mach Meter. (BIP) Blockage, Instrument and Position (Same as ASI)

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Fig Construction of Mach Meter

Static Blocked

Pitot Blocked

Level Correct

Level Correct

Climb Under Read

Climb Over Read

Descent Over Read

Descent Under Read

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)

Purpose.

Obtain the Rate of Climb/Descent in feet per minute.

Principle. It provides ROC/ROD by creating a differential static pressure outside and inside of
an aneroid capsule.

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Errors
B

Blockage of Static will always show Zero since pressure equalizes.

Lag Error is most predominant

Instrument Error is same as in ASI

Position/Pressure Error is same as in ASI

T
Transonic Jump takes place due to formation of shock wave in transonic
and sharp drop in pressure behind shock wave.

flight

Q. Partial blockage of metering unit would cause VSI to read (a) too high during climb & too
low during descent (b) too low during climb and too high during descent (c) too high during
climb and descent (d) too low during climb and descent. A. (a)
Q. Casing of VSI is fractured in an unpressurised cockpit. This will cause VSI to (a) under
read (b) Over read (c) read Zero (e) Freeze. A. (c)
Q. On ground VSI is showing 100 ft/min ROD. Pilot should (a) continue if engineer onboard
(b) should return and fly after VSI repair (c) continue with new reference as -100 ft/min (d)
can be adjusted by the pilot before take off. A. (c)
Q. In a VSI manoeuvre induced error (a) has insignificant effect on reliability of reading (b)
significant effect on reliability. (c) significant effect only when aircraft rolls. A. (b)
Q. When using VSI, pilot (a) can rely on its reading in all attitudes of flight (b) Can only rely
on reading when changing to horizontal flight (c) Cannot rely on reading specially when
change of pitch and attitude is occurring. A. (c).
Instantaneous VSI (Inertial lead VSI) IVSI
Drawbacks
1. In turbulent conditions, IVSI will show oscillations.
2. Shows climb in a turn (due g effect the piston moves down).
Q. During turn IVSI will show (a) Climb (b) Descent (c) Level. A. (a)
Q. Using IVSI, when initiating changes in pitch attitude (a) indications will only be reliable
when aircraft is established in an unchanging attitude (b) Indications are unreliable all the time
(c) Indications are reliable at all times, except in turns. A. (c).
Q. In case static source is blocked in an aircraft, the correct action will be (a) break glass of
VSI (b) break glass of ASI (c) break glass of Mach Meter (d) Use S/By static source. A. (d)

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GYROSCOPE
Rigidity. Spin axis of a gyro will continue pointing towards a fixed point unless physically
forced to move.
Rigidity R SI/f where S = Speed of rotation, I = Inertia (mv2) and f = external force.
Precession. It is defined as the angular change in direction of the spin axis when acted upon
by an external force. Direction of precession is governed by shifting of the force through an
angle of 90 in the direction of rotation. Maximum possible precession is upto 90. Axis will
continue to precess as long as applied force is maintained.
Precession P f/SI where S = Speed of rotation, I = Inertia (mv2) and f = external force.

Type of Gyros. Four Types (a) Space/Free Gyros (b) Tied Gyro (c) Earth Gyro (d) Rate
Gyro
Free/ Space Gyro. It has freedom in all three planes and gyro axis maintains its position with
respect to a fixed point in space. The three planes relate to three axes of aircraft (longitudinal,
lateral and vertical). The gyro is used in INS and IRS (Inertial Reference System).
Tied Gyro. It has freedom of movement in all three planes and gyro axis is controlled by an
external force. This is used in DGI (Direction Gyro Indicator). Its a Horizontal Axis gyro.
Earth Gyro. It has freedom of movement in all three axes and gyro axis is controlled by force
of gravity. This gyro is used in Attitude Indicator or Artificial Horizon. Its a Vertical Axis
gyro

17
Rate Gyro. It has freedom of movement in two planes and gives indication in third axis/plane.
This is used in TSI or Rate Coordinator. Its a Lateral Axis gyro.
Note : A Gyro does not give useful indications around its axis of rotation.

ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

Type of Gyro. It is a Vertical Axis Earth Gyro.

Principle. It gives indications based on property of gyro rigidity. Precession is used for gyro
control.
RPM. Electrical Driven : 22000-22500 (RPM), Vacuum Driven : 15000 (RPM)
Freedom of Movement.

Pitch : 55, Roll : 90 (Vacuum Driven)

Pitch : 85, Roll : Complete Freedom

Q. The freedom of movement of an electrically driven gyro in pitch and roll are :(a) 85, 180 (b) 85, 360 (c) 90, 55 (d) 55, 360 A. (a).

Pitch indications are controlled by the inner gymbal whereas Bank indications are controlled
by outer gymbal. Horizon Bar is controlled by inner gymbal. The Sky plate is connected to
the outer gymbal. Two gimbals, outer and inner, are employed in the construction of an
Artificial horizon.

18
Errection Mechanism. Vertical gyro axis is maintained vertical wrt earth by an erection unit.
Erection Unit consists of four ports and vanes.
During Pitch, Left and Right vanes are affected and during Roll, Fore and Aft vanes are
affected.
Acceleration & Deceleration Erors. This is caused due to left and right pendulous vanes.
During acceleration an AH will indicate a climb and bank to the right and during
deceleration a descent and bank to left.
Q. During landing roll aircraft fitted with air driven AH will show (a) Climb & Bank to the left
(b) Descent only and no bank as aircraft is on ground (c) Descent and bank to the left (d)
Descent and bank to the right. A. (c)
Turning Error. During turn AH will show climb in a right turn and descent in a left turn
also bank will under read (because of centrifugal force) and the error increases as the turn
progresses and is maximum after 180, thereafter it starts reducing.
Q. An aircraft after180 of steep turn to the right with reference to natural horizon, the AH will
show (a) Climb and slight bank to right (b) Climb and slight bank to left (c) Level and bank
to left (d) None of the above. A. (b).

DIRECTION GYRO INDICATOR

Purpose.
It gives indication of Heading (M) you fly. It gives heading of aircraft and does
not have its own North seeking element. Therefore it needs to be aligned with magnetic north
at frequent intervals.
Type of Gyro.
Horizontal Axis Tied Gyro aligned with the lateral axis of the aircraft
and is normally air driven.
RPM.

12,000 (RPM)

Principle. It uses the property of gyro rigidity to give indications and precession for gyro
control.
Error.

Wander shifting of gyro axis from its original position.

Wander

Horizontal Plane
Drift

Vertical Plane

19
Real Drift

Mechanical

Apparent Drift

Uneven Mass Distribution Earth Rate

(15 Sin Lat)

Transport Drift
(GS/60 x Tan Lat)

Apparent Drift. This is due to earths rotation (Earth Rate).

Drift at any Lat = 15 Sin Lat (15.04) due to rotation of the earth at 15.04/hr
At Poles

Max Drift for Horizontal Axis Gyro &

- Zero Drift/NoTopple for Vertical Axis Gyro

At Equator

No Drift for Horizontal Axis Gyro &

- No Drift/NoTopple for N-S aligned horizonal Axis Gyro
- Topple for E-W aligned horizontal Axis Gyro, max topple for vertical axis

gyro.
It is true that vertical axis gyros can't drift - they can only topple, but horizontal axis gyros can
both topple and drift.
After all, if you take a vertical axis gyro and topple it 90 degrees, it is now in effect a horizontal
axis gyro. However, it won't stop toppling, it will keep going, eventually passing the position it
was orginally in. Hence logically a horizontal axis gyro can topple.

Total Drift = Real + Apparent = Real + [Earth rate + Transport Drift]

Real + [ 15 Sin Lat + GS/60 x Tan Lat*] * Less when stationary

In Northern Hemisphere
Flying East gyro will Drift at a faster rate in Northern Hemisphere i.e. reading decreases
at a faster rate
Flying West gyro will Drift at a slower rate in Northern Hemisphere i.e. reading decreases
at a slower rate.
Subtract Transport wander from Earth Rate when calculating Total Drift depending on
whether rate is increasing or decreasing.
In Northern Hemisphere DGI reading decreases with time due Earth rotation i.e. when
Gyro is stationary.
In Southern Hemisphere DGI reading increases with time due Earth rotation i.e. when
Gyro is stationary.
In Northern hemisphere flying in Northerly heading reading will decrease and at an
increasing rate

20
In Northern hemisphere flying in Southerly heading reading will decrease and at a
decreasing rate
In Southern Hemisphere
DGI reading increases with time due Earth rotation i.e. when Gyro is stationary.
Flying East reading will increase at a faster rate.
Flying West reading will increase at a slower rate.
Flying in Northerly heading reading will increase and at a decreasing rate.
Flying in Southerly heading reading will increase and at an increasing rate.
Q. A gyro is tested at 60N and is found to have a drift 0f 18/h, reading decreasing. Find real
drift.
A. Total Drift = Real + Apparent; Real = Total App = 18 15 Sin 60 = 18-13 = 5 Dec
Q. A gyro is tested at 60N and is found to have a drift 0f 3/h, reading decreasing. Find real
drift.
A. Real Drift = 3/h dec 12.99/h (15 Sin 60) dec = 10/h inc
Q. A perfectly balanced DGI at 23.5N is taken to 23.5S. Drift experienced by the DGI will
be (a) Zero (b) Double (c) Half (d) None of the above. A. (b)
Q. A DGI is ground tested at 60N and is found to have a drift of 8/h, reading decreasing. It is
taken to 45N latitude. Find (a) Total Drift when it is stationary (b) At 45N it is flown on Track
090 at a GS of 300 K, what will be the total drift. (c) At 45N it is flown on Track 270 at a
GS of 300 K, what will be the total drift. (d) At what latitude will the gyro have zero drift?
A. (a) Real Drift at 60N = Total Drift App Drift = 8/h dec 12.99/h dec = 5 inc
(b) At 45N Real drift = 5 inc, so Total Drift = Real drift + App Drift = 5/h inc + 10.6/h dec
= 5.6 dec (c) Flying 090, TD = RD + AD
= 5inc + (10.6 dec
+ 300/60 x Tan 45 dec) = 5inc + (10.6 dec + 5 dec) =10.6 dec (d) Flying 270, TD = RD
+ AD = 5 inc + (10.6 dec 5 dec) = 0.6 dec (e) TD = R + A this must be Zero, 15 Sin Lat = 5
or Sin Lat = 1/3 or Lat = Sin inv 1/3 = 1928.
Q. A DGI is ground tested at 45N and is found to have a drift of 18/h, reading decreasing. It
is taken to 60S latitude. Find (a) Total Drift when it is stationary (b) At 60S it is flown on
Track 090 at a GS of 240 K, what will be the total drift. (c) At 60S it is flown on Track 270
at a GS of 240 K, what will be the total drift. (d) At what latitude will the gyro have zero drift?
A. (a) At 45N App drift = 10.6 dec but actual drift = 18/h, Hence inherent drift or TD =
7.4/h dec. At 60S Drift = 12.9 inc + 7.4 dec (inherent) = 5.5 inc when stationary. (b) Easterly
heading (090) At 60S, TD = R + A = 5.5 inc + 240/60 x Tan 60 inc = 5.5inc + 6.92 inc =

21
12.42 inc. TD = R + A or 18 dec = RD + 15 Sin 45 or RD = 18 dec-10.6 dec = 7.4 dec TD =
R+ A = 7.4 dec + 6.92 inc = 0.5 dec (c) Similarly on Westerly Hdg 7.42 dec + 6.92 dec = 14.32
dec (d) TD = RD + AD At 60 S, flying Westerly Heading, TD = 7.4 dec + 15 Sin 60 = 7.4 dec
+ 13 inc = 5.6 inc (e) Easterly Hdg TD = 7.4 dec + (15 Sin 60 + 240/60 x Tan 60) = 7.4 dec +
13 Inc + 7 inc = 20 inc (e) TD = 7.4 dec , Hence for this to be Zero, the Lat will be where drift
is 7.4 inc and that is possible in Southern hemisphere. So 7.4 = 15 Sin Lat or Lat = Sin inv
7.4/15 = 29 33 S.
Q. Purpose of Lat Nut or compensation device in a DGI is (a) to correct for transport drift (b)
to correct for real drift (c) to correct for earth rate. A. (c)
Q. The limitation of atypical air driven DI are (a) 55 in roll & pitch (b) 110 in roll and 60
in pitch (c) 60 in roll & 110 pitch. A. (a).

22
TURN & SLIP INDICATOR (TSI)
1. Basic Formula : Radius of Turn (r) = V2 / g Tan ; Rate of Turn = V/r = gTan /V
Q. Aircraft is turning at Rate 1 at a speed of 300 K, what will be the angle of bank?
A. Apply Thumb Rule : For Rate 1 Turn only 10% of TAS + 7 = Angle of Bank
10% 0f 300 = 30 +7 = 37 for Rate 1 turn at 300 K
Remember Rate 1 is 3/sec, Rate 2 is 6sec Rate 3 is 9/sec and Rate 4 is 12/sec.
Q. An aircraft is turning left from 045 to 315 in a Rate 1 turn. Total time taken will be (a) 30
secs (b) 60 secs (c) 90 secs. A. (a)
Gyro. Horizontal Axis Rate Gyro either electrically or air driven.
Principle. It works on principle of prescession.
RPM. 9000 RPM (Electrical) & 4500 RPM (Air driven)
Purpose. To provide quality of turn or co-ordination of Bank and Yaw or roll and rate of Turn.
Rate of Turn is controlled by Ruder and bank by ailerons. The movement of the ball (slip or
skid) is due to effect of gravity and is controlled by aileron inputs, whereas the turn indicator is
due to effect of centrifugal force and is controlled by rudder inputs.

Spin Direction
g

Rotor Axis
Straight & Level
Springs

Pointer

Side Slip

Balanced Turn

23
Errors. (RO GO TU) An increase in Rotor RPM will cause the TSI Over Read. An increase
in g force will cause the TSI Over Read. An increase in Spring Tension will cause the TSI
Under Read.

Indications of TSI in various Turn & Slip in Flight

Turn Coordinator
Purpose. To indicate Bank and Rate of Turn.
Gyro. Rate Gyro which is electrically operated only.
Principle. It works on principle of precession.
Construction. The main constructional difference between TSI and Turn Coordinator is that
the longitudinal axis of gyro gymbal is inclined at 30 to the horizontal so that gyro will
respond to banking as well as turning input forces. Indicator shows approximate bank angle
when aircraft rolls into or out of a turn and during the turn it gives rate of turn for the present
bank angle.

24
MAGNETISM
Fact File
1. North Pole of a magnet is RED and South Pole BLUE.
2. Hard Iron. It is difficult to magnetise but when magnetised it tends to retain its magnetism.
3. Soft Iron. It is easy to magnetise but when magnetised it loses its magnetism when affecting
force is removed.
Aircraft Magnetism`

Hard Iron (Permanent)

Soft Iron (Temporary)

Permanent Component. This is permanent in nature and is acquired during manufacturing

process. It does not change with latitude or heading. Factors affecting permanent magnetism
are :(a) Riveting and hammering .
(b) Parked at a particular place for a prolonged duration.
(c) Major airframe change.
(d) Exposed to Lightning/ Magnetic Storm/ Thunderstorm.
Soft Iron Component. It is induced due to earths magnetic field which changes with latitude
and heading of aircraft.
+Q
+P

+R

P is positive when south seeking

pole is ahead of the compass along
the fore and aft axis
Q is positive when south seeking
pole is on the right of compass
along the athwartship or lateral
axis
R is positive when south seeking
pole is beneath the compass along
the vertical axis

Permanent magnetism is divided into three parts.

Component P. It is permanent magnetism induced along fore and aft axis of the aircraft.
Component P is positive when blue seeking pole is induced ahead of the compass.

25
Component Q. It is permanent magnetism induced along the lateral axis or athwartship of the
aircraft and it is positive when blue seeking pole is induced right of compass.
Component R. It is permanent magnetism induced along the vertical axis of the aircraft. It is
positive when blue seeking pole is beneath the compass.
Coefficient B

Hard Iron or Permanent Magnetism

longitudinal axis (P)

Associated Vertical Soft Iron (CZ) along

Component along longitudinal axis

Coefficient B. Component P and CZ have similar effect on compass and therefore are
dealt with as a single entity called Coefficient B. Coeff B = (Dev E Dev W) 2. Deviation
on any heading due to Coeff B = B Sin Hdg, where B = value of Coeff B.
Coefficient C

Hard Iron or Permanent Magnetism

Associated Vertical Soft Iron (fZ)
lateral axis (Q)
Component along lateral axis

along

Coefficient C. Component Q and fZ have similar effect on compass and therefore are
dealt with as a single entity called Coefficient C. Coeff C = (Dev N Dev S) 2. Deviation
on any heading due to Coeff C= C Cos Hdg, where C = value of Coeff C

Coefficient B & C

Coefficient B
P + CZ
Hard Iron fore &
aft axis, vertical
soft iron along
fore and aft axis
Coeff B =
(Dev E-W) 2
On any Heading
Dev = B Sin hdg

Coefficient C
Q + fZ
Hard Iron lateral
axis, vertical soft
iron along lateral
axis
Coeff C =
(Dev N-S) 2
On any Heading
Dev = C Cos hdg

26
Coefficient A. It is due to misalignment of Lubber Line which is termed as Apparent Coef
A, whereas deviation caused due to horizontal soft iron effect is called Real Coeff A. It is
calculated by averaging the deviation on 8/4 headings.
Coeff A = (Dev N + Dev E + Dev S + Dev W) 4
or Coeff A = Dev on (N+NE+E+SE+S+SW+W+NW) 8
Total Deviation on any Heading = A + B Sin Hdg + C Cos Hdg
Q. Find Coeff A, B & C and Deviation on Hdg 315 from data given below:P Compass

Landing Comp

Dev

184

178

-6 W

270

274

+4 E

358

360

+2E

094

088

-6 W

Total = -1.5 + (-5)Sin315 + (4)Cos315

= -1.5 + 3.53 + 2.82 = 4.85 E

P Compass

Landing Comp

Dev

Working

O93

088

+5 E

179

183

-4 W

274

268

+6E

356

004

-8 W

Working
Coeff C = +2 +6/2 = +4E
Coeff B = -6 -4/2 = -5W
Coeff A = -6+4+2-64 = -1.5 W

Coeff C = -8 +4/2 = -2 W
Coeff B = +5 -6/2 = -0.5W
Coeff A = +5-4+6-84 = -0.25 W
Total= -0.25+(-.5)Sin315 +(-2)Cos315
= -0.25 + 0.35 + 1.414 = 1.5 E

Q. From data give below find Coeff A, B & C

P Compass

Landing Comp

Dev

Dev

184

178

-3 W

Substitue deviation on three headings

and solve three simultaneous equation

270

274

+2 E

358

360

+1E

-3= A + B Sin 184 + C Cos184 and +2=

A + B Sin 270 + C Cos 270 and +1= A +
B Sin 358 + C Cos 358, the value of Coeff
A, B & C are A= -1, B=3 & C =4

27
Solving Wander Problems use signs as indicated below to arrive at correct results

- ive Sign Flying West

(Transport Wander)

ER +

(Transport Wander)

ER -

+ ive Sign Flying West

Earth Rate = 15.04 Sin Lat

+ ive Sign Flying East

- ive Sign Flying East

Transport Wander = TAS/60 x Tan Lat

Correction for Coeff A, B & C

1. Coeff B & C are corrected by micro adjusters (Allen Key).
2. Correction for Coeff B is done on Easterly Heading.
3. Correction for Coeff C is done on Northerly Heading.
4. Correction for Coeff A is done bu shifting the lubber line.
Residual Deviation is corrected by Deviation Card.
Compass Swing
1. Note difference in reading between Magnetic and Compass headings.
2. Calculate Coeff A, B & C.
3. Correct for Coeff A, B & C.
4. Make deviation card for residual deviation.
Occasions for Compass Swing
1. When compass is newly installed. 2. If modification of aircraft involves magnetic material.
3. When aircraft is first acquired from manufacturer. 4 When aircraft is going to be based
involving large latitudinal changes. 5. After a lightning strike. 6. When carrying magnetic
freight. 7. When aircraft is standing on a heading for a long period of time. 8. When specified
by maintenance manual. 9. Following a heavy landing. 10. When ever compass or recorded
deviation is suspected.
Q. A magnetic compass is swung at Delhi and aircraft is taken to London, which of the
following will change (a) Coeff A & B only (b) Coeff B & C only (c) Coeff A & C only (d)
Coeff A, B & C. A (d).

28
DIRECT READING COMPASS
(MAGNETIC COMPASS E OR P TYPE/ LIQUID SWIRL COMPASS)
Property. (a) Horizontality (b) Aperiodicty (c) Sensitivity. H A S
Mag Pole
H

Mag Eq

Z
Tan = Z/H

Dip. The angle that a free compass with horizontal is called Dip. It is zero at magnetic equator
and maximum at magnetic poles.
Horizontality. A compass should remain horizontal with respect to earths surface and as
moved away from the magnetic equator. It should be least affected by Dip. Horizontality is
achieved by:(a) Suspended magnets below the pivot point to keep CG of magnet lower.
(b) Shifting of pivot point towards nearest magnetic pole.
(c) Not effective beyond 70/80 N/S.
Aperiodicity. A compass card should not oscillate during turns. Aperiodicity is achieved by :(a) Filling fluid in compass chamber which dampens oscillations.
(b) Instead of using single powerful magnet several small magnets are used at
point to make it aperiodic.

pivot

Sensitivity. A compass should immediately respond to slightest change in heading. Sensitivity

is improved by (a) Using fine jewels at pivot point (b) Fluid in chamber also reduces friction
and increases sensitivity.
Errors. The compass suffers from Acceleration/Deceleration & Turning Errors. These are
different in Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

29
Northern Hemisphere
000
270

Acceleration on E Hdg Card will rotate clockwise

090 Compass will Under Read and

180

Show turn to left i.e. Turn Towards North

Deceleration on E Hdg Card will rotate anti-clockwise
Compass will Over Read and
Show turn to right i.e. Turn Towards South
Acceleration on W Hdg Card will rotate anti-clockwise
Compass will Over Read and
Show turn to right i.e. Turn Towards North
Deceleration on W Hdg Card will rotate clockwise
Compass will Under Read and
Show turn to left i.e. Turn Towards South

Southern Hemisphere
000
270

Acceleration on E Hdg Card will rotate anti-clockwise

090

180

Compass will Over Read and

Show turn to right i.e. Turn Towards South
Acceleration on W Hdg Card will rotate clockwise
Compass will Under Read and
Show turn to left i.e. Turn Towards South

Turning Error. Turning through North the card lags or it will under read whereas turning
through South the card will lead or over read in Northern Hemisphere (SONU). Where as
its the opposite in Southern Hemisphere (SUNO)

30
SUMMARY OF TURNING ERORS
Hemisphere

Turning
(Degrees)

Aircraft
Turns

Magnetic
North

Reading
at the end
of Turn

Turn
must be
stopped

Effect of
liquid
swirl

Compass
condition

North

45 to 315

Anti
Clockwise

Anti
Clockwise

> 315

Early

Increases
Error

Sluggish

North

315 to 45

Clockwise

Clockwise

< 045

Early

Increases
Error

Sluggish

North

135 to 225

Clockwise

Anti
Clockwise

> 225

Late

Decreases
Error

Lively

North

225 to 135

Anti
Clockwise

Clockwise

< 135

Late

Decreases
Error

Lively

South

45 to 315

Anti
Clockwise

Clockwise

< 135

Late

Decreases
Error

Lively

South

315 to 45

Clockwise

Anti
Clockwise

> 045

Late

Decreases
Error

Lively

South

135 to 225

Clockwise

Clockwise

< 225

Early

Increases
Error

Sluggish

South

225 to 135

Anti
Clockwise

Anti
Clockwise

> 135

Early

Increases
Error

Sluggish

Note: Sluggish means that the compass heading is lagging behind the ac heading and
Lively means that the compass heading is leading the aircraft heading.
Damping wires & short magnets are used to damp out oscillations making the compass
aperiodic or dead beat.
Pendulous suspensions systems are used to minimize the effects of the dipping of the lines
of magnetic force.
Suffers from errors when accelerating on E-W headings, except at the magnetic equator.
Suffers from turning errors when turning through N-S headings.

31
REMOTE INDICATING COMPASS
1. The direct indicating compass is subject to errors due to two main causes, magnetic fields of
the aircraft structure and flight accelerations. In the case of the direct indicating compasses,
magnetic fields due to aircraft magnetism are accentuated by the necessary positioning of the
compass so that it can be read by the pilot/navigator, i.e. in the cockpit where the deviating
effects due to hard iron (including DC fields) and soft iron fields are large. The pendulously
suspended magnet system is also subject to errors due to accelerations.
2. A DGI does not have its own north seeking element and therefore needs to be aligned
frequently. Also it suffers from Drift (Earth rate and Transport wander). A DRC suffers from
Dip resulting in acceleration and turning errors. The remote indicating compass was developed
to reduce the errors of the direct indicating compass and to evolve an instrument giving
automatic continuous direction which could be fed to other instruments.
Principle. It utilizes the earths magnetic field and an electromagnet to sense Magnetic North.
The electromagnet is basically a flux valve which detects the Magnetic North through a null
seeking motor by correlating the changes in the magnetic field as the heading of the aircraft
changes.
The gyro-magnetic compass consists essentially of a magnetic compass whose indications are
stabilized gyroscopically so that the effects of turning and acceleration errors are reduced. A
gyroscope is unaffected by changing magnetic fields or by normal aircraft accelerations but its
heading indications may be inaccurate due to the effect of precessional forces caused by
friction, incorrect balance etc. Since the commonly used detecting element, the flux valve, is
pendulously suspended, it is affected by accelerations. Therefore, the principle underlying the
gyro-magnetic system is to integrate the heading indication of the magnetic compass with the
directional properties of a gyroscope so that a compromise between the two is achieved. The net
result is to reduce the individual errors of each. The technique most commonly used is to
reference the azimuth gyroscope initially to the magnetic meridian and to maintain the
relationship by applying precessional forces to the gyroscope based on long term magnetic
azimuth information from the flux valve detector.

32

The resultant field produced by the three

pick-off coils is directly related to the
direction of the horizontal component of
the Earths magnetic field. This heading
information from the detector unit is
conveyed to those positions in the
aircraft where the information is
required.
This is achieved by means of the
transmission system. The flux valve can
be linked to a control transmitter. The
voltages induced in the flux valve pickoff coils cause a current to flow along
the connecting lines to the receiver stator
(see Fig). A field is set up across the
receiver stator in a direction determined
by the resolution of the current flowing
in each of the receiver stator coils. A null
seeking rotor will follow this field
change since it remains at right angles to
the field and may be used to transmit any
change in aircraft heading.

Q. The output signal of the flux valve is generated in (a) Primary winding (b) Permeable
metal bars (c) Secondary windings (d) Collector Horns. A (c)
Q. The detector unit of a slaved gyro compass (a) is pendulously mounted, but fixed in
azimuth (b) is pendulously mounted and free to move in the azimuth (c) is free to move in
azimuth because it is north seeking (d) is designed to sense Z component of earths magnetism.
A. (a).
Q. The output of null seeking rotor of a slaved gyro compass will be maximum when it is (a)
right angles to the signal selsyn field (b) aligned with the earths magnetic field (c) aligned
with the signal selsyn magnetic field (d) aligned with gyro heading. A. (c).