INDEX

TOPICS

Certificates

Acknowledgement........

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction of the project

1.2 Project overview...
1.3 Thesis

CHAPTER 2: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

2.1 Introduction with block diagram
2.2 Regulated power supply...
2.4 LED Indicator...........
2.5 Solar plate..
2.6 Motor..
2.7 Comparator..
2.8 Relay...

CHAPTER 3: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER 4: ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS, CONCLUSION, FUTURE PROSPECTS

REFERENCES
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction:
The project aims at designing a system which makes the grass cutter based motor running through
solar energy.
Power plays a great role wherever man lives and works. The living standard and prosperity of
a nation vary directly with the increase in the use of power. The electricity requirement of the world is
increasing at an alarming rate due to industrial growth, increased and extensive use of electrical
gadgets. According to world energy report, we get around 80% of our energy from conventional fossil
fuels like oil (36%), natural gas (21%) and coal (23%). It is well known that the time is not so far
when all these sources will be completely exhausted. So, alternative sources should be used to avoid
energy crisis in the nearby future. The best alternative source is solar energy.
A solar panel is a large flat rectangle, typically somewhere between the size of a radiator and
the size of a door, made up of many individual solar energy collectors called solar cells covered with a
protective sheet of glass. The cells, each of which is about the size of an adult's palm, are usually
octagonal and colored bluish black. Just like the cells in a battery, the cells in a solar panel are
designed to generate electricity; but where a battery's cells make electricity from chemicals, a solar
panel's cells generate power by capturing sunlight instead. They are sometimes called photovoltaic
cells because they use sunlight ("photo" comes from the Greek word for light) to make electricity (the
word "voltaic" is a reference to electricity pioneer Alessandro Volta).
The system depending on the charging circuit the motor can be controlled using relay switch.
The solar power stores the energy to a battery and then runs the motor through the relay switch. The
system also includes comparator circuit for checking the temperature of the motor and when it goes
beyond the limit the motor gets switched off automatically using relay switch.
Features:
1. Utilization of free available source of energy from sun
2. Storage of energy into rechargeable battery.
3. Stored energy is used for running grass cutter motor.
4. Temperature sensor based comparator
5. Charging circuit
6. Relay switch for ON/OFF control
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7. Low Power consumption

8. Long life.
1.2 Project Overview:
An embedded system is a combination of software and hardware to perform a
dedicated task. Some of the main devices used in embedded products are Microprocessors and
Microcontrollers.
The project Solar based grass cutter using solar panel which is used to
recharge the battery for running the grass cutter motor, freely available source of energy solar
energy.
1.3 Thesis:
The thesis explains the implementation of Solar based grass cutter using Solar panel, relay,
charging circuit, comparator, temperature sensor and also motor. The organization of the thesis is
explained here with:
Chapter 1 Presents introduction to the overall thesis and the overview of the project. In the project
overview a brief introduction of Solar panel, relay, charging circuit, comparator, temperature sensor
and also motor, grass cutter and its applications are discussed.
Chapter 2 Presents the hardware description. It deals with the block diagram of the project and
explains the purpose of each block. In the same chapter the explanation of Solar panel, relay, charging
circuit, comparator, temperature sensor and also motor are considered.
Chapter 3 Presents the software description. It explains the implementation of the project using PIC
C Compiler software.
Chapter 4 Presents the project description along with Solar panel, relay, charging circuit, comparator,
temperature sensor and also motor, interfacing circuit.
Chapter 5 Presents the advantages, disadvantages and applications of the project.
Chapter 6 Presents the results, conclusion and future scope of the project.

CHAPTER 2: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 Introduction:
In this chapter the block diagram of the project and design aspect of independent
modules are considered. Block diagram is shown in fig: 3.1:

FIG 3.1:

Block diagram of Solar based grass cutter

The main blocks of this project are:

1. Regulator
2. Solar cell/plate
3. Charging circuit
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4. DC motor
5. Relay
6. Comparator
7. Temperature sensor
3.3 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY:
3.3.1 Introduction:
Power supply is a supply of electrical power. A device or system that supplies electrical
or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. The
term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely
to others. A power supply may include a power distribution system as well as primary or secondary
sources of energy such as

Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage, typically
involving converting AC line voltage to a well-regulated lower-voltage DC for electronic devices.
Low voltage, low power DC power supply units are commonly integrated with the devices they
supply, such as computers and household electronics.

Batteries.

Chemical fuel cells and other forms of energy storage systems.

Solar power.

Generators or alternators.
3.3.2 Block Diagram:

Fig 3.3.2 Regulated Power Supply

The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply (DC O/P) with led connected as
load is shown in fig: 3.3.3.

Fig 3.3.3 Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply with Led connection
The components mainly used in above figure are
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230V AC MAINS

TRANSFORMER

BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)

CAPACITOR

VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)

RESISTOR

LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

The detailed explanation of each and every component mentioned above is as follows:

Transformation: The process of transforming energy from one device to another is called
transformation. For transforming energy we use transformers.
Transformers:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors without changing its frequency. A varying current in the first
or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a
varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to
the load. This field is made up from lines of force and has the same shape as a bar magnet.
If the current is increased, the lines of force move outwards from the coil. If the current
is reduced, the lines of force move inwards.
If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then, as the field moves out or in, the
moving lines of force will "cut" the turns of the second coil. As it does this, a voltage is induced in the
second coil. With the 50 Hz AC mains supply, this will happen 50 times a second. This is called
MUTUAL INDUCTION and forms the basis of the transformer.

The input coil is called the PRIMARY WINDING; the output coil is the
SECONDARY WINDING. Fig: 3.3.4 shows step-down transformer.

Fig 3.3.4: Step-Down Transformer

The voltage induced in the secondary is determined by the TURNS RATIO.

For example, if the secondary has half the primary turns; the secondary will have half
the primary voltage.
Another example is if the primary has 5000 turns and the secondary has 500 turns, then
the turns ratio is 10:1.
If the primary voltage is 240 volts then the secondary voltage will be x 10 smaller = 24
volts. Assuming a perfect transformer, the power provided by the primary must equal the power taken
by a load on the secondary. If a 24-watt lamp is connected across a 24 volt secondary, then the
primary must supply 24 watts.
To aid magnetic coupling between primary and secondary, the coils are wound on a
metal CORE. Since the primary would induce power, called EDDY CURRENTS, into this core, the
core is LAMINATED. This means that it is made up from metal sheets insulated from each other.
Transformers to work at higher frequencies have an iron dust core or no core at all.
Note that the transformer only works on AC, which has a constantly changing current
and moving field. DC has a steady current and therefore a steady field and there would be no
induction.
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Some transformers have an electrostatic screen between primary and secondary. This is
to prevent some types of interference being fed from the equipment down into the mains supply, or in
the other direction. Transformers are sometimes used for IMPEDANCE MATCHING.
We can use the transformers as step up or step down.
Step Up transformer:
In case of step up transformer, primary windings are every less compared to secondary
winding. Because of having more turns secondary winding accepts more energy, and it releases more
voltage at the output side.
Step down transformer:
Incase of step down transformer, Primary winding induces more flux than the
secondary winding, and secondary winding is having less number of turns because of that it accepts
less number of flux, and releases less amount of voltage.
Battery power supply:
A battery is a type of linear power supply that offers benefits that traditional lineoperated power supplies lack: mobility, portability and reliability. A battery consists of multiple
electrochemical cells connected to provide the voltage desired. Fig: 3.3.5 shows Hi-Watt 9V battery

Fig 3.3.5: Hi-Watt 9V Battery

The most commonly used dry-cell battery is the carbon-zinc dry cell battery. Dry-cell
batteries are made by stacking a carbon plate, a layer of electrolyte paste, and a zinc plate alternately
until the desired total voltage is achieved. The most common dry-cell batteries have one of the
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following voltages: 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 22.5, 45, and 90. During the discharge of a carbon-zinc battery, the
zinc metal is converted to a zinc salt in the electrolyte, and magnesium dioxide is reduced at the
carbon electrode. These actions establish a voltage of approximately 1.5 V.
The lead-acid storage battery may be used. This battery is rechargeable; it consists of
lead and lead/dioxide electrodes which are immersed in sulfuric acid. When fully charged, this type of
battery has a 2.06-2.14 V potential (A 12 volt car battery uses 6 cells in series). During discharge, the
lead is converted to lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is converted to water. When the battery is
charging, the lead sulfate is converted back to lead and lead dioxide A nickel-cadmium battery has
become more popular in recent years. This battery cell is completely sealed and rechargeable. The
electrolyte is not involved in the electrode reaction, making the voltage constant over the span of the
batteries long service life. During the charging process, nickel oxide is oxidized to its higher oxidation
state and cadmium oxide is reduced. The nickel-cadmium batteries have many benefits. They can be
stored both charged and uncharged. They have a long service life, high current availabilities, constant
voltage, and the ability to be recharged. Fig: 3.3.6 shows pencil battery of 1.5V.

Fig 3.3.6: Pencil Battery of 1.5V

Rectification:
The process of converting an alternating current to a pulsating direct current is called
as rectification. For rectification purpose we use rectifiers.
Rectifiers:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power

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supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid-state diodes, vacuum tube
diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.
A device that it can perform the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is known as
an inverter.
When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or positive
portion of the waveform), the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely one
of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert AC to DC. Almost all
rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more efficiently converting AC to
DC than is possible with only one diode. Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers,
vacuum tube diodes and copper (I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks were used.
Bridge full wave rectifier:
The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig:3.3.7, which converts an ac voltage to dc
voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the
figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the
diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of
the bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.
For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half
cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.
Input

Output

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Fig 3.3.7: Bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes

DB107:
Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of DB107. In our project
we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier. The picture of DB 107 is shown in fig: 3.3.8.
Features:

Good for automation insertion

Surge overload rating - 30 amperes peak

Ideal for printed circuit board

Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded

Glass passivated device

Polarity symbols molded on body

Mounting position: Any

Weight: 1.0 gram

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Fig 3.3.8: DB107

Filtration:
The process of converting a pulsating direct current to a pure direct current using filters
is called as filtration.
Filters:
Electronic filters are electronic circuits, which perform signal-processing functions,
specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones.
Introduction to Capacitors:
The Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive device, and one
which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential (static voltage)
across its plates. In its basic form a capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates that are not
connected but are electrically separated either by air or by an insulating material called the Dielectric.
When a voltage is applied to these plates, a current flows charging up the plates with electrons giving
one plate a positive charge and the other plate an equal and opposite negative charge this flow of
electrons to the plates is known as the Charging Current and continues to flow until the voltage across
the plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vcc. At this point the capacitor is
said to be fully charged and this is illustrated below. The construction of capacitor and an electrolytic
capacitor are shown in figures 3.10 and 3.11 respectively.

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Fig 3.3.9:Construction Of a Capacitor

Fig 3.3.10:Electrolytic Capaticor

Units of Capacitance:
Microfarad (F) 1F = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F
Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F
Pico farad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F
Operation of Capacitor:
Think of water flowing through a pipe. If we imagine a capacitor as being a storage
tank with an inlet and an outlet pipe, it is possible to show approximately how an electronic capacitor
works.
First, let's consider the case of a "coupling capacitor" where the capacitor is used to
connect a signal from one part of a circuit to another but without allowing any direct current to flow.

If the current flow is alternating between zero and a maximum,

our "storage tank" capacitor will allow the current waves to pass
through.
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However, if there is a steady current, only the initial short burst

will flow until the "floating ball valve" closes and stops further
flow.

So a coupling capacitor allows "alternating current" to pass through because the ball
valve doesn't get a chance to close as the waves go up and down. However, a steady current quickly
fills the tank so that all flow stops.
A capacitor will pass alternating current but (apart from an initial surge) it will not pass
d.c.

Where a capacitor is used to decouple a circuit, the effect is to

"smooth out ripples". Any ripples, waves or pulses of current are
passed to ground while d.c. Flows smoothly.

Regulation:
The process of converting a varying voltage to a constant regulated voltage is called as
regulation. For the process of regulation we use voltage regulators.
Voltage Regulator:
A voltage regulator (also called a regulator) with only three terminals appears to be a
simple device, but it is in fact a very complex integrated circuit. It converts a varying input voltage
into a constant regulated output voltage. Voltage Regulators are available in a variety of outputs like
5V, 6V, 9V, 12V and 15V. The LM78XX series of voltage regulators are designed for positive input.
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For applications requiring negative input, the LM79XX series is used. Using a pair of voltagedivider resistors can increase the output voltage of a regulator circuit.
It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You cannot use a 12V
regulator to make a 5V power supply. Voltage regulators are very robust. These can withstand overcurrent draw due to short circuits and also over-heating. In both cases, the regulator will cut off before
any damage occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its input.
Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. Fig: 3.3.11 shows voltage regulator.

Fig 3.3.11: Voltage Regulator

Resistors:
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals
that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working
voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and
inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the
maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is
determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.
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Resistors can be made to control the flow of current, to work as Voltage dividers, to dissipate
power and it can shape electrical waves when used in combination of other components. Basic unit is
ohms.
Theory of operation:
Ohm's law:
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:
V = IR
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Power dissipation:
The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is
calculated using the following:

Fig 3.3.12: Resistor

Fig 3.3.13: Color Bands In Resistor

3.4. LED:
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A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as

indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. The
internal structure and parts of a led are shown below.

Fig 3.4.1: Inside a LED

Fig 3.4.2: Parts of a LED

Working:
The structure of the LED light is completely different than that of the light bulb.
Amazingly, the LED has a simple and strong structure. The light-emitting semiconductor material is
what determines the LED's color. The LED is based on the semiconductor diode.
When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with
holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than
1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in
reflection. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater
durability and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and
heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general lighting are more
18

expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They also enjoy use in
applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in automotive lighting
(particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and
video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced
communications technology. The electrical symbol and polarities of led are shown in fig: 3.4.3.

Fig 3.4.3: Electrical Symbol & Polarities of LED

LED lights have a variety of advantages over other light sources:

High-levels of brightness and intensity

High-efficiency

Low-voltage and current requirements

Low radiated heat

High reliability (resistant to shock and vibration)

No UV Rays

Long source life

Can be easily controlled and programmed

Applications of LED fall into three major categories:

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Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to the human
eye, to convey a message or meaning.

Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these objects.

Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the human
visual system.

3.5 Solar cell/Plate:

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts solar energy into electricity by the
photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to
capture energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the source is unspecified.
Assemblies of cells are used to make solar panel, solar modules, or photovoltaic arrays. Photovoltaic
is the field of technology and research related to the application of solar cells for solar energy.
Solar cell efficiencies vary from 6% for amorphous silicon-based solar cells to 40.7% with multiplejunction research lab cells and 42.8% with multiple dies assembled into a hybrid package. Solar cell
energy conversion efficiencies for commercially available multicrystalline Si solar cells are around
14-19%.
Solar cells can also be applied to other electronics devices to make it self-power sustainable in the
sun. There are solar cell phone chargers, solar bike light and solar camping lanterns that people can
adopt for daily use
Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

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The equivalent circuit of a solar cell

The schematic symbol of a solar cell

1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi conducting materials, such as
silicon.
2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to flow through
the material to produce electricity. Due to the special composition of solar cells, only allow the
electrons to move in a single direction. The complementary positive charges that are also created (like
bubbles) are called holes and flow in the direction opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar panel.
3. An array of solar panels converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC)
electricity.
Solar battery chargers are better for the environment in a few ways. For one, with them, batteries can
be recharged, therefore no longer contributing to growing landfills. Also, batteries have potentially
harmful metals inside them we do not want to be simply throwing them out into landfills!
Also, if using batteries that can be recharged with a solar battery charger, a person can stop wasting
his or her money on the purchase of new batteries.
The batteries of cell phones, PDAs, laptops, mp3 players, and more can be charged by solar battery
chargers. This means that you do not have to rely on electricity to charge these devices. This is
especially good because most electricity is created by non-sustainable, polluting methods.
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Solar battery chargers are also good because they allow the users to charge devices, even when no
power outlets are around. This makes them especially useful when working out in the field, traveling,
hiking, and/or during an emergency.
It does not matter if you use a 12 volt solar battery charger, a solar car battery charger, or any other
type of charger the use of any solar battery charger is going to help alleviate waste. By supporting
and using solar battery chargers and other sustainable technology, you can help make a difference in
todays world.
The solar cells positive terminal is connected through the diode to the positive terminal of the 1.2V
battery. If the voltage of the solar cell drops below 1.4 volts then with the 0.2V the blocking diode
takes there wont be enough potential to charge the 1.2V battery. The purpose of the diode is to
disallow current dissipating out from the battery to the solar cell when this low voltage situation
occurs in the solar cell.

A solar battery is one of the most important energy sources available to save energy consumption, and
serves as a spare source while normal power supply shuts down. Systems using solar batteries have
various scales from a few watts to a few thousands of kilowatts, and also have various types.
Conventionally, the solar battery has been dominantly used in the form of a solar electricity generation
plant where a large number of solar batteries are arranged, or used for securing power supply at a
remote location. Recently, it becomes more and more popular to install a solar battery module panel
on a house roof or on an outer wall of a building. Generally, a solar battery is composed of a plurality
22

of photoelectric power generating elements connected in series on a substrate to obtain a photo

voltage. In a solar panel battery, the solar cell is the smallest constituent unit of a device having the
function of photoelectric conversion. The solar cell is considered a major candidate for obtaining
energy from sun, since it can convert sunlight directly to electricity with high conversion efficiency,
can provide nearly permanent power at low operating cost without having any influence on the
climate.
Working:
Solar power systems employ photovoltaic cells to convert the radiant energy of sunlight directly into
electrical energy. Photovoltaic solar cells are semiconductor devices which convert sunlight into
electricity. Solar cells which utilize crystalline semiconductors, such as silicon, offer the advantages of
high performance and reliability. Photovoltaic cells are silicon-base crystal wafers which produce a
voltage between opposite surfaces when light strikes one of the surfaces, which surface has a current
collecting grid thereon. The photons of the light are absorbed by photovoltaic cells and yield their
energy to the valence electrons of the semiconductor and tear them from the bonds that maintain them
joined to the cores of the atoms, promoting them to a superior energetic state called conduction band
in which they can move easily through the semiconductor.
Typically, a plurality of solar cells are assembled and interconnected so as to form a physicallyintegrated module, and then a number of such modules are assembled together to form a solar panel.
Several solar panels may be connected together to form a larger array. The individual photovoltaic
cells in a module may be connected in series or parallel, typically by an internal wiring arrangement
and similarly two or more modules in a panel may be connected in series or parallel, depending upon
the voltage output desired. Solar cells are usually interconnected into series strips by electrically
interconnecting a collector pad on the grid to the opposite surface of the adjacent cell in the strip.
Photovoltaic cells are manufactured in a variety of configurations, but generally comprise a layered
structure on a substrate. There are many different types of converging solar cell modules in which
sunlight is converged by means of a lens system so that the total area of expensive solar cells can be
reduced in order to reduce the cost of electric power generating systems using these solar cells. In
order to most efficiently use the electrical power generated by a photovoltaic cell or photovoltaic
array, it is desirable to maximize the power generated by the photovoltaic cell or photovoltaic array,
despite varying weather conditions. Various sun tracking systems have been used to enhance the
power generating efficiency of the converging solar cell module.
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Theory:
A solar energy battery is different from the regular battery. The solar battery module is constructed by
having a multiplicity of solar battery elements carried on a supporting base plate. When the sunlight
impinges on the individual solar battery elements, the energy of the light which makes no contribution
to the photoelectric conversion is accumulated in the form of heat to elevate the temperature of the
solar battery elements and lower the efficiency of photoelectric conversion. A solar cell having a
photoelectric conversion layer in which at least one PIN junction is formed using a amorphous or
microcrystalline silicon film is utilized. A solar battery converts light into electrical energy, its P-N
junction structure when exposed to incident light generates large quantities of electron-hole pairs, and
in the meantime electrons carrying negative electricity and holes carrying positive electricity migrate
to the N-type semi-conductor and P-type semi-conductor respectively. This process produces
electricity. In such converging solar cell modules, converging solar cell elements each having solar
cells and their electrodes for outputting electric currents are used. When a spot formed by converged
sunlight irradiates the light receiving surface of the converging solar cell, free electrons and electron
holes as carriers are generated inside a silicon substrate. The photoelectric conversion efficiency of a
solar battery depends mainly on the internal resistance of the solar battery. In particular, it depends on
the series resistance of the upper and lower electrodes, and the series resistance of the elongation of
the upper and lower electrodes which are brought into contact with each other in order to connect
adjacent generating regions.
A typical solar battery comprises a glass substrate as a front side transparent protective member at a
light-receiving side, a back side protective member, ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA) films as
sealing films arranged between the glass substrate and the back side protective member, and solar
cells or silicon photovoltaic elements sealed by the EVA films. A solar battery module is generally
composed of a solar battery panel comprising a light-transmission panel and a solar battery element,
the solar battery element being provided on the surface which is opposed to the light-receiving surface
of the light-transmission plate, and a frame for fixing the solar battery panel thereon. Solar panels
have a large number of solar cells which are used to convert power from sunlight.
Power generated by the solar cells is coupled via electric lines to a rectifier for feeding into the
alternating current (AC) network or to a battery. A connecting box is generally provided for coupling
to the solar panel. Solar panels are comprised primarily of a strong back, insulation, receiver tubes,
headers and tube guide/supports. Tubes are connected at the top and bottom of the panel by the
24

headers. Solar panels are typically mounted on a mounting structure, which is supported on a
mounting surface, such as a rooftop. The sun's thermal energy is intercepted by a collector system that
is comprised of thousands of sun tracking mirrors called heliostats. This energy is redirected and
concentrated on a heat exchanger, called a solar receiver. The receiver includes a plurality of solar
receiver panels positioned around an outside wall of the receiver. A solar battery module panel has a
plurality of photovoltaic elements resin-sealed between a surface cover glass and a back cover film. In
the case where several modules are to be interconnected, and also in the case where two or more solar
panels are to be interconnected, external terminals are required for connections to cables that couple
the modules or panels together.
Solar batteries have been used in various electronic equipments as power supply substitutes for dry
batteries. Such batteries are highly reliable, have a long life, and now are economically produced.
Initially, large-surfaced solar cell arrangements are used in photo-voltaic systems, for example, which
can provide sufficient energy for consumers with a higher demand. Solar panels are particularly well
suited to situations where electrical power from the grid is unavailable, such as in remote area power
systems. Low power consumption electronic equipment such as electronic desktop calculators,
watches, and portable electronic equipment (e.g., digital cameras, cellular phones and commercial
radar detectors) can be fully driven by the electromotive force of solar batteries.

Applications:
Solar cells can also be applied to other electronics devices to make it self-power sustainable in the
sun. There are solar cell phone chargers, solar bike light and solar camping lanterns that people can
adopt for daily use.
Solar power plants can face high installation costs, although this has been decreasing due to the
learning curve. Developing countries have started to build solar power plants, replacing other sources
of energy generation.
In 2008, solar power supplied 0.02% of the world's total energy supply. Use has been doubling every
two, or fewer, years. If it continued at that rate, solar power would become the dominant energy
source within a few decades.

25

Since solar radiation is intermittent, solar power generation is combined either with storage or other
energy sources to provide continuous power, although for small distributed producer/consumers, net
metering makes this transparent to the consumer.
Photovoltaic Cells: Converting Photons to Electrons
The solar cells that you see on calculators and satellites are also called photovoltaic (PV) cells,
which as the name implies (photo meaning "light" and voltaic meaning "electricity"), convert sunlight
directly into electricity. A module is a group of cells connected electrically and packaged into a frame
(more commonly known as a solar panel), which can then be grouped into larger solar arrays.
Photovoltaic cells are made of special materials called semiconductors such as silicon, which
is currently used most commonly. Basically, when light strikes the cell, a certain portion of it is
absorbed within the semiconductor material. This means that the energy of the absorbed light is
transferred to the semiconductor. The energy knocks electrons loose, allowing them to flow freely.
PV cells also all have one or more electric field that acts to force electrons freed by light
absorption to flow in a certain direction. This flow of electrons is a current, and by placing metal
contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, we can draw that current off for external use, say, to
power a calculator. This current, together with the cell's voltage (which is a result of its built-in
electric field or fields), defines the power (or wattage) that the solar cell can produce.
Solar Panel Setup:
The use of batteries requires the installation of another component called a charge controller.
Batteries last a lot longer if they aren't overcharged or drained too much. That's what a charge
controller does. Once the batteries are fully charged, the charge controller doesn't let current from the
PV modules continue to flow into them. Similarly, once the batteries have been drained to a certain
predetermined level, controlled by measuring battery voltage, many charge controllers will not allow
more current to be drained from the batteries until they have been recharged. The use of a charge
controller is essential for long battery life.
The other problem besides energy storage is that the electricity generated by your solar panels,
and extracted from your batteries if you choose to use them, is not in the form that's supplied by your
utility or used by the electrical appliances in your house. The electricity generated by a solar system is
26

direct current, so you'll need an inverter to convert it into alternating current. Most large inverters
will allow you to automatically control how your system works. Some PV modules, called AC
modules, actually have an inverter already built into each module, eliminating the need for a large,
central inverter, and simplifying wiring issues.
Throw in the mounting hardware, wiring, junction boxes, grounding equipment, over current
protection, DC and AC disconnects and other accessories, and you have yourself a system. You must
follow electrical codes (there's a section in the National Electrical Code just for PV), and it's highly
recommended that a licensed electrician who has experience with PV systems do the installation.
Once installed, a PV system requires very little maintenance (especially if no batteries are used), and
will provide electricity cleanly and quietly for 20 years or more.
Categories of Solar Panel:
POLYCRYSTALLINE MODULES

Polycrystalline (or multicrystalline) modules are composed of a number of different crystals,

fused together to make a single cell (hence the term 'multi'). They have long been the most popular
type of solar module, due to the lower cost in manufacturing the cells. Recently, the cost of
monocrystalline has come down, making them more popular in the residential market.

27

As you can see in the image (left), the construction of these different crystals gives the solar
panel a visible crystal grain, or a 'metal flake effect'. They are slightly cheaper to produce than Mono
panels, but are also less efficient (anywhere from 0.5% to 2% less efficient depending on the
manufacturer). This is because the crystal grain boundaries can trap electrons, which results in lower
efficiency.
The BP Solar modules that EnviroGroup installs are approximately 13.5% efficient (meaning
that if 100 Watts of potential solar energy strikes the panel, it will produce approximately 13.5 Watts
of solar electricity).
These panels are very popular in Australia, and offer a good balance of value vs performance.

MONOCRYSTALLINE MODULES

Monocrystalline, as the name suggests, is constructed using one single crystal, cut from
ingots. This gives the solar panel a uniform appearance across the entire module. These large single
crystals are exceedingly rare, and the process of 'recrystallising' the cell is more expensive to
produce.
28

This technology is now the most widely available in Australia, with the cost of producing
monocrystalline cells coming down every year. They are still more expensive than polycrystalline, but
can be up to 2% more efficient. EnviroGroup uses SunOwe (14.5%) and Suntech (16.5%)
monocrystalline solar modules for our installations.

Suntech have recently made some exciting developments in monocrystalline efficiency, with
the patent pending Pluto technology. Unique texturing technology, with lower reflectivity, ensures
more sunlight can be absorbed throughout the day even without direct solar radiation, and thinner
metal lines on the top surface reduces shading loss. Importantly, the process was developed at the
University of New South Wales, and has achieved lab efficiency of 25%, and verified efficiency of
approx 19%. These panels will be more expensive, but will offer far more solar electricity for less area
of solar panel.

AMORPHOUS MODULES

29

Amorphous (or 'thin film') solar modules have recently become very popular in the Australian
market. They offer better performance in higher temperatures, and have some benefits in shady
locations. However, the benefits have been greatly exaggerated by some suppliers, and it is important
to weigh that up against the negatives of thin film technology.
The manufacture of these panels is highly automated - silicon is sprayed onto the substrate as a
gas (called 'vapour deposition'), which means that the silicon wafer is approx 1 micron thick
(compared to approx 200 microns for mono and poly). This means that the panel uses less energy to
produce therefore will pay itself back from an energy point of view in a shorter time. However, it also
means that the panels are far less efficient than mono or poly (approx 5-6% efficient).
The electrical connections are etched by a laser. Etching these as long horizontal cells across
the panel makes these less susceptible from being blocked by shade, but it's important to recognise
that there will still be a significant drop-off in performance when the panel is shaded.
Thin-film panels are significantly less efficient than crystalline panels, and a greater number is
required for the same output. On average, a thin film solar array will need 2.5 times more roof area
than mono or poly. This is critical if you intend to increase the size of your system later, as you may
take up all of your north-facing roof for a relatively small system.
One of the biggest selling points of thin film is the performance in hotter temperatures.
Unfortunately this has been misrepresented by some suppliers of thin film panels. As an example, if
you live in Melbourne, and you are shown a graph that indicates the performance of thin film panels
in Alice Springs, it's obvious that those panels won't provide the same advantage in a cooler climate.

30

Advantages of Solar Power Generation

The greatest advantage of solar power generation is perhaps its minimal environmental impact. It
requires no water for cooling of the system, thus creating no large heat imbalance. Also, no byproducts are produced that are detrimental to the environment. Another advantage of solar power
generation is that bulky mechanical generators are not needed. The process of electricity generation is
quick and the arrays are available in a variety of sizes according to the specific use.
Voltage Divider Network:
In electronics, a voltage divider (also known as a potential divider) is a simple linear circuit
that produces an output voltage (Vout) that is a fraction of its input voltage (V in). Voltage division
refers to the partitioning of a voltage among the components of the divider.
The formula governing a voltage divider is similar to that for a current divider, but the ratio
describing voltage division places the selected impedance in the numerator, unlike current division
where it is the unselected components that enter the numerator.
A simple example of a voltage divider consists of two resistors in series or a potentiometer. It
is commonly used to create a reference voltage, and may also be used as a signal attenuator at low
frequencies.

31

Fig. 4.5 Simple resistive voltage divider

A resistive divider is a special case where both impedances, Z1 and Z2, are purely resistive .
Substituting Z1 = R1 and Z2 = R2 into the previous expression gives:

As in the general case, R1 and R2 may be any combination of series/parallel resistors.

4.2.1 MOS voltage divider:
We can use the enhanced MOSFET as a nonlinear resistor while its gate and drain are connected.
4.2.2 Examples:
Resistive divider
As a simple example, if R1 = R2 then

As a more specific and/or practical example, if Vout=6V and Vin=9V (both commonly used voltages),
then:

32

And by solving using algebra, R2 must be twice the value of R1.

To solve for R1:

To solve for R2:

Any ratio between 0 and 1 is possible. That is, using resistors alone it is not possible to either reverse
the voltage or increase Vout above Vin

3.7 TEMPERATURE SENSOR:

LM 35: (TEMPERATURE /FIRE SENSOR)
The LM35 sensor series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage is
linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature.
To detect the heat produced during fire occurrence we use temperature sensor.

33

The Temperature Sensor LM35 sensor series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors,
whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature.
LM35 Sensor Specification:
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit LM35 temperature sensors, whose output voltage is
linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 sensor thus has an advantage
over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large
constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling. The LM35 sensor does not
require any external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of C at room
temperature and C over a full -55 to +150C temperature range. Low cost is assured by trimming
and calibration at the wafer level. The LM35's low output impedance, linear output, and precise
inherent calibration make interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy. It can be used
with single power supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it draws only 60 A from its supply, it
has very low self-heating, less than 0.1C in still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a -55 to
+150C temperature range, while the LM35C sensor is rated for a -40 to +110C range (-10 with
improved accuracy). The LM35 series is available packaged in hermetic TO-46 transistor packages,
while the LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D are also available in the plastic TO-92 transistor package.
34

The LM35D sensor is also available in an 8-lead surface mount small outline package and a plastic
TO-220 package.

LM35 Sensor Pin outs and Packaging:

LM35 Sensor Sources:

There are several manufacturers of this popular part and each has LM35 sensor specs, datasheets and
other free LM35 downloads. This amplifier is available from the following manufacturers.

National Semiconductor

On Semiconductor

Texas Instruments

Fairchild Semiconductor
35

STMicroelectronics

Jameco Electronics

Analog Devices

Temperature Recorder using LM35:

Here is how you can make an LM35 a temperature recorder by using the 12F675 PIC microcontroller
as the controller and data store. It generates serial output so that you can view the results on a PC and
it also calculates the temperature reading in Fahrenheit sending both to the serial port at half second
intervals.
LM35 Sensor Applications:
Most commonly-used electrical temperature sensors are difficult to apply. For example,
thermocouples have low output levels and require cold junction compensation. Thermistors are
nonlinear. In addition, the outputs of these sensors are not linearly proportional to any temperature
scale. Early monolithic sensors, such as the LM3911, LM134 and LM135, overcame many of these
difficulties, but their outputs are related to the Kelvin temperature scale rather than the more popular
Celsius and Fahrenheit scales. Fortunately, in 1983 two ICs, the LM34 Precision Fahrenheit
Temperature Sensor and the LM35 Precision Celsius Temperature Sensor, were introduced. This
application note will discuss the LM34, but with the proper scaling factors can easily be adapted to the
LM35.
The LM35/LM34 has an output of 10 mV/F with a typical nonlinearity of only 0.35F over a 50
to +300F temperature range, and is accurate to within 0.4F typically at room temperature (77F).
The LM34s low output impedance and linear output characteristic make interfacing with readout or
control circuitry easy. An inherent strength of the LM34 sensor over other currently available
temperature sensors is that it is not as susceptible to large errors in its output from low level leakage
currents. For instance, many monolithic temperature sensors have an output of only 1 A/K. This
leads to a 1K error for only 1 -Ampere of leakage current. On the other hand, the LM34 sensor may
be operated as a current mode device providing 20 A/ F of output current. The same 1 A of
leakage current will cause an error in the LM34s output of only 0.05F (or 0.03K after scaling).

36

Low cost and high accuracy are maintained by performing trimming and calibration procedures at the
wafer level. The device may be operated with either single or dual supplies. With less than 70 A of
current drain, the LM34 sensor has very little self-heating (less than 0.2F in still air), and comes in a
TO-46 metal can package, a SO-8 small outline package and a TO-92 plastic package.
The LM35/LM34 is a versatile device, which may be used for a wide variety of applications,
including oven controllers and remote temperature sensing. The device is easy to use (there are only
three terminals) and will be within 0.02F of a surface to which it is either glued or cemented. The
TO-46 package allows the user to solder the sensor to a metal surface, but in doing so, the GND pin
will be at the same potential as that metal. For applications where a steady reading is desired despite
small changes in temperature, the user can solder the TO-46 package to a thermal mass. Conversely,
the thermal time constant may be decreased to speed up response time by soldering the sensor to a
small heat fin.

3.8 Comparator LM324:

General Description:
The LM324 series consists of four independent, high gains; internally frequency compensated
operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply over a
wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the low power supply
current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage.
Application areas include transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks and all the conventional op amp
circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems. For example, the
LM124 series can be directly operated off of the standard +5V power supply voltage which is used in
digital systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics without requiring the
additional 15V power supplies.

37

Fig3.4.1 .soil moisture sensor LM324

Unique Characteristics
In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes ground and the output voltage can
also swing to ground, even though operated from only a single power supply voltage. The unity gain
cross frequency is temperature compensated. The input bias current is also temperature compensated.
PIN Diagram of LM324:

38

Theory:
The LM124LM124/LM224/LM324/LM2902 Low Power Quad Operational Amplifiers
series are op amps which operate with only a single power supply voltage, have true-differential
inputs, and remain in the linear mode with an input common-mode voltage of 0 VDC. These
amplifiers operate over a wide range of power supply voltage with little change in performance
Characteristics. At 25C amplifier operation is possible down to a minimum supply voltage of 2.3
VDC.
The pinouts of the package have been designed to simplify PC board layouts.
Inverting inputs are adjacent to outputs for all of the amplifiers and the outputs have also been placed
at the corners of the package (pins 1, 7, 8, and 14). Precautions should be taken to insure that the
power supply for the integrated circuit never becomes reversed in polarity or that the unit is not
inadvertently installed backwards in a test socket as an unlimited current surge through the resulting
forward diode within the IC could cause fusing of the internal conductors and result in a destroyed
unit. Large differential input voltages can be easily accommodated and, as input differential voltage
protection diodes are not needed, no large input currents result from large differential input voltages.
The differential input voltage may be larger than V+ without damaging the device. Protection should
be provided to prevent the input voltages from going negative more than 0.3 VDC (at 25C). An
input clamp diode with a resistor to the IC input terminal can be used.

39

To reduce the power supply drain, the amplifiers have a class an output stage for small
signal levels which converts to class B in a large signal mode. This allows the amplifiers to both
source and sinks large output currents. Therefore both NPN and PNP external current boost transistors
can be used to extend the power capability of the basic amplifiers. The output voltage needs to raise
approximately 1 diode drop above ground to bias the on-chip vertical PNP transistor for output current
sinking applications. For ac applications, where the load is capacitive coupled to the output of the
amplifier, a resistor should be used, from the output of the amplifier to ground to increase the class a
bias current and prevent crossover distortion. Where the load is directly coupled, as in dc applications,
there is no crossover distortion. Capacitive loads which are applied directly to the output of the
amplifier reduce the loop stability margin. Values of
50 pF can be accommodated using the worst-case non inverting unity gain connection. Large closed
loop gains or resistive isolation should be used if larger load capacitance must be driven by the
amplifier.

40

LM124/LM224/LM324/LM2902
The bias network of the LM124 establishes a drain current which is independent
of the magnitude of the power supply voltage over the range of from 3 VDC to 30 VDC. Output short
circuits either to ground or to the positive power supply should be of short time duration. Units can be
destroyed, not as a result of the short circuit current causing metal fusing, but rather due to the large
increase in IC chip dissipation which will cause eventual failure due to excessive junction
41

temperatures. Putting direct short-circuits on more than one amplifier at a time will increase the total
IC power dissipation to destructive levels, if not properly protected with external dissipation limiting
resistors in series with the output leads of the amplifiers. The larger value of output source current
which is available at 25C provides a larger output current capability at elevated temperatures (see
typical performance characteristics) than a standard IC op amp.
The circuits presented in the section on typical applications emphasize operation
on only a single power supply voltage. If complementary power supplies are available, all of the
standard op amp circuits can be used. In general, introducing a pseudo-ground (a bias voltage
reference of V+/2) will allow operation above and below this value in single power supply systems.
Many application circuits are shown which take advantage of the wide input common-mode voltage
range which includes ground. In most cases, input biasing is not required and input voltages which
range to ground can easily be accommodated.
Features:
1. Internally frequency compensated for unity gain
2. Large DC voltage gain 100 dB
3. Wide bandwidth (unity gain) 1 MHz (temperature compensated)
4. Wide power supply range: Single supply 3V to 32V or dual supplies 1.5V to 16V
5. Very low supply current drain (700 A)essentially independent of supply voltage
6. Low input biasing current 45 nA (temperature compensated)
7. Low input offset voltage 2 mV and offset current: 5 nA
8. Input common-mode voltage range includes ground
9. Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage
10. Large output voltage swing 0V to V+ 1.5V

Advantages:
1. Eliminates need for dual supplies
2. Four internally compensated op amps in a single package
3. Allows directly sensing near GND and VOUT also goes to GND
42

4. Compatible with all forms of logic

5. Power drain suitable for battery operation

3.9 D.C. Motor:

A DC motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically
through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process,
producing

electrical

energy

from

mechanical

energy,

is

accomplished

by

an alternator, generator or dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice
versa. The input of a DC motor is current/voltage and its output is torque (speed).

Fig 3.19: DC Motor

The DC motor has two basic parts: the rotating part that is called the armature and the stationary part
that includes coils of wire called the field coils. The stationary part is also called the stator. Figure
shows a picture of a typical DC motor, Figure shows a picture of a DC armature, and Fig shows a
picture of a typical stator. From the picture you can see the armature is made of coils of wire wrapped
around the core, and the core has an extended shaft that rotates on bearings. You should also notice
that the ends of each coil of wire on the armature are terminated at one end of the armature. The
termination points are called the commutator, and this is where the brushes make electrical contact to
bring electrical current from the stationary part to the rotating part of the machine.
Operation:
The DC motor you will find in modem industrial applications operates very similarly to the
simple DC motor described earlier in this chapter. Figure 12-9 shows an electrical diagram of a simple
DC motor. Notice that the DC voltage is applied directly to the field winding and the brushes. The
43

armature and the field are both shown as a coil of wire. In later diagrams, a field resistor will be added
in series with the field to control the motor speed.
When voltage is applied to the motor, current begins to flow through the field coil from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal. This sets up a strong magnetic field in the field winding. Current
also begins to flow through the brushes into a commutator segment and then through an armature coil.
The current continues to flow through the coil back to the brush that is attached to other end of the
coil and returns to the DC power source. The current flowing in the armature coil sets up a strong
magnetic field in the armature.

Fig 3.20: Simple electrical diagram of DC motor

Fig 3.21: Operation of a DC Motor

The magnetic field in the armature and field coil causes the armature to begin to rotate.
This occurs by the unlike magnetic poles attracting each other and the like magnetic poles repelling
each other. As the armature begins to rotate, the commutator segments will also begin to move under
the brushes. As an individual commutator segment moves under the brush connected to positive
voltage, it will become positive, and when it moves under a brush connected to negative voltage it
will become negative. In this way, the commutator segments continually change polarity from positive
to negative. Since the commutator segments are connected to the ends of the wires that make up the
44

field winding in the armature, it causes the magnetic field in the armature to change polarity
continually from north pole to south pole. The commutator segments and brushes are aligned in such a
way that the switch in polarity of the armature coincides with the location of the armature's magnetic
field and the field winding's magnetic field. The switching action is timed so that the armature will not
lock up magnetically with the field. Instead the magnetic fields tend to build on each other and
provide additional torque to keep the motor shaft rotating.
When the voltage is de-energized to the motor, the magnetic fields in the armature and the
field winding will quickly diminish and the armature shaft's speed will begin to drop to zero. If
voltage is applied to the motor again, the magnetic fields will strengthen and the armature will begin
to rotate again.
Types of DC motors:
1. DC Shunt Motor,
2. DC Series Motor,
3. DC Long Shunt Motor (Compound)
4. DC Short Shunt Motor (Compound)
The rotational energy that you get from any motor is usually the battle between two magnetic fields
chasing each other. The DC motor has magnetic poles and an armature, to which DC electricity is fed,
The Magnetic Poles are electromagnets, and when they are energized, they produce a strong magnetic
field around them, and the armature which is given power with a commutator, constantly repels the
poles, and therefore rotates.
1. The DC Shunt Motor:
In a 2 pole DC Motor, the armature will have two separate sets of windings, connected to a
commutator at the end of the shaft that are in constant touch with carbon brushes. The brushes are
static, and the commutator rotate and as the portions of the commutator touching the respective
positive or negative polarity brush will energize the respective part of the armature with the respective
polarity. It is usually arranged in such a way that the armature and the poles are always repelling.

45

The general idea of a DC Motor is, the stronger the Field Current, the stronger the magnetic field, and
faster the rotation of the armature. When the armature revolves between the poles, the magnetic field
of the poles induce power in the armature conductors, and some electricity is generated in the
armature, which is called back emf, and it acts as a resistance for the armature. Generally an armature
has resistance of less than 1 Ohm, and powering it with heavy voltages of Direct Current could result
in immediate short circuits. This back emf helps us there.
When an armature is loaded on a DC Shunt Motor, the speed naturally reduces, and therefore the back
emf reduces, which allows more armatures current to flow. This results in more armature field, and
therefore it results in torque.

Fig: Diagram of DC shunt motor

When a DC Shunt Motor is overloaded, if the armature becomes too slow, the reduction of the back
emf could cause the motor to burn due to heavy current flow thru the armature.
The poles and armature are excited separately, and parallel, therefore it is called a Shunt Motor.
2. The DC Series Motor:

Fig: Diagram of DC series motor

46

A DC Series Motor has its field coil in series with the armature. Therefore any amount of power
drawn by the armature will be passed thru the field. As a result you cannot start a Series DC Motor
without any load attached to it. It will either run uncontrollably in full speed, or it will stop.

Fig: Diagram of DC series motor graph representation

When the load is increased then its efficiency increases with respect to the load applied. So these are
on Electric Trains and elevators.
Specifications

DC supply: 4 to 12V

RPM: 300 at 12V

Total length: 46mm

Motor diameter: 36mm

Motor length: 25mm

Brush type: Precious metal

Gear head diameter: 37mm

Gear head length: 21mm

47

Output shaft: Centred

Shaft diameter: 6mm

Shaft length: 22mm

Gear assembly: Spur

Motor weight: 105gms

We generally use 300RPM Centre Shaft Economy Series DC Motor which is high quality low cost
DC geared motor. It has steel gears and pinions to ensure longer life and better wear and tear
properties. The gears are fixed on hardened steel spindles polished to a mirror finish. The output shaft
rotates in a plastic bushing. The whole assembly is covered with a plastic ring. Gearbox is sealed and
lubricated with lithium grease and require no maintenance. The motor is screwed to the gear box from
inside.
Although motor gives 300 RPM at 12V but motor runs smoothly from 4V to 12V and gives wide
range of RPM, and torque. Tables below gives fairly good idea of the motors performance in terms of
RPM and no load current as a function of voltage and stall torque, stall current as a function of
voltage.
3. DC Compound Motor:
A compound of Series and Shunt excitation for the fields is done in a Compound DC Motor. This
gives the best of both series and shunt motors. Better torque as in a series motor, while the possibility
to start the motor with no load.

48

Fig: Diagram of DC compound motor

Above is the diagram of a long shunt motor, while in a short shunt, the shunt coil will be connected
after the serial coil.
A Compound motor can be run as a shunt motor without connecting the serial coil at all but not vice
versa.

DC Motor Driver:
The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is designed to
provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. The L293D is
designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both
devices are designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping
motors, as well as other high-current/high-voltage loads in positive-supply applications.
All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a complete totem-pole drive circuit, with a
Darlington transistor sink and a pseudo-Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, with drivers 1
and 2 enabled by 1,2EN and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN.When an enable input is high, the
associated drivers are enabled and their outputs are active and in phase with their inputs.

49

When the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled and their outputs are off and in the
high-impedance state. With the proper data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or bridge)
reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor applications. On the L293, external high-speed output
clamp diodes should be used for inductive transient suppression. A VCC1 terminal, separate from
VCC2, is provided for the logic inputs to minimize device power dissipation. The L293and L293D are
characterized for operation from 0C to 70C.

Fig 3.22: L293D IC

Pin Diagram of L293D motor driver:

Fig 3.23: L293D pin diagram

50

Fig 3.24: Internal structure of L293D.

Features of L293D:

600mA Output current capability per channel

1.2A Peak output current (non repetitive) per channel
Enable facility
Over temperature protection
Logical 0input voltage up to 1.5 v
High noise immunity
Internal clamp diodes

Applications of DC Motors:
1. Electric Train: A kind of DC motor called the DC Series Motor is used in Electric Trains. The DC
Series Motors have the property to deliver more power when they are loaded more. So the more the
people get on a train, the more powerful the train becomes.
2. Elevators: The best bidirectional motors are DC motors. They are used in elevators. Compound DC
Motors are used for this application.
51

3. PC Fans, CD ROM Drives, and Hard Drives: All these things need motors, very miniature motors,
with great precision. AC motors can never imagine any application in these places.
4. Starter Motors in Automobiles: An automobile battery supplies DC, so a DC motor is best suited
here. Also, you cannot start an engine with a small sized AC motor,
5. Electrical Machines Lab in Colleges.
H Bridge
With switches:
An H bridge is an electronic circuit that enables a voltage to be applied across a load in
either direction. These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to allow DC motors to
run forwards and backwards.

When the switches S1 and S4 (according to the first figure) are closed (and S2 and S3 are open)
a positive voltage will be applied across the motor. By opening S1 and S4 switches and closing S2 and
S3 switches, this voltage is reversed, allowing reverse operation of the motor.
Using the nomenclature above, the switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at the same
time, as this would cause a short circuit on the input voltage source. The same applies to the switches
S3 and S4. This condition is known as shoot-through.

52

The H-bridge arrangement is generally used to reverse the polarity of the motor, but can also be
used to 'brake' the motor, where the motor comes to a sudden stop, as the motor's terminals are
shorted, or to let the motor 'free run' to a stop, as the motor is effectively disconnected from the
circuit. The following table summarizes operation, with S1-S4 corresponding to the diagram above.

S1 S2

S3

S4

Result

1 0

Motor moves right

0 1

Motor moves left

0 0

Motor free runs

0 1

Motor brakes

1 0

Motor brakes

1 1

Shoot-through

0 0

Shoot-through

1 1

Shoot-through

With relays:
53

If you connect up these relay circuits, remember to put a diode across the coil of the relay.
This will keep the spike voltage (back EMF), coming out of the coil of the relay, from getting into the
MCU and damaging it. The anode, which is the arrow side of the diode, should connect to ground.
The bar, which is the Cathode side of the diode, should connect to the coil where the MCU connects
to the relay.

If you connect this circuit to a small hobby motor you can control the motor with a processor
(MCU, etc.) Applying a logical one, (+12 Volts in our example) to point A causes the motor to turn
forward. Applying a logical zero, (ground) causes the motor to stop turning (to coast and stop).

Hook the motor up in this fashion and the circuit turns the motor in reverse when you apply a
logical one (+12Volts) to point B. Apply a logical zero, which is usually a ground, causes the motor to
stop spinning.
If you hook up these circuits you can only get the motor to stop or turn in one direction, forward
for

the

first

circuit

or

reverse

for

the

second

circuit.

You can also pulse the motor control line, (A or B) on and off. This powers the motor in short burst
and gets varying degrees of torque, which usually translates into variable motor speed.But if you want
to be able to control the motor in both forward and reverse with a processor, you will need more
circuitry. You will need an H-Bridge. Notice the "H"-looking configuration in the next graphic. Relays
configured in this fashion make an H-Bridge. The "high side drivers" are the relays that control the
positive voltage to the motor. This is called sourcing current.

54

The "low side drivers" are the relays that control the negative voltage to sink current to the
motor. "Sinking current" is the term for connecting the circuit to the negative side of the power
supply, which is usually ground.

So, you turn on the upper left and lower right circuits, and power flows through the motor forward,
i.e.: 1 to A, 0 to B, 0 to C, and 1 to D.

Then for reverse you turn on the upper right and lower left circuits and power flows through the motor
in reverse, i.e.: 0 to A, 1 to B, 1 to C, and 0 to D.
55

You should be careful not to turn on both circuits on one side and the other, or you have a
direct short which will destroy your circuit; Example: A and C or B and D both high (logical 1).
With transistors:
We can better control our motor by using transistors or Field Effect Transistors (FETs).Most of
what we have discussed about the relays H-Bridge is true of these circuits. You don't need diodes that
were across the relay coils now. You should use diodes across your transistors though. See the
following diagram showing how they are connected.
These solid state circuits provide power and ground connections to the motor, as did the relay
circuits. The high side drivers need to be current "sources" which is what PNP transistors and Pchannel FETs are good at. The low side drivers need to be current "sinks" which is what NPN
transistors and N-channel FETs are good at.

56

If you turn on the two upper circuits, the motor resists turning, so you effectively have a
breaking mechanism. The same is true if you turn on both of the lower circuits. This is because the
motor is a generator and when it turns it generates a voltage. If the terminals of the motor are
connected (shorted), then the voltage generated counteracts the motors freedom to turn. It is as if you
are applying a similar but opposite voltage to the one generated by the motor being turned. Vis--vis,
it acts like a brake.
To be nice to your transistors, you should add diodes to catch the back voltage that is generated
by the motor's coil when the power is switched on and off. This fly back voltage can be many times
higher than the supply voltage! If you don't use diodes, you could burn out your transistors.

Transistors, being a semiconductor device, will have some resistance, which causes them to get hot
when conducting much current. This is called not being able to sink or source very much power, i.e.:
Not able to provide much current from ground or from plus voltage.
57

Mosfets are much more efficient, they can provide much more current and not get as hot.
They usually have the flyback diodes built in so you don't need the diodes anymore. This helps guard
against flyback voltage frying your MCU.
To use Mosfets in an H-Bridge, you need P-Channel Mosfets on top because they can "source" power,
and N-Channel Mosfets on the bottom because then can "sink" power. N-Channel Mosfets are much
cheaper than P-Channel Mosfets, but N-Channel Mosfets used to source power require about 7 volts
more than the supply voltage, to turn on. As a result, some people manage to use N-Channel Mosfets,
on top of the H-Bridge, by using cleaver circuits to overcome the breakdown voltage.
It is important that the four quadrants of the H-Bridge circuits be turned on and off properly.
When there is a path between the positive and ground side of the H-Bridge, other than through the
motor, a condition exists called "shoot through". This is basically a direct short of the power supply
and can cause semiconductors to become ballistic, in circuits with large currents flowing. There are Hbridge chips available that are much easier, and safer, to use than designing your own H-Bridge
circuit.
H-Bridge Devices
The L293 has 2 H-Bridges, can provide about 1amp to each and occasional peak loads to 2 amps.
Motors typically controlled with this controller are near the size of a 35 mm film plastic canister.
The L298 has 2 h-bridges on board, can handle 1amp and peak current draws to about 3amps. You
often see motors between the size a of 35 mm film plastic canister and a coke can, driven by this type
H-Bridge. The LMD18200 has one h-bridge on board, can handle about 2 or 3 amps and can handle a
peak of about 6 amps. This H-Bridge chip can usually handle an average motor about the size of a
coke. There are several more commercially designed H-Bridge chips as well.

Schematic diagram:

58

Features:
Delivers up to 5 A continuous 6 A peak current
Optimized for DC motor management applications
Operates at supply voltages up to 40 V
Very low RDS ON
; typ. 200 m @ 25 C per switch
Output full short circuit protected
Overtemperature protection with hysteresis
and diagnosis
Short circuit and open load diagnosis
With open drain error flag
Undervoltage lockout
CMOS/TTL compatible inputs with hysteresis
59

 No crossover current
Internal freewheeling diodes
Wide temperature range; 40 C < Tj
< 150 C

3.10 Relay:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find applications where it is
necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by
one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming
in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays found extensive use in telephone
exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high
power required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control
power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device triggered by light to
perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating
coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems
these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protection relays".

60

Types of relays:

1. Simple electromechanical relay:

A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the first picture, is an adaptation of
an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron yoke, which
provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and a set, or sets, of
contacts; two in the relay pictured. The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to a
moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there
is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay
pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts
61

depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the
yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the
circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
Basic design and operation:

When an electric current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts the armature
and the consequent movement of the movable contact or contacts either makes or breaks a connection
with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was De-energized, then the
movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open.
When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as
strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but
gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate
quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current
application, this is to reduce arcing.
If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the energy
from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage spike
dangerous to circuit components. Some automotive relays already include a diode inside the relay
case. Alternatively a contact protection network, consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series, may
absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped
to the end of the solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases
the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.
By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay is made with
a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To achieve electrical isolation an opt coupler can be
used which is a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor. Small relay as used in
electronics

62

2. Latching relay

Latching relay, dust cover removed, showing pawl and ratchet mechanism. The ratchet operates a
cam, which raises and lowers the moving contact arm, seen edge-on just below it. The moving and
fixed contacts are visible at the left side of the image.
A latching relay has two relaxed states (bi stable). These are also called "impulse", "keep", or "stay"
relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved with a
solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an over-center
spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the coil is relaxed, or
with a remnant core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and
the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse
to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the advantage that it consumes power
only for an instant, while it is being switched, and it retains its last setting across a power outage. A
remnant core latching relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change state.
3. Reed relay
A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube, which protects the
contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are closed by a magnetic field generated when
current passes through a coil around the glass tube. Reed relays are capable of faster switching speeds
than larger types of relays, but have low switch current and voltage ratings.

63

4. Mercury-wetted relay
A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with mercury.
Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) because of their low contact
resistance, or for high-speed counting and timing applications where the mercury eliminates contact
bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted vertically to work
properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays are rarely specified for
new equipment. See also mercury switch.
5. Polarized relay
A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase
sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone exchanges to detect faint
pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician could first adjust
them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical current that would
operate the relay.
6. Machine tool relay
A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer machines,
and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts (sometimes
extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to normally-closed status,
easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly installing many relays in a control
panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of automation in such industries as automobile
assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from
sequential control applications.
7. Contactor relay
A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads.
Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps.
High-current contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the
contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still a good conductor. Such devices are often used for
motor starters. A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The overload
sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder
64

pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in series with
the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized. Contactor relays
can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief concern.
8. Solid-state relay

Solid state relay, which has no moving parts

25 A or 40 A solid state contactors

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function to an
electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long-term reliability.
With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a small voltage drop across
it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could handle. As transistors improved,
higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes, have become commercially available.
Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely triggered by transients.
9. Solid state contactor relay
A solid state contactor is a very heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink, used
for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent on/off cycles
are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce due to vibration.
They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals from Programmable logic controller
65

(PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or other microprocessor and microcontroller
controls.
10. Buchholz relay
A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled transformers,
which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if gas is produced rapidly
in the transformer oil.
11. Forced-guided contacts relay
A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together, so that when
the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together. If one set of
contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay will be able to move.
The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check the status of the relay.
Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided contacts", "captive contacts", "locked
contacts", or "safety relays".
12. Overload protection relay
Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over-loading the motor, or to
protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor windings. One type of
electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in series with the electric
motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or melts solder, releasing a
spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed to the same environment as the motor,
a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient temperature is provided.

66

13. Pole and throw:

Circuit symbols of relays. "C" denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.

The diagram on the package of a DPDT AC coil relay

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A relay will
switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in one of three
ways:

Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact.

Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break" contact.

Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normally-open
contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C
contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact utilizes make
before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.

67

The following designations are commonly encountered:

SPST Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is
ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO"
and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.

SPDT Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.

DPST Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two
SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has
six terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).

DPDT Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals.
Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight
terminals, including the coil.

The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches connected to a single
actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double throw relay (with 14 terminals).
Applications of Relays:

Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems or audio
amplifiers,

Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an

automobile,

Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing circuit
breakers (protection relays),

68

A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch.
The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed
in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by
room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,

Logic functions. For example, the Boolean AND function is realized by connecting normally
open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in
parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function.
Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed contacts. The
Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay logic networks.
o

Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as logical
elements in digital computers. See ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and
Zuse Z3.

Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to
nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control
panels of radioactive waste-handling machinery.

Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of
contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the
armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for
a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is
used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period
69

can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical
clockwork timer is installed.
Advantages of relays:

Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.

Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.

Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).

Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:

Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per
second.

Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.

Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor may be
needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

Relay Driver:
The current needed to operate the relay coil is more than can be supplied by most chips (op.
amps etc), so a transistor is usually needed, as shown in the diagram below.
Use BC109C or similar. A resistor of about 4k7 will probably be alright. The diode is needed
to short circuit the high voltage back emf induced when current flowing through the coil is suddenly
switched off.

70

Fig. 7.2 Relay Driver

CHAPTER 4: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

In this chapter, schematic diagram and interfacing of circuit with each module is considered.

71

Fig 5.1: schematic diagram of solar grass cutter

The above schematic diagram of solar grass cutter explains the interfacing section of each
component like comparator, temperature sensor, motor, and relay with circuit.

CHAPTER 6: ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

72

Advantages:
1. Conservation of Non Renewable energy sources.
2. Maximum output can be obtained.
3. It does not cause any environmental pollution like the fossil fuels and nuclear power.
4. Solar cells last a longer time and have low running costs
5. Low power consumption.
6. Conservation of energy.
7. Utilization of free available source of energy from sun
8. Storage of energy into rechargeable battery.
9. Stored energy is used for using grass cutter motor.
10. High efficiency can be achieved using inverter.
11. The electricity generated by the solar cell panel is stored during the day with the help of
storage batteries which give us only direct current. But to operate our devices we need
alternating current. Therefore we need to convert DC to AC before using any appliance using
inverter.
Disadvantages:
1.

Periodic Monitoring and Maintenance is required.

2. A drastic environmental change cannot be tolerated by the equipment.

3. The entire process of manufacture is still very expensive as silver is used for interconnection
of these cells in the panel, which is a very expensive metal.
4. A practical problem linked with the use of solar cell panels is regarding the storage of
electricity general by them.
5. The conversion of DC to AC uses inverter before using any appliance and thus it increases the
cost of such solar panels as the sources of electricity.
6. IR module cant detect if two vehicles pass at the same time.
Applications:
1. This energy can be utilized for simple house hold appliances.
2. This energy can be stored and utilized as backup power supply mainly in industries.

CHAPTER 7: RESULTS

73

7.1 Result:
The project Solar based grass cutter was designed such that the solar plate generates solar
energy and utilizing this energy for running the grass cutter motor.
7.2 Conclusion:
Integrating features of all the hardware components used have been developed in it.
Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully, thus contributing to the best
working of the unit. Secondly, using highly advanced ICs with the help of growing technology, the
project has been successfully implemented. Thus the project has been successfully designed and
tested.
7.3 Future Scope:
Our project Solar based grass cutter is mainly intended to charge a battery using the
solar energy and also utilized for operating the single phase grass cutter motor using MOPSFET
driver, Inverter, batteries. This project has a solar plate, battery as inverter, and single phase grass
cutter motor. The solar plate, voltage regulator, relay, charging circuit, comparator, temperature
sensor, and a battery are interfaced to the system. The micro controller is programmed in such a way
that the energy output from the solar plate is fed to voltage sensor which is fed as input to the charging
circuit and uses to the input of the grass cutter motor. The system depending on the charging circuit
the motor can be controlled using relay switch. The solar power stores the energy to a battery and then
runs the motor through the relay switch. The system also includes comparator circuit for checking the
temperature of the motor and when it goes beyond the limit the motor gets switched off automatically
using relay switch.
This project can be extended in a way such that the output from the solar plate is increased.
This can be done by increasing the dimensions of the solar plate. The output voltage can be displayed
on LCD.

74

REFERENCES
The sites which were used while doing this project:

1. www.wikipedia.com
2. www.allaboutcircuits.com
3. www.microchip.com
4. www.howstuffworks.com

Books referred:

1. Raj kamal Microcontrollers Architecture, Programming, Interfacing and System Design.

2. Mazidi and Mazidi Embedded Systems.
3. PCB Design Tutorial David.L.Jones.
4. PIC Microcontroller Manual Microchip.
5. Embedded C Michael.J.Pont.

75