Unit 4

Soil Aeration and Temperature

4.1. Soil Aeration

Soil aeration is the process by which atmospheric air is mixed or filled in the pore
space of soil mass. The rate of aeration depends on the concentration of gases in soil air and
atmospheric air.
4.1.1. Soil Air and Atmospheric Air
Oxygen is essential for all biological reaction occurring in soil. Its requirement is met
from the soil air, or more precisely, the gas phase of soil. In a soil, the volume of gas phase
varies indirectly with that of the liquid phase or the water content of the soil. Thus, as a
saturated soil becomes unsaturated, the pores which are drained of water are immediately
filled with air. On resaturation, water replaces air.
The atmospheric air contains, by volume, nearly 79 percent nitrogen, 21 percent
oxygen, and 0.03 percent carbon dioxide. The composition of soil air is more or less similar
to that of the atmospheric air except that the content of carbon dioxide is several times higher.
Soil air commonly contains 10 to 100 times more carbon dioxide and slightly less oxygen
than the atmospheric air. Respiration of roots and other organisms present in the soil,
consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide.
Table 4.1 Composition of soil and atmospheric air
Percentage by volume
Nitrogen

Oxygen

Carbon dioxide

Soil Air

79.2

20.5nm

0.3

Atmospheric Air

79.9

20.97

0.03

4.1.2. Factors Affecting the Composition of Soil Air:

The composition of soil air can be affected by following factors:
1. Nature and condition of soil: The quantity of oxygen in soil air is less than that in
atmospheric air. The amount of oxygen also depends upon the soil depth. The oxygen content
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of the air in lower layer is usually less than that of the surface soil. This is possibly due to
more readily diffusion of the oxygen from the atmosphere into the surface soil than in the
subsoil. Light texture soil or sandy soil contains oxygen much higher percentage than heavy
soil. The concentration of CO2 is usually greater in subsoil probably due to more sluggish
aeration in lower layer than in the surface soil.
2. Type of crop: Plant roots require oxygen, which they take from the soil air and deplete the
concentration of oxygen in the soil air. Soils on which crops are grown contain more CO2
than fallow lands. The amount of CO2 is usually much greater near the roots of plants than
further away. It may be due to respiration by roots.
3. Microbial activity: The microorganisms in soil require oxygen for respiration and they take
it from the soil air and thus deplete its concentration in the soil air. Decomposition of organic
matter produces CO2 because of increased microbial activity. Hence, soils rich in organic
matter contain higher percentage of CO2
4. Seasonal variation: The quantity of oxygen is usually higher in dry season than during the
monsoon. Because soils are normally drier during the summer months, opportunity for
gaseous exchange is greater during this period. This results in relatively high O2 and low CO2
levels. Temperature also influences the CO2 content in the soil air. High temperature during
summer season encourages microorganism activity which results in higher production of
CO2.
4.1.3. Soil Gas Exchange
Aeration is the naturally occurring process of air exchange between the soil and its
surrounding atmosphere.
The exchange of gases between the soil and the atmosphere is facilitated by two
mechanisms.
i. Mass flow: With every rain or irrigation, a part of the soil air moves out into the
atmosphere as it is displaced by the incoming water. As and when moisture is lost by
evaporation and transpiration, the atmospheric air enters the soil pores. The variations in soil
temperature cause changes in the temperature of soil air. As the soil air gets heated during the
day, it expands and the expanded air moves out into the atmosphere. On the other hand, when
the soil begins to cool, the soil air contracts and the atmospheric air is drawn in.

ii. Diffusion: Most of the gaseous interchange in soils occurs by diffusion. Atmospheric and
soil air contains a number of gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide etc., each of
which exerts its own partial pressure in proportion to its concentration.
The movement of each gas is regulated by the partial pressure under which it exists. If
the partial pressure on one of the gases (i.e. carbon dioxide) is greater in the soil air than in
the atmospheric air, it (CO2) moves out into the atmosphere. Hence, the concentration of CO2
is more in soil air.
On the other hand, partial pressure of oxygen is low in the soil air, as oxygen present
in soil air is consumed as a result of biological activities. The oxygen present in the
atmospheric air (partial pressure of O2 is greater) therefore, diffuses into the soil air till
equilibrium is established. Thus, diffusion allows extensive movement and continual change
of gases between the soil air and the atmospheric air. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are the two
important gases that take in diffusion.
4.1.4. Factors Affecting Soil Aeration
The following factors can affect the soil aeration.
i) Excess moisture
ii) Soil texture
iii) Poor structure
iv) Position on slope
v) Impermeable layers
vi) Soil depth
vii) Organic matter content

4.1.5. Importance of Soil Aeration:

Soil aeration plays an important role for the plant growth, eradicating plant diseases,
development of the soil, and many more. It helps to maintain the ecological balance and
provide plant roots to infiltrate into the layer of soil with the adequate amount of moisture,
nutrient and fertilizer available to grow. It also helps to maintain the soil fertility,
composition etc. Some of the following are discussed below:
i. Plant and root growth: Soil aeration is an important factor in the normal growth of plants.
The supply of oxygen to roots in adequate quantities and the removal of CO2 from the soil
atmosphere are very essential for healthy plant growth.
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When the supply of oxygen is inadequate, the plant growth either retards or ceases
completely as the accumulated CO2 hampers the growth of plant roots. The abnormal effect
of insufficient aeration on root development is most noticeable on the root crops. Abnormally
shaped roots of these plants are common on the compact and poorly aerated soils. The
penetration and development of root are poor. Such undeveloped root system cannot absorb
sufficient moisture and nutrients from the soil
ii. Microorganism population and activity: The microorganisms living in the soil also
require oxygen for respiration and metabolism. Some of the important microbial activities
such as the decomposition of organic matter, nitrification, Sulphur oxidation etc depend upon
oxygen present in the soil air. The deficiency of air (oxygen) in soil slows down the rate of
microbial activity. For example, the decomposition of organic matter is retarded and
nitrification arrested. The microorganism population is also drastically affected by poor
aeration.
iii. Formation of toxic material: Poor aeration results in the development of toxin and other
injurious substances such as ferrous oxide, H2S gas, CO2 gas etc in the soil.
iv. Water and nutrient absorption: A deficiency of oxygen has been found to check the
nutrient and water absorption by plants. The energy of respiration is utilized in absorption of
water and nutrients. Under poor aeration condition (this condition may arise when soil is
water logged), plants exhibit water and nutrient deficiency
v. Development of plant diseases: Insufficient aeration of the soil also leads to the
development of diseases. For example, wilt of gram and dieback of citrus and peach.

4.2. Soil Temperature

Soil temperature is an important factor that affects the biological activities in the soil
mass. Below freezing there is extremely limited biological activity. A soil horizon as cold as
5C acts as a deterrent to the elongation of roots. The chemical processes and activities of
microorganisms are temperature dependent.
Soil microorganism shows maximum growth and activity at optimum soil temperature
range. The biological processes for nutrient transformations and nutrient availability are
controlled by soil temperature and soil water. Water transport and ion movement also depend
on soil temperature. Soil temperature has a profound influence on seed germination, root
growth, nutrient uptake and crop growth. Even a difference of 1C in soil temperature can
have a significant effect on plant growth. Seed germination is very sensitive to soil

temperature. Seed do not germinate below or above a certain range of temperature. Root
elongation is very much dependent on soil temperature for its rapid growth and maximum
yield. Thus, temperature is an important soil property.

4.2.1. Heat Balance of Soils

The heat balance of a soil consists of the gains and losses of heat energy. Solar
radiation received at the soil surface is partly reflected back into the atmosphere and partly
absorbed by the soil surface. A dark-colored soil and light-colored quartz sand may absorb
about 80 and 30 percent of the incoming solar radiation, respectively. Of the total solar
radiation available for the earth, about 34 percent is reflected back into space, 19 percent is
absorbed by the atmosphere, and 47 percent is absorbed by the land. Heat is lost from the soil
by: (i) evaporation of water, (ii) radiation back into the atmosphere, (iii) heating of the air
above the soil, and (iv) heating of the soil.
For the most part the gains and losses balance each other. But during the daytime or in
the summer, the gains exceed the losses, whereas the reverse is true for nights and winters.
The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of soil is strongly related to
water content. It takes only 0.2 calories of heat energy to increase the temperature of one
gram of dry soil 1C; compared with 1.0 calorie per gram per degree for water. This is
important in the temperate regions where soils become very cold in winter and planting dates
in the spring depend on a large rise in soil temperature. In general, sandy soils warm more
quickly and allow earlier planting than do fine-textured soils, because sands retain less water
and heat up faster.
4.2.2. Location and Temperature
In the northern hemisphere, soils located on southern slopes have a higher
temperature than soils on north-facing slopes. Soils on south-facing slopes are more
perpendicular to the sun's rays and absorb more heat energy per unit area than do soils on
northern slopes. This is very obvious in tundra regions where soils on north-facing slopes
may have permanently frozen subsoil layers within the normal rooting depth of trees, whereas
soils on southern slopes do not have permanently frozen subsoil layers within the normal
rooting depth of trees.
4.2.3. Control of Soil Temperature
Soil temperature under field conditions can be altered by suitable cultural practices
such as mulching, irrigation, drainage and tillage. The underlying principle is to control the
rise or fall in temperature of surface soil.
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Mulching the surface soil with plastic cover or crop residues may increase or decrease
the surface soil temperature, depending upon environmental conditions. Mulching with crop
residues cut off much of the solar radiations and thus tries to lower the maximum soil
temperature and may have significant effect on the rooting and crop yield under a specific
situation, such as arid climate condition. Mulching with plastic cover raises maximum soil
temperature and helps in maintaining it at a certain level. Such a condition is desirable during
winter season. Mulches cover the soil water also.
The soil temperature on irrigation depends upon the relative temperature of irrigation
of water and soil, the atmospheric condition, nature and extent of crop cover. In tropical
areas, irrigation generally causes rapid and substantial reduction in maximum temperature in
summer and increase in minimum soil temperature in winter. The damping effect of irrigation
water in summer is due to lower temperature of irrigation water, higher heat capacity of water
and greater evaporative cooling in irrigated soils. In the cold season, the higher temperature
of irrigation water relative to soil and high heat capacity of irrigation water check lowering of
minimum soil temperature.
A portion of heat received from solar radiation is absorbed by soil water. Thus, poorly
drained soils have high heat capacity. In a cold humid region, drainage removes a major
portion of soil water and raises the soil temperature.
Tillage loosens the surface soil, increases its porosity and decreases its thermal
conductivity. The upper tilled surface layer shows higher temperature than the underlying
untilled soil. Soil compaction has the reverse effect on porosity and soil temperature.