1.

Selection of the type of

dam
Environment and public opinion- a dam must be constructed

without disturbing the surrounding environment, at least to

the minimum extent as is possible.
2. Availability of construction materialcost of transportation of construction material mimimum
3. Unavailability of skilled workersskilled workers are an absolute necessity
4. SeismicityThe behavior of the dam under earth quake vibrationsto check if a particular section is suitable or not.
dynamic structural analysis computer program A description of the program is available at the following
web-site:
http://nisee.berkeley.edu/elibrary/getdoc?
id=141382

 5. Geology and foundation strengthThe existence of joint patterns in the

abutments (their orientation, inclination and
infilling) may indicate the possibility of
instability under loading from an arch dam
and reservoir water.
the stresses expected at the base of a dam
may have to be checked with the bearing
capacity of the foundation material to
propose the suitability of a particular section.

6. HydrologyIf, during the construction season, there are

possibilities of the partially constructed dam
being overtopped by the floods of the river
water, then a concrete dam section would be
preferred then an embankment dam section.
7. Valley shape and overburden-

gravity or buttress
dams
embankment,
gravity or
buttress dams

arch or cupola
dams

combination of two types of

dams

Appurtenant structure and

ancillary works
Each
dam
has
to
have
certain
appurtenant structures to enable them to
discharge their operational functions
safely and effectively.

Spillway
Spillways or passages for letting out flood waters
when the reservoir, is over flowing has three major
components:
Entry to the spillway, which may or may not be
controlled using gates.
A channel for conveying the water from the
reservoir side to the down stream of the dam.
And energy dissipating arrangement for the water
flowing down the spillway channel as it reaches a
lower elevation near the outlet of the channel.
The capacity of the water conveyance of the
spillway should be such that it must safely pass
the maximum design flood.

 Outlets
These include outlets for irrigation canals, power channels or
tunnels, water conditions for domestic and industrial use etc.
The following types of sluices are used for following purposes:
For used during river diversion, at the time of construction of the
concrete dam. If these sluices are left out in the body of the dam
at a lower level, the construction of the dam can safely go on at
higher levels.
To control the rate of filling of the reservoir. This would be
necessary during the first time reservoir filling.
As part or the whole of the permanent spillway discharge, as it has
been done for some arch dams.
To release the bottom water from a stratified lake. This action may
be desirable to remove foul water from the bottom of the reservoir
after initial filling

 Cut off

The seepage under and round the

flank of a dam must be controlled, or
else the foundation of the dam may be
weakened.

This is achieved by the construction

of a cut off or a barrier below the dam
penetrating the foundation.

 Internal drainage arrangement

embankment dam - a thin vertical wall of very
pervious material acts like a drain, collecting the
seepage water and passes it downstream with
the help of a connected horizontal layer of
pervious material that extends up to the down
stream face of the embankment dam.
concrete dams- vertical drains are formed near
the upstream face of the dam which collects the
seeping water - pass it on to a gallery near the
base of the dam that extends from one
abutment to the other. - From gallery, the
collected water is drained off to the downstream
by drains located at suitable points.

Instrumentation in Dams
instruments are installed in a concrete
gravity dam to measure the various
parameters that indicate the structural
health of the dam and the state of the
foundation
IS 7436(part2)-1997 Guide for types of
measurements for structure in river valley
projects and criteria for choice and
location of measuring instruments.

Obligatory Measurements
The following measurements are obligatory
for all dams:
a)Uplift pressure at the base of the dam at
a sufficient number of transverse sections
b) Seepage into the dam and appearing
downstream there-from;
c) Temperature of the interior of the dam;
and

d) Displacement measurements - Except for very

small structures (of height 20 m and below not
involving
any
foundation
complications).
Displacement measurements should include one
or more of the following types of -measurements:
1) Those determined by suspended plumb lines;
2) Those determined by geodetic measurements
where warranted by the importance of the
structure;
3) Those determined by embedded resistance
jointmeters at contraction joints where grouting is
required to be done.

Optional Measurements
a) Stress
b) Strain
c) Pore pressure (as distinct from uplift
pressure), and
d) Seismicity of the area and dynamic
characteristic of the structure.

 Measurement of Uplift Pressure

It

is important to determine the

magnitude of any hydraulic pressure at
the base of a dam. The effect of uplift
on a dam is to reduce its effective
weight
on
account
of
resulting
buoyancy.

Measurement of
Seepage
best indicator of the overall performance
the

of a
dam because this reflects the performance of entire
dam and not just the condition at discrete
instrumented points
Any sudden change in the quantity of seepage
without apparent cause, such as a corresponding
change in the reservoir level or a heavy rainfall,
could indicate a seepage problem.
when the seepage water becomes cloudy or
discoloured, contains increased quantities of
sediment, or changes radically in chemical content,
a likely serious seepage problem is indicated

Grout curtain
It is customary to provide grout
curtain near the upstream face of the
dam. Besides, a drainage curtain in
the foundation and porous drain in to
intercept any seepage that passes
through the grout curtain and
through the body of the dam
respectively. the body of the dam are
provided

Measurement of
Temperature during
Construction
concrete gravity dams it is very

For
important to know the thermic variations
in the dam during its construction which
enables to determine whether the
concrete setting process is normal
Temperature measuring devices are
embedded within the dam body and also
mounted on the surface according to a
predetermined
plan
for
useful
observations.

Measurement of
Temperature of the Dam
interior

To measure temperature in the body of

concrete and masonry dams in order to
ascertain the nature and extent of
thermal stresses and the consequent
structural behaviour of the dam
To ascertain when to undertake
grouting of contraction joints that may
have been provided for the structure

Measurement of
Temperature of Reservoir
Water and Air

Measurement of temperature of
reservoir water and air is essential
for distinguishing the effects of
ambient and water temperatures on
such measurements as deflection,
stresses, strains, joint movements
and settlements

Measurement of
Displacement
Measurement of displacement of
points either between two monoliths,
or between foundation and body of
the dam or the displacement of any
joint of the dam with respect to the
surrounding area will immediately
reveal
any
distress
conditions
developing in the dam.

 Internal Joint Movement

Concrete and masonry dams are
generally built in blocks separated by
transverse jointsrelative movement
between two blocks.
movemnets - due to differential
foundation behaviour

Surface Joint Movement

Measurement of joint movement at the
surface of the locations accessible
from galleries is made by detachable
gauges
To assess the amount of joint opening
of two blocks of the dam.
Used for observation of opening or of
closing of surface cracks at any
location.

Foundation displacement
of
vertical
or
horizontal
Measurement
displacement of foundation provides information
for taking preventive measures for inclination,
distortion etc. of structures.
used for studying the elastic and inelastic
properties of dam and foundation.
Involves vertical and horizontal displacement of
part of foundation with respect to dam.

Displacement of One Part

of the Dam Relative to
other Parts of the Dam
It is a direct indication of structural
behaviour of the dam.
These observations are made by
regular and inverted plumblines.
The plumbline data together with
other supporting data may be used
to study the elastic behaviour of the
dam.

Displacement of Dam with

Reference to Surrounding
Area

It is a direct indication of structural behaviour

of the dam.
the deflections should be consistent with
changes in reservoir water surface level and in
temperature
and
should
not
change
appreciably from year to year.
can be done by theodolite from fixed bases
using either line-of-sight over the top of the
dam or by turning angles to targets on the
downstream face and at the crest

Measurement of Tilt
Tilt is measurement of rotation in vertical
plane
It is measured with the help of tiltmeter
system consisting of tiltmeter sensor, tilt
plates and indicator.
Tilt plates are bonded to the surface of mass
of structure under observation. The sensor is
oriented on three pegs of tilt plate and
senses change in tilt of tilt plate. The
portable indicator gives the degree of
rotation.

Measurement of Stress
Direct measurement of stress developed inside
the mass of concrete or masonry helps in
watching the structural behaviour of dams and
their foundations.
adverse change in stress will indicate distress
conditions - remedial measures can be taken.
Helps in studying the assumed stresses and
actual stresses in dams -used in improving upon
the design procedure

Measurement of Strain
Factors like temperature, chemical
action, moisture change and stress
result in volume changes which case
strain in the structure
It is a common practice to measure
the strain and to calculate from it the
developed stress.

Measurement of Pore
Pressure
large concrete and masonry dams are
provided with internal formed drains located
near the upstream face, a record of pore
pressure development and its variations
would indicate the effectiveness and
adequacy of these drains
Increase in the pore pressures - choking up
of the internal drains
any unusual reduction from the normal
would indicate possibility of formation of
cracks or establishment of flow channels in
the body of the dam

Seismicity of the Area and

Dynamic Characteristic of
the Structure

to know about the seismicity of the

region before taking up construction
To know the change in the seismicity
pattern, due to creation of large
reservoir

Measurement of Water
Level on Upstream and
Downstream Side

This measurement is useful for

calculating the water pressure on the
upstream face and downstream face
of the dam.

A typical set of piezometer

installations
for
an
embankment dam is shown in
Figure below

Causes of failure of earth dams

Various modes of failures of earth
dams may be grouped under three
categories:
1. Hydraulic failures
2. Seepage failures, and
3. Structural failures

Hydraulic
failures
type of failure occurs by the surface erosion of the dam by

water.
1. Overtopping of the dam which might have been caused
by a flood that exceeded the design flood for the spillway.
Sometimes faulty operation of the spillway gates may also
lead to overtopping since the flood could not be let out in
time through the spillway. Overtopping may also be caused
insufficient freeboard (the difference between the maximum
reservoir level and the minimum crest level of the dam) has
been provided. Since earth dams cannot withstand the
erosive action of water spilling over the embankment and
flowing over the dams downstream face, either complete or
partial failure is inevitable (Figure 22).
2. Erosion of upstream face and shoulder by the action of
continuous wave action may cause erosion of the surface
unless it is adequately protected by stone riprap and filter
beneath (Figure 23).

3. Erosion of downstream slope by rain wash.

Though
the
downstream
face
of
an
embankment is not affected by the reservoir
water, it may get eroded by heavy rain water
flowing down the face, which may lead to the
formation of gullies and finally collapse of the
whole dam (Figure 24).
4. Erosion of downstream toe of dam by tail
water. This may happen if the river water on the
downstream side of the dam (which may have
come from the releases of a power house
during normal operation or out of a spillway or
sluice during flood flows) causes severe erosion
of the dam base. (Figure 25).

2.Seepage failures
1. Piping through dam and its
foundation: This is the progressive
backward erosion which may be
caused through the dam or within its
foundation by the water seeping from
upstream to the downstream (Figure
26)

 2. Conduit leakage: This is caused due to seepage taking

place by the surface of a conduit enclosed within an
embankment dam (Figure 27). The seepage of water may
be from the reservoir to the downstream or due to the
water leaking out of the conduit through cracks that might
have developed due to unequal settlement of dam or by
overloading from the dam. Further, the cracking of a
conduit may also be caused when the soil mass lying
below it settles and the conduit is not sufficiently strong to
support the soil mass lying above.
3. Sloughing of downstream face: This phenomena take
place due to the dam becoming saturated either due to
the presence of highly pervious layer in the body of the
dam. This causes the soil mass to get softened and a slide
of the downstream face takes place (Figure 28)

Structural failures
1. Sliding due to weak foundation: Due to the presence of faults
and seams of weathered rocks, shales, soft clay strata, the
foundation may not be able to withstand the pressure of the
embankment dam. The lower slope moves outwards along with a
part of the foundation and the top of the embankment subsides
(Figure 29) causing large mud waves to form beyond the toe.
2. Sliding of upstream face due to sudden drawdown: An
embankment dam, under filled up condition develops pore water
pressure within the body of the dam. If the reservoir water is
suddenly depleted, say due to the need of emptying the
reservoir in expectation of an incoming flood, then the pore
pressure cannot get released, which causes the upstream face of
the dam to slump (Figure 30).

3. Sliding of the downstream face due to slopes being

too steep: Instability may be caused to the
downstream slope of an embankment dam due to the
slope being too high and / or too steep in relation to
the shear strength of the shoulder material. This
causes a sliding failure of the downstream face of the
dam (Figure 31).
4. Flow slides due to liquefaction: Triggered by a shock
or a movement, as during an earthquake, some
portion of the dam or foundation may destabilize due
to the phenomena called liquefaction. Here, even
cohesionless soil cannot drain quickly enough as the
movements are so sudden that the rate of extra
loading on the soil becomes greater than the rate of
drainage of the seepage water out of the soil. This
causes excess pore water pressure to develop, where
both the effective stress and the strength decrease.
Under circumstances when the effective stress

5. Damage caused by burrowing animals or water soluble

materials: some embankment dams get damaged by the
burrows of animals which causes the seepage water to
flow out more quickly, carrying fine material along with.
This phenomena consequently leads to piping failure
within the body of the dam, finally leading to a complete
collapse. Similarly, water soluble materials within the
body of the dam gets leached out along with the seepage
flow causing piping and consequent failure.
6. Embankment and foundation settlement: Excess
settlement of the embankment and/or the foundation
causes loss of free board (Figure 32). The settlement may
be more in the deeper portion of the valley, where the
embankment height is more.

Design of earth dams

1. Safety against hydraulic failures due to
overtopping , rain cuts, wave action or tail
water.
2. Safety against seepage failures due to
internal erosion and development of pore
pressure due to insufficient drainage.
3. Safety against structural instability.
4. Special design requirements