"STREET" CRIME A VIEW FROM THE LEFT

Author(s): Tony Platt

Source: Crime and Social Justice, No. 9 (spring-summer 1978), pp. 26-34
Published by: Social Justice/Global Options
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"STREET" CRIME?
A VIEW FROM THE LEFT
TonyPlatt*
to

According

after

survey

"street"

survey,

ranks as one of the most serious problems

in
In 1948, only 4% of the
working class communities.
felt that crime was their community's
population
worst problem. By 1972, according
to a Gallup Poll,
of the residents
21%
of metropolitan
centers
as
concern.
crime
their
(1)
reported
major
not only think that they are threatened
People
to defend
by crime;
they are also taking action
themselves.
citizens
Several
years ago, Chicago
formed
the
Shore
South
Patrol,
Emergency
two hundred black and white
of some
composed
to patrol
at night and
the streets
residents,
crime

in Boston's

weekends;

Dorchester

nity has begun crime patrols;

for a Safer Harlem
Action

watcher

programs,

street

area,

commu?

the

in New York, Citizens

has organized
block

associations

and

Tony Platt
and

is a Fellow
Economic

at the Institute for the Study

San

Crisis,

Francisco.

He

thanks

Paul Takagi for his help with the research and analysis.
26 /Crime and Social

the

scope

and

nature

of

"street"

crime,

concrete

about
its varieties
and rates and an
context. This
of
its
historical
appreciation
specific
sets out to summarize
and analyze
the
essay
a realistic
available
thus providing
information,
basis for developing political
strategy.
information

REPORTING CRIME

escort

for the elderly, while an armed citizens'

services
the streets of Brooklyn on
vigilance group patrols
the look-out
and burglaries;
for arson
in San
a
member
of
the
of
Board
Francisco,
Supervisors
recently urged the formation of citizen anti-crime
patrols to curb muggings; and in the relative peace
and quiet of- a college
town like Berkeley,
the
Committee
and
several
Against Rape
neighborhood
are meeting
associations
to plan ways of stopping
violent attacks against women.
(2)
of "street"
The phenomenon
crime has been
largely ignored by the U.S. left. On the one hand, it
is treated moralistically
to the
and attributed
in capitalist
elements
parasitical
society, mechani?
cally following Marx and Engels's famous statement
in the Communist Manifesto
that the "lumpenprole
tariat may, here and there, be swept
into the
movement
its condi?
by a proletarian
revolution;
tions of life, however, prepare
it far more for the
part of a bribed tool of reactionary
intrigue." (3)
On the other hand, "street" crime is either glossed
over as an invention of the FBI to divert attention
from the crimes
or
of the ruling class
away
as a form of primitive
romanticized
political

of Labor

Whether
it is a form of reactionary
or a fiction promoted
individualism,
by the bour?
to cause confusion and false consciousness,
geoisie
or another manifestation
of class struggle, is not a
matter
of theoretical
assertion
and cannot
be
to Marxist
texts.
decided
references
by dogmatic
What is first needed
is a thorough investigation
of
rebellion.

of Chiefs
In 1931, the International Association
of Police
the Uniform Crime Reports
developed
seven felony offenses
(UCR)
system and selected
for index purposes, on the grounds that the victims,
or someone
them, would more
likely
representing
to
such
crimes
the
report
police. The seven offense
include:
homicide,
groups
robbery,
aggravated
forcible
rape, burglary,
assault,
larceny
(grand
theft) and auto theft. These are the crime statis?
tics from which trends in the incidence of criminal?
ity are regularly reported in the media. When these
are
crimes
converted
into rates
per
reported
are made
and comparisons
100,000
population
across time, for example
1968 to 1973, each of the
of auto theft,
index crimes, with the exception
In 1976, according
to the
increased
25% to 50%.
were
million
serious
crimes
11.5
UCR,
nearly
from 1972,
reported to the police, a 33% increase
and a 76% increase from 1967. (4)
of the FBI's
Critics
have
system
reporting
out
that
the
dramatic
increase
in
crime
pointed
rates
is exaggerated
and misleading
since
it
reflects higher rates of reporting crime, techno?
in data processing,
better
improvements
logical
systems and political manipulation
record-keeping
rather than a real increase
in the
by the police,
level of crime. While
there
is no evidence
to
sensational
media
announcements
about
support

Justice

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sudden

gerated

crime

waves,

by the FBI.

is certainly

crime

On

the contrary,

underestimated.

not

exag?

it is grossly

information about the scope

The most accurate
is to be found in the federal
of "street" crime
Victimization
Surveys. The Surveys,
government's
the National
program called
part of a statistical
Panel
created
the
Law
Crime
Enforcement
by
in 1973, are an
Administration
Assistance
(LEAA)
to assess
the extent
of
and character
attempt
of a representa?
criminal victimization
by means
tive probability
businesses
sampling of households,
and persons over the age of 12. The Surveys, which
do not
include
so-called
homicide,
kidnapping,
"victimless"
crimes (such as prostitution,
pimping,
sale of drugs, etc.) and business crimes
(such as
are
tax evasion,
fraud, false advertising,
etc.),
limited to personal
assault
and
armed
rob?
(rape,
bery) and property (theft, auto theft and burglary)
crimes.

"street"
Most
crime
is not reported
to the
that
police. The Census Bureau recently concluded
there were
four times as many
crimes
nearly
in 1975 and 1976 as reported
committed
to the
police. (5) A 1973 victimization
study found that
fewer than one in five persons report larceny to the
that only 10% of
police. (6) Some experts estimate
all rapes are reported; the reporting rate for wife
is even
lower. (7) A "self-report"
beating
study
one out of every
estimates
that about
thirty
comes
acts
to the attention
of the
delinquent
police. (8)
The primary reason for not reporting crimes is
the belief that the police are either
of
incapable
or are
the
solving crimes
likely to aggravate
situation by brutalizing or intimidating the victims.
This distrust of the police
is realistically
based on
the

extensive

experiences

of

working

class

commu?

racial and national minorities,

nities, especially
with police brutality and ineffectiveness.
Accord?
a
to
recent
national
survey,
ing
public opinion
blacks think that the police are doing a poor job
almost three times more
than do whites.
(9) (See
Table 1.)
to a recent study by Paul Takagi,
According
black males are killed by the police at a rate 13
times higher than for white males.
(10) But police
killings are only a small part of the total level of
state brutality directed at the civilian population.
It is not an exaggeration
to say that millions
of
now alive
Americans
have
been beaten
the
by
police. Data cited by Tames Q. Wilson, a political
scientist at Harvard,
show that 5% of all blacks
(over one million people) and 2% of all whites (over
four million people)
report themselves unjustifiably
beaten by the police.
And sociologist Albert Reiss,
in a LEAA-financed
study, found that the police
used unnecessary
force in 3% of all police-citizen
hundreds of thousands of
encounters,
representing
cases of brutality per year. When these data are

understood
relationships,

tion

on

in the context
of peer and family
a very large proportion of the popula?
basis

day-to-day

or

faces

fears

the

(11)
possibility of police violence.
the police have a very poor track
Additionally,
record in solving and prosecuting
serious "street"
crime. A two-year Rand study, released
in 1976,
more
that
than
of all
50%
reported
substantially
to the police
serious crimes
no
receive
reported
more
than superficial
by detectives
investigation
on the
and
the patrolman
Unless
investigators.
scene

makes

an

arrest

or

patrol

car

accidentally

stops a burglar for speeding, concludes Rand, there

is little chance of a successful prosecution.
(12)
selective
The
recruitment
and militaristic
by institutional?
training of the police, aggravated
ized racism and sexism, encourage
them to regard
areas
as
a
zone
crime"
either
combat
"high
a
the
of
objectivity
profes?
requiring
dispassionate
sional soldier or a "subculture"
of violence
and
victimization
is culturally
inevi?
depravity where
table. Not surprisingly,
the ghettos
and
policing
to
barrios vacillates
from extraordinary
violence
cynical resignation.
This does not mean that all rank and file police
are many
in this way. There
individual
operate
a
and
small
officers
number
of progressive
caucuses,

such

as

the

Afro-American

Patrolmen's

in Chicago
for Justice in San
and Officers
League
are genuinely
who
concerned
about
Francisco,
from crime.
protecting working class communities
are easily
But
their efforts
frustrated,
partly
the roots of "street"
because
crime are deeply
in social conditions over which they have
embedded
no control,
and partly because
their efforts are
undermined
and
continuously
by the
sabotaged
political police and "red squads," who make it their
business to destroy community and political organi?
zations which are trying to combat drug pushing,

TABLE 1
Evaluation of police parformanca (parcantresponding "good")
incomeand raceof respondent,
cities:aggregate
byfamily
eight impact
Percent

Less than$3,000- $5,000- $7,500- $10,000- $12,000- $15,000- $20,000- $25,000

$3,000 4,999
7.499
9,999
11.999
14,999
19,999
24,999 ormore
FAMILYINCOME
Source: JamesGarofolo,Public OpinionAboutCrime,U.S. Dept. of Justice,LEAA, 1977.

Spring-Summer

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1978/ 27

rape
pimping,
criminality.

and

forms

other

of

parasitical

communities.

SCOPE OF CRIME
to a 1977 Gallup Poll and a survey of
According
70 countries, the U.S. has the highest crime rate of
One of every
and European countries.
all capitalist
victimized
five homes was
15% of
by crime;
that
class
communities
they were
reported
working
in their own
afraid of being victimized
by crime
homes, while 43% thought that crime had increased
in their neighborhood.
(13)
to the Victimization
1974, according
During
Surveys, over 39.5 million persons over the age of
serious crimes, an
12 were victimized
by selected,
increase of 7.5% over
1973. In 1975, there was
to nearly
million
increase
2%
40.5
another
incidents of victimization.
estimated
(14) And the
latest Census Bureau study reports over 41 million
for 1976. (15) This is almost four times higher than
it should be
index. Moreover,
the FBI's
UCR
do not include
that these estimates
remembered
crimes
"victimless"
homicide,
drugs and
(illegal
prostitution, for example) or the "hidden" figures of
and
health
crime - price-fixing,
"white-collar"
tax
false
fraud, embezzlement,
safety violations,
28 /Crime

immense suffering
etc. - which cause
advertising,
class
in
and
untold
working
deprivation

and Social

The Victimization
Surveys have caused consid?
to the government,
which
embarrassment
erable
that LEAA's
had hoped to use them to demonstrate
"war on crime" was winning some major battles.
have instead demonstrated
The Surveys, however,
has gradually
crime
the rate of "street"
that
in criminal
increase
the
55%
increased,
despite
from $11 billion in 1971 to $17
justice expenditures
billion in 1975; despite the fact that the number of
between
in the decade
1965
police almost doubled
a flourishing criminal
and 1975; despite
justice
industrial complex which has upgraded the techno?
and
introduced
of the police
capacity
logical
systems, data retrieval devices
computers, weapons
to a hither?
and modern communications
equipment
the
advice and
to "backward"
bureaucracy;
despite
conducted
studies
of research
thousands
by the
from the most
scholars
and
"best
brightest"
think tanks.
privileged universities and corporate

federal
the
government
surprisingly,
to
the
Victimization
a
halt
called
Surveys,
recently
even though they were widely regarded as one of
and reliable
the very few worthwhile
projects
reasons
for this action are
The
LEAA.
initiated by
did the Surveys expose the
quite obvious. Not only
of the govern
waste
incredible
and
bankruptcy
Not

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on

"war

merit's

crime."

also

They

the

supported

that "street" crime is not simply a by?

a
of
the capitalist
mode of production,
product
to be solved
by technocrats
problem
logistics
it is shown to
trained in "systems analysis." Rather,
at its
to capitalism
endemic
be a phenomenon
highest stage of development.
conclusion

VICTIMS OF STREET CRIME

"Street"
intra-racial

is

crime

phenomenon,

an

primarily
media

of

victims

"street"

and

intra-class
to

stereotypes

crime

are

the

overwhelm?

blacks and Chicanos

ingly poor people, particularly
areas.
in
LEAA's
1973 Victimi?
metropolitan
living
of
zation Surveys found that, with the exception
incomes under $3,000
theft, families with annual
were the most
likely to be victimized
by serious
and property loss. (17) Another
crimes of violence
indices, reported that the
study, using the same
likely to be victims of
unempJoyed were more
crime in rates two to three times higher than those
employed.

(18)

national
and
Racial
minorities,
especially
A
have
the
blacks,
highest rate of victimization.
1975 LEAA
study in the five largest cities found
that:

and

are

the

blacks are
In Philadelphia,
whites to be burglarized.

twice as

are twice
blacks
In Chicago,
whites to be victimized
by auto

likely as

as likely as
theft. (19)

in 1976,
nationwide
studies, released
Follow-up
of
found
that
the
incidence
similarly
highest
violent and property crime is among the poor and
the
unemployed,
superexploited
specifically,
sectors of the working class, young men and single

assault.

rates

women.

than

Moreover,

Blacks

whites
blacks

have

for
over

victimiza?

higher

rape,
age

20

rate

of

their

white

2.)
counterparts.
account
While crimes of violence
for less than
10% of "street" crimes,
they are an important
source
of demoralization
and
victimization
in
working

class

communities.

Rape,

child

assault,

and wife-beating
and homicide not only cause great
personal suffering to the victims and their relatives
and close
collective
friends, but also undermine

life
This is not a recent phenomenon.
Family
as Engels observed
in
under industrial capitalism,
of the Working Class
in England, was
The Condition
for the worker."
"almost
impossible
Impoverished
long hours of work and little time
living conditions,
for recreation made family life a continuous
round
of problems
and
tensions. Wives
and children,
and male
doubly exploited by economic
dependency
are
supremacist
ideology,
regular targets of brutal
"Yet the working man," noted Engels
assaults.
in
from the family, must live in
1845, "cannot escape
is a perpetual
the family, and the consequence
of family troubles, domestic
succession
quarrels,
most
for parents
and
children
demoralizing
alike." (21)
social and family
Under monopoly
capitalism,
difficult
in the superexploited
life is particularly
where
economic
sectors
of the working
class,
a
labor
chaotic
market, uprooted commu?
hardship,
and deteriorating
social
life
renewal")
("urban
nity

TABLE 2

robbery

are

robbed

Race of victim
Black and
other
races
19,019,000

Rape and attempted rape- 90 158

theft.

separated

the
(20) (See Table

143,217,000

in all five cities

Black
family households
suffer the highest rates of burglary and auto

tion

times

robbery.

in Philadelphia
and Chicago
Blacks
most victimized by theft.

or

three

?'
Type of victimization

in Philadelphia
and Los
and Chicanos
are
most
to
be
victimized
likely
by
Angeles
Blacks
assault

to

solidarity.

contrary. (16) White women are most

likely to be
men
are most
white
black
men; young
raped by
likely to be robbed by other young black men; and
working class families are most likely to have their
or ripped off by strangers
homes vandalized
living
a
few
blocks
away.
only
The

two

Robbery_... 599
473
207
Robbery and attempted robberywith injury_
Serious assault_ 108 294
Minor assault_ 99 179
Robbery without injury_ 213 589
179 326
Attempted robberywithout injuryAssault_ 2,554
954
1,656
Aggravated assault_
With injury_ 301 599
653 1,057
Attempted assault with weapon_
1,272
1,600
Simple assault_
With injury_ 399 289
983
1,201
Attempted assault without weaponPersonal larcenywith contact_ 267 678
Purse snatching-_ 57 126
Attempted purse snatching_ 44 47
Pocket picking_ 166 504
Personal larcenywithout contact_
7,671
9,209

1,388

2,929

Source: Michael Hindelang et al., Sourcebook of

of
Criminal Justice Statistics-1974, U.S. Dept.
Justice, LEAA, 1975.

and
at

Spring-Summer

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1978/ 29

for individ?
services provide a fertile environment
A recent study, pre?
ualism and demoralization.
on Black
pared for the W.E.B. DuBois Conference
that about 95%
in 1976, reveals for example
Health
are killed by
victimized
of blacks
by homicide
other blacks.
11,000 of the 237,000 deaths
the
in the United
States,
were
whom
of
black,
overwhelming majority
were from homicide. More than six percent
of the black males who died during this year
were victims of homicide as were over two
Among blacks
percent of the black females.
was
of
the fourth leading cause
homicide
cardiovas?
exceeded
only by major
death,
and
cular
diseases,
neoplasms,
malignant
diseases
All of the infectious
accidents.
took a lesser toll than did
taken together
homicide.
In 1974, almost
of nonwhites

at a rate of
by homicide
a
to
rate
of 77.9 per
per 100,000 compared
men
To put
of
black
for
age.
comparable
100,000
in life expectation
it another way, "the difference
is seven years.
white
and black males
between
.More
Almost a fifth of that is due to homicide...
in
than twice as many blacks died from homicide
and homicides
1974 as from automobile
accidents,
for about 40 percent as many deaths as
accounted
cancer."
(22)
and other
the Victimization
While
Surveys
are responsible
for a
studies show that minorities
as
such
"street"
violent
of
incidence
crimes,
higher
than whites,
and homicide,
rape, robbery, assault
that crime is simply a racial
this does not mean
crime has
"street"
(23) Historically,
phenomenon.
in the marginalized
to be concentrated
tended
sectors of the labor force and in the demoralized
of skin
irrespective
layers of the working class,
it
is
those
color or ethnic
(24)
Today,
origin.
the poverty
incomes below
families with annual
line which fill the police stations,
jails and hospital
rooms.
Native
Since
blacks, Chicanos,
emergency
are disproportion?
and Puerto Ricans
Americans
sectors of
in the superexploited
ately concentrated
the working class, they are also disproportionately
records and as victims of
in police
represented
White men

are

killed

9.3

crime.

is closely tied to the

risk of victimization
of life. Black women suffer a
conditions
they
higher rate of rape than white women because
to the insecurities
of public
are more
exposed
the
and poorly
streets;
policed
transportation
on
in
downtown
incomes
fixed
elderly,
living
rooming houses, are much more physically vulner?
in suburban "leisure"
able than their counterparts
cannot
afford to install
families
that
communities;
or
homes
into
their
remodel
alarms
burglar
fortresses are easier prey for rip-offs and thefts;

The
material

30 /Crime

and Social

of
unable to buy the protection
businesses,
more
to
are
be
likely
security agencies,
private
apartment
buildings, guarded by rent
burglarized;
small

a-cops,

doormen

and

fences

security

have

lower

rate of burglary than public housing projects and

low
and working
tenements;
parents,
hustling
to
the
in
order
erratic
hours
with
pay
paying jobs
and
cannot
hire
tutors, counselors
bills,
daily
or turn to private schools when their
psychiatrists
children become "delinquency"
problems.

CRIME AND CLASS

The current high level of crime and victimiza?
sectors of the working
tion within the marginalized
in the context of the
class can be partly understood
labor market. The "relative surplus popu?
capitalist
or incidental
is not an aberration
lation"
by?
as a
it
is
Rather
continuously
reproduced
product.
of
mode
of the capitalist
element
necessary
the "lever of
and is, to quote Marx,
production
capitalist

.It

accumulation...

forms

disposable

to capital
reserve
industrial
army that belongs
quite as absolutely as if the latter had bred it at its
own cost. Independently of the limits of the actual
for the changing
it creates,
increase of population,
a mass of
of capital,
needs of the self-expansion
for
material
human
(25)
always ready
exploitation."
conditions of
the economic
For this population,
and degrading.
The
life are unusually
desperate
hustles
and
of
crime
level
petty
property
high
from the problems of survival.
cannot be separated
on the process of primitive accumula?
Commenting
Marx
16th century
tion in 15th and
England,
the
that the rising bourgeoisie
observed
destroyed
the
of production
modes
through
pre-existing
land and liveli?
of people's
forcible expropriation
a "free" proletariat
which
thus creating
hood,
be absorbed
"could not possibly
by the nascent
as fast as it was
thrown upon the
manufactures
world."

masse

Thousands

of

peasants

were

"turned

en

into beggars,
robbers,
vagabonds_and
(26) For these victims of
'voluntary' criminals...."
crime was both a means of survival and
capitalism,
an effort to resist the discipline
and deadening
routine of the workhouse and factory. (27)

of early
But crime was not only a manifestation
terrorism
its
with
unconcealed
plunder,
capitalism,
to
labor market. Crime was endemic
and unstable
both the rural and urban poor in 18th century
(28) And at the peak of industrial capital?
England.
in the mid-19th
ism
century,
vividly
Engels
of theft, prostitution and
the prevalence
described
in working
victimization
other types of widespread
he
"The
British
communities.
class
nation,"
in the
the most criminal
"has become
concluded,
world." (29)

Justice

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at
least
41 million
With
persons
annually
"street" crimes in the United
serious
victimized
by
that monopoly
has
it is clear
States,
capitalism
the incidence
of
rather than reduced
aggravated
for
the
United
crime. Recent
studies,
prepared
and Crime,
Crises
Nations
report on Economic
that the rate of criminal
support the argument
is not only correlated with crises and
victimization
but also
in the capitalist
"downturns"
economy,
economic
of
effects
the
with
"long-term
to Marx's
thus
support
giving
growth," (30)
of

law

"absolute

accumulation

capitalist

in

the lot of the

accumulates,
proportion as capital
laborer, be his payment
high or low, must grow
worse."
(31) The economic
underpinnings of "street"
are underscored
crime
by the findings of the
that over 90% of serious
Victimization
Surveys
are
offenses
(theft, burglary,
property-related
robbery, etc.). (32) Not surprisingly, most "street"
in the
concentrated
is disproportionately
crime
sectors of the working class where
superexploited
rates

unemployment

of

50%

are

not

uncommon.

to
is not only related
crime
But
"street"
nor is it solely restricted
to
economic
conditions;
national
A
of
series
class
working
neighborhoods.
and his col?
studies, conducted
by Martin Gold
rates
in
of juvenile
difference
little
found
leagues,
between blacks and whites or working
delinquency
families. (33) Their latest
class and petty bourgeois
"white
that
study reports
girls are no more nor less
than black girls;
frequently or seriously delinquent
nor less frequently
and white
boys, no more
than black boys; but white boys are less
delinquent
seriously delinquent than black boys." (See Table 3.)
with
is correlated
when
Moreover,
delinquency
is
it
found
that
socioeconomic
status,
"higher
status" boys (i.e., the sons of the petty bourgeoisie
for the most part) are more
likely than working
class boys to commit thefts, steal cars and commit
assaults.
(34)
"Street" crime, like white chauvinism and male
supremacy, is most brutal in (although by no means
sectors
of the
limited
to) the superexploited
emiserates
class.
capitalism
Monopoly
working
increasingly
larger portions of the working class
the lower strata of the petty
and proletarianizes
skills and compe?
workers'
degrades
bourgeoisie,
and
for higher productivity,
tency in the quest
family and community life on the basis of
organizes
It consequently
its most effective
exploitability.
rather than reciprocity the norm
makes antagonism
of social

Under
ated.

separated,

The

monopoly
become

capitalism,

even

more

except

consumer,

family

and

brutal

family as an economic
as

(36)
society."
"It is only in its era of monopoly," writes Harry
"that
in Labor and Monopoly
Braverman
Capital,
takes over the
mode of production
the capitalist
totality of individual, family, and social needs and,
them to the market, also reshapes
in subordinating
While more
them to serve the needs of capital."
"is
more
of
the
and
packed ever more
population
the
urban
the
in
environment,
closely
together
of

atomization

life

social

apace....The

proceeds

social structure, built upon the market, is such that

individuals and social groups do
relations between
as cooperative
human
not take place
directly,
but through the market as relations of
encounters,
and

purchase

sale."

are required to work

As more family members
and the pressures of urban life intensify, the family
in order to survive
is required to "strip for action
in the market
and 'succeed'
society." Thus, urban
"is
the profit motive,
and
by
life, governed
capital
both chaotic and profoundly hostile to all feelings
of

community."

Braverman's
the material

Engels

use

also

even

permeates

the

most

private

of personal
life, setting husband against
against
neighbor. (37) "In short," as
neighbor

domain
wife,

to

market,"

term, not only destroys

appropriate
social
of cooperative
foundations

but

relations,

"universal

The

over

observed

in his neighbor
or, at best,
advantage."

century

ago,

sees

"everyone

an enemy to be got out of the way,

a tool to be used
for his own

(38)

TABLE 3
of delinquentbehaviorby race and sex
Frequencyand seriousness

(35)

relationships.

relationships

As a result, millions of youth,

tence and education.
of
the children
of the petty
many
including
to an extraordinary
"become
subject
bourgeoisie,
the
that accompany
of social
problems
variety
in our
able-bodied
statuses
of dependent
persons

unit
from

the

and

peer

attenu?

is totally
produc?

are denied
tive processes
of society. Adolescents
access to the labor market and forced to depend on
their parents, who bear the costs of their subsis

BehaviortoOfficialDelinquency,"
Source:JayWilliamsandMartinGold,"From
Delinquent
SocialProblems
20, 2 (Fall, 1972).

Spring-Summer

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1978/31

to be admired, helped and supported." This respect

for "social bandits" was based on their defense of
theft of the
and their selective
the oppressed
and
(39)
property.
oppressor's crops
or its equivalent
"Social
banditry"
persisted
throughout at least two hundred years of primitive
as displaced
their
asserted
accumulation,
peasants
to
subsistence
traditional communal
through
rights
and
against
ship-wrecking
poaching,
smuggling
to the supremacy
of capitalist
claims
bourgeois

private property. (40)

But not all criminality was a blow to class rule
societies.
Peasant
in agrarian and early capitalist
was
crimi?
victimized
also
by "professional"
society
nals and "common robbers" who did not make any
between
their victims; and the
class distinctions
rural and urban poor in eighteenth century England
were
by theft, robbery and
regularly demoralized
other types of intra-class victimization.
as an effective,
Criminality
though limited,
method of waging class warfare
began to decline
of industrial
the development
with
capitalism.
There were two important reasons for this. First,
reduced the means of protection and
modernization
and
of communications
survival.
The technology
with
combined
forms of
rapid
transportation,
and
economic
public administration
development,
the growth of the state, deprived banditry of the
under which
it
conditions
technical
and social
the
and more
flourishes.
Second,
importantly,
class
collective,
developed
working
organized
to
far superior
which were
associations
political
or even the organized
self
individual criminality
help of banditry. As Engels observed:

CRIME AS REBELLION?
is a tendency within the New Left to
There
glorify crime as "primitive rebellion" and interpret
revolt.
it as a form of spontaneous,
anticapitalist
some support for this position
is definitely
There
when we examine previous historical eras.
to Eric Hobsbawm's
well-known
study
According
and
in
of
criminality
precapitalist
agrarian
"social
banditry" was a form of class
societies,
a precursor or accompaniment
and
often
struggle
social
to peasant
revolutions.
"The point about
"is that they are peasant
he writes,
bandits,"
outlaws whom the lord and state regard as crimi?
society, and
nals, but who remain within peasant
as
as heroes,
are
considered
by their people
avengers,
champions,
fighters for justice, perhaps
even leaders of liberation, and in any case as men
32/Crime

and Social

The earliest, crudest, and least fruitful form

was
that of crime,...
The
of rebellion
soon realized
that crime did not
workers
could
The criminal
protest
help matters.
the existing order of society only
against
singly, as one individual; the whole might of
was
to bear
upon each
society
brought
criminal, and crushed him with its immense
the most
theft was
Besides,
superiority.
and
for this
of
form
protest,
primitive
the
it never becomes
if no other,
reason,
of the public opinion of
universal expression
however much they might
the working-man,
in
of
it
silence.
(41)
approve
crime
"street"
Under
capitalism,
monopoly
to the social banditry of
bears little resemblance
Sicilian peasants, of the pastoral nomads of Central
or even
in mercantile
of the rural poor
Asia
are
more
"bandits"
likely to
England. Contemporary
rip off their neighbor or rob the local mom and pop
store than to hold up a bank or kidnap a corporate
executive.
And they are more likely to be regarded
as pariahs
than to be welcomed
in the community
as heroes. Nor can theft from supermarkets
and
a
be considered
chain stores (which is widespread)

Justice

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

modern equivalent
of banditry, because
bourgeois
rule is not weakened
by such activity, and the cost
on to the
theft
is generally
of such
passed
consumer
in the form of higher prices or inferior
It is only among ultra-leftist
commodities.
sects,
which have no base of support within working class
that such banditry is still practiced
communities,
and glorified.

CONCLUSION
solution to "street" crime does not
The political
lie in mystifying its reality by reactionary allusions
to "banditry," nor in reducing it to a manifestation
of "lumpen" viciousness.
The former is Utopian and
defends
because
it
that under?
practices
dangerous
mine the safety and solidarity of the working class
the latter
(and glorifies spontaneity and putschism);
on
the
attack
objectively
legitimates
bourgeoisie's
black and brown
workers, especially
superexploited
workers.

While "street" crime is associated

sectors of the working
demoralized
be careful about making mechanical
generalizations

As

class."

and

Marx
mising

about

Paul

the

has

Hirst

harsh

very
"street"

to

and

correctly

took

Engels
attitude

"lumpen"

with the most

class, we must
and ahistorical
"dangerous

out,

pointed
and

crime,

uncompro?
not
from

out

of concern
for
perspective,
a
move?
and
workers'
disciplined
principled
building

moralistic
ment.

but

"Their

notes

standpoint,"

Hirst,

"was

uncom?

and based on the proletarian

promisingly political
class position. Marx and Engels ask of any social
class or sociopolitical
is its effec
activity, what
in the struggle
of
the proletariat
for
tivity
it
to
does
contribute
the
socialism,
political victory
of the exploited and oppressed?"
(42)
on both
Marx and Engels based their evaluation
a class
of criminality
and a concrete
analysis
investigation of the role of the "lumpenproletariat"
in specific political
struggles. Thus, they argued
that

the

weakens

"lumpen"

the

The

an

contemporary

workers'

movement

must

stand
equally
uncompromising
against
forms
of
victimization
and
parasitical
organized,
"criminals"
and prisoners
who
become
against
"snitches"
and
of the political
agents
police.

Pimping, gambling rackets, illegal drug operations,

are
to working
class
etc.,
just as damaging
communities

as

any

"legal"

business

"street"

Most

crime

which

profits

from people's misery and desperation.

But we must be careful to distinguish organized
from "street" crime and the "lumpen"
criminality
from the superexploited
sectors
of the working

is not

organized

assault,

etc.

not

and

for . example,
Most
is
very
theft,
profitable.
each
of
and
committed
incidence
by individuals,
"street" theft amounts to much less than $100. (44)
no direct economic
there is typically
Moreover,
of personal
associated
with
crimes
advantage
-

violence

rape,

homicide,

of life in the superexploited

The conditions
sectors create
both high levels of "street" crime
and political
The urban black commu?
militancy.
for
is
hit
the hardest by "street"
nity,
example,
but it is also
the locus of tremendous
crime,
and struggle - as witnessed
resistance
by the civil
the ghetto revolts of the 1960s,
rights movement,
and the antirepression
struggles of today. More?
over, of the thousands of blacks who annually go to
many
prison for serious crimes of victimization,
have become
transformed by the collective
experi?
ence of prison life and participate
in numerous acts
of

and

self-sacrifice

solidarity,

heroism

as

witnessed
by the conversion of Malcolm
X, George
in
Jackson and countless other anonymous militants
the strikes and uprisings at Soledad,
San Quentin,
etc.

Attica,

the link between

"street"
and
crime
we must
conditions
is clearly established,
is not simply a
economism.
Crime
guard against
matter of poverty, as evidenced
the
by
unparalleled
criminality and terrorism of the ruling class. Nor is
crime explained
"street"
for petty
by poverty,
youth in the United States are probably
bourgeois
as their working class counter?
just as delinquent
parts, and there are many impoverished nations in
the world that do not in any way approach
the high
in this country. The problem of
level of criminality
not only as a
"street" crime should be approached
product of the unequal distribution of wealth and
chaotic
labor market
but also as an
practices,
the
of
social rela?
important aspect
demoralizing
tions and individualistic
ideology that characterize
at its highest
the capitalist
mode
of production
While
economic

of

stage

development.

FOOTNOTES

movement

workers'

by living off the workers'

labor, for
productive
as by serving
the
by theft, as well
example
as
and
collaborators
informers,
spies,
bourgeoisie
adventurists.
(43)
take

class.

1.

for

Center

the

Fist

and

the

Study

2.

Glove.
and

of Labor

Christian

York Times

on

Research

Velvet

Economic

Monitor

Science

The
Justice,
Francisco:
Institute

Crisis

3.

Karl

(November

13,

Marx

and

Frederick

New

York:

(1955):20-21.
"The

Justice

1973);

New

the

Law

(April 16, 1977; July 21, 1977); San Francisco

Manifesto.

4.

for

(1977):14.

to
1978).
25,
(January
According
the Law
News
Enforcement
3, 1978),
(January
is now
ment
Administration
Assistance
funding
a
at
cost
of
anticrime
$37 million.
projects
Chronicle

Iron

Criminal
San

Politics

of

5(Spring-Summer,

Street

Engels,

The

Communist

Appleton-Century-Crofts

Crime,"
1976):l-4.

Crime

Spring-Summer

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Enforce?
some
600

and

Social

1978/33

Francisco

5.

San

6.

Michael

Chronicle
et

Hindelang
Statistics:1974.

Justice

7.

on Criminal

and

Williams

8.
Jay
Behavior

to Official

James

Martin

Opinion
Government

U.S.

of

Management

Police

Francisco

14. Law

Chronicle

Criminal

and

1973

1974

Findings.

15. San Francisco Chronicle

Government

U.S.

note

18. John

Office

The

1977).

International

Justice

in Capital,"
1976):26-33.

Question

MSpring-Summer,

Office

D.C.:

in

the

21. Frederick

22. Yongsock
"Homicide

The

Shin,

on
see

Publishers

Blacks,"

rate
homicide
high
"Crime
Reasons,
and
Reasons
Kuykendall,

(1972):79-95;
see George
in Georgia,
blacks
of
and
the Treatment
"Race

blacks,

34/Crime

Problems
the
see

high
albeit

and Social

Alcoholism

Law

Hindelang,
Personal

Crimes,"

and

1967-1972,"
(December,

been

study
(unpublished)
in San
Francisco.
see

Gold

studies,
in Common

Law

103-04.

for

and
Schwendinger
and
the Collective
Justice

Julia
Varieties

Press

Press

(1973).

Schwendinger,
of Youth,"
1976):7-25.

5(Spring-Summer,

Labor

and

Justice

David
Social
Harvey,
example,
Johns Hopkins
London:
University

Social

have

findings

and

Monopoly
(1974):271-83.

New

Capital.

38. Engels:170-71.
Lee,
39. Eric

(December,

Race,

for

Hobsbawm,

York:

New

Bandits.

Delacorte

(1969):13-23.
for example,

40.

See,

41.

Engels:250-51.

Douglas

Hay

and
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Hirst,
Engels
in Taylor,
Walton
and
Morality,"
London:
Criminology.
Routledge
42. Paul

Hodges,
Southern

Eugene
in a

David

Behavior

7,4

Chinese
youth
of the
critique
and
Involvement

37. Harry
Braverman,
Review
York:
Monthly

Ca.:

"Race

Literature

These
in a current

Takagi

Crimes":

"Delinquency
and
Crime

Goodyear
deaths
among

and

and

Gold

Delinquent
16 Years
Old:

213-18.

Gold:

"Race

36. Herman

Printing

eds.,

Martin

1973.

of

among
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a methodological

35. See,
the City.

Crimi?

1972):240-52;
20,2
(Fall,
and
of rape,
rates
robbery
a
and
from
cultural

Michael

Common

Lowe

and
by Paul

Hindelang,
Personal

Native
among
and
the Native

Pacific
Palisades,
on alcohol-related

13 Through

Delinquency

(1976).

in the U.S.:

209-29;
Patterns

1973.

38,4

Phylon

"Changing
Americans

34. Williams

Largest

Everett

the

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for data

Social
State,"
of
discussion

and

Jedlicka

Gold:

Institute,

UNSDRI

Victimization

and

and

Rome:

Crime.

Criminal

confirmed

the Working
Class
168.
(1973):

of

Charles

in

American,"
and
Crime

Condition

Davor

Among

data

perspective,
ment
in

Reimer,

York:

New

Crime.

in the U.S.:

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1977):398-407.

Americans,

645.

of

Government

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Moscow:

in England.

31. Marx:

Research

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Social
and

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(1975).

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Crises

Among
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Administration,
Five
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U.S.

Nations

Economic

33. Williams

U.S.

(1976).

of

168.

32. LEAA,

Administration,
A Compari?
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1973. Washington,

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Washington,

20. LEAA,

among

Penal

"The

Melossi,
Social

and

30. United

(February 20, 1978).

Assistance

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23. For

York:

et al., Albion's
Fatal
for example,
28. See,
Hay
Douglas
in Eighteenth-Century
and Society
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New
York:
Pantheon
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For

(1975):26.

Victimization

Cities.

I. New

Vol.

Capital,

734.

29. Engels:

(1976).

Printing

Conklin,

Macmiilan

and

Crime

16 above.

E.

19. Law

Office

Washington,

Assistance
in the United

Enforcement

Victimization

nal

Printing

22,

in the United

Victimization

17. See

26. Marx:

Crime

(October 10, 1977).

Assistance

Government Printing Office

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Killings":42.

(December

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About

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12. U.S. News and World Report

nal

Marx,

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1977): 34-43.

of Police

Management

of

25. Karl

Social
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and Kuykendall:

Edward
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Arrest,"

and

Tree:

10. "The

son

1978):93-109.

(February,

for

See,

27. Dario

Social Justice 8 (Fall-Winter,

13. San

24.

Status,
103-23.

Delinquent
Problems
20,2

Social

(1977):28.

11. "The

Govern?

43,1

"From

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Public

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9.

of

(1975):233.

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20,

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et al.

on

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Young,
and

(1975):203-32.

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Kegan

assault
"racial"

43.

See

note

42 above.

Involve?
American

44. LEAA,

Criminal

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Justice

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

in the U.S.:

and

Critical

eds.,

1973.

Paul