Hydraulic Engineering

Experiment H6
Flow Measurement In Closed Conduits

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

Contents
B.

Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 3

C. Objectives................................................................................................................................. 3
D. Summary of Procedures............................................................................................................ 3
E.

Experimental Theory................................................................................................................ 4

F.

Results of the Experiment......................................................................................................... 5

Sample Calculation with Values from Row 1................................................................................ 5
Table of Results............................................................................................................................ 6
Graphs......................................................................................................................................... 6
Explanation of Why Flow Rate is Proportional to the Rotameter Reading..................................12

G. Precautions............................................................................................................................. 13
H.
Limitations
13
I.

Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 13

J.

Table of Figures....................................................................................................................... 14

K.

Works Cited............................................................................................................................. 14

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

A. Introduction
Pressure along a streamline of steady, inviscid and incompressible flow can be determined
through applications of the Bernoulli equation (conservation of energy). In this experiment, we
will apply this equation together with the Continuity equation (conservation of mass) in verifying
head losses and coefficients of discharge due to different flow meters.

B. Objectives
1. To determine the coefficient of discharge, Cd, for the Venturimeter and orifice plate meter.
2. To evaluate and correlate the head losses with the discharge for the various flow meters.

C. Summary of Procedures

Figure 1: Experimental Setup

1. Before starting the pump, ensure that delivery valve is closed.

2. There should not be any air entrapped in the apparatus when the flow is being measured.
If there are any, flush them out before commencing experiment.
3. Flow through the apparatus is to be regulated by using the delivery valve only, with the
exit valve from the Rotameter fully open.
4. The manometer readings are to be taken after allowing sufficient time for the flow to
stabilize (approximately twenty seconds to be conservative).
5. Readings are taken for six different rates of flow.
6. One time measurement is taken for 10.0kg of water collected in the weighing tank for
each flow.
7. At the end of the experiment, close the delivery valve and only then switch off the pump.

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

D.Formula Derivation for Venturimeter

1. The Bernoulli equation (conservation of energy) is given by:

pA
v 2A p B
v 2B
+z + = +z +
g A 2 g g B 2 g
p = pressure
= fluid density
g = the gravitational force
z = the elevation above a datum level
u = mean velocity at that point.

2. The continuity equation (conservation of mass) is given by

A A v A = A B v B =Q
where A is the cross sectional area.
Rearranging we have,

v A=

A B vB
AA

3. The piezometric heads at A and B are given by

hA=

pA
+z
g A

h B=

and

pB
+z
g B

respectively.

v 2A
v 2B
4. Substituting into the Bernoulli equation, we get h A + 2 g =h B + 2 g , and substitute for vA:
2

hA+

AB v B
v
=h B + B
2
2g
2 g AA
Rearranging we get,
4

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

v B=

2 g(h AhB )
2
AB
1( )
AA

5. Putting vB into the continuity equation, we result in the theoretical discharge:

QT =A B v B= A B

2 g (h A h B )
A 2
1( B )
AA

Head loss A-C

1. The Bernoulli equation (conservation of energy) is given by:

pA
v 2A p c
v 2c
+ z A+ = + zc + + H v
g
2 g g
2g
Where Hv = the head loss

2. The piezometric heads at A and C are given by

hA=

pA
+z
g A

and

hc =

pc
+z
g c

respectively.

3. Substituting into the Bernoulli equation, we get

hA+

v 2A
v2
=hC + C + H v
2g
2g

4. From the continuity equation (conservation of mass), we know when

A A =A C

v A =vC
5. Therefore we get

hC + H v =h A
Rearranging we have

H v =h AhC

E. Formula Derivation for Orfice Plate Meter

5

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

Head loss E-F

1. From E to F the Bernuolis equations inclusive energy loss of

HO

from E-F is:

pE
v2E
pF
v 2F
+ z E + + H O= + z F +
g
2g
g
2g

2. E and F have the same elevation height,

z E =z F
Therefore we have
H O=

v2E v 2F p E p F
+
2g
g

pE
+ z =h
g E E and

3. Given

pF
+ z =h
g F F

as piezometric heads at E and F respectively,

We have
H O=

v2E v 2F
+ hE h F
2g

4. Now applying the continuity equation (conservation of mass) :

Q A =v E . A E =v F . A F
we have:
2

H O=

QA 1
1

+h EhF
2 g A 2E A2F
6

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

5. The coefficient of discharge,

C d=

Cd

, is given by:

QA
QT

Hence,
C 2d Q 2T 1
1
H O=
2 + h Eh F
2
2 g AE AF

6. Using continuity and Bernuolis equations (same way as the part in Venturimeter), we can derive the
theoretical discharge:
2 g ( h E h F )
Q T =A F
2
AF
1
AE

( )

1 /2

Substituting the equation above into (5), we get:

H O=

[ ( )]
Cd 2 A 2F
AF
AE

( hE h F )

( h EhF ) 1C d2

1
1
2 + hE h F
2
AE AF

( )]
A
1 F
AE

AF
AE

( )
( )

Hence,
H O=( hE h F ) ( 1C 2d )

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

F. Formula Derivation for Wide Angled Diffuser

Head loss C-D

1. Given,
pC
v 2C
pD
v 2D
+ z + + H D = + zD +
g C 2 g
g
2g
Since (C) and (D) are on the same horizontal height level,
z C =z D
Hence,
p C p D v2C v 2D
H D=
+
g
2g

2. By continuity equation, the discharge across the wide angled diffuser is:
Q A =v C . A C =v D . A D

3. Given

pc
+ z =h
g c c and

PD
+ z D =h D
g

as piezometric heads at C and D respectively,

4. Substituting (2) and (3) into (1),

we get,
h
Q2A 1
1
( Ch D )+
2
2
2 g AC AD
H D=

G.Results of the Experiment

Rota

Manometer Readings (mm)

Weighing
8

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

1
2
3
4
5
6

meter
(cm)
6
8
10
12
14
16

228
230
248
270
298
330

196
192
190
188
182
176

212
222
238
253
273
298

214
224
240
255
278
305

216
228
242
260
284
312

189
182
172
159
142
124

192
190
183
174
164
153

192
188
182
173
162
150

94
88
82
72
60
43

Table 1: Raw Data of Experiment

Sample Calculation with Values from Row 1

1.

2.

10 kg
Massof water
Density of water 1000 kg /m3
4 3
3
Q A=
=
=1.37010 m /s=137.0 cm /s
Time taken
73.0 s

Q T ( venturimeter )= A B

2 g ( h AhB )
1

AB
AA

( )

Q A 137.0
=
=0.796
Q T 172.1

3.

C d ( venturimeter ) =

4.

H v =h AhC =22.8 cm21.2 cm=1.60 cm

2981 cm
( 22.819.6 ) cm
2
s
2
3
=2.01cm
=172.1 cm / s
2
2.01
1
5.31

( )

2981 cm
( 21.618.9 ) cm
2 g ( h E h F )
s2
2
=3.14 cm
=231.3 cm 3 /s
2
2
A
3.14
1
1 F
20.43
AE

5.

QT ( orifice )= A F

6.

C d ( orifice )=

7.

H O=( hE h F ) ( 1C 2d ) =( 21.6 cm18.9 cm ) ( 10.5922 )=1.75 cm

8.

H R =h H h I =19.2 cm9.4 cm=9.8 cm

9.

137.0 cm 3 /s

2
Q 1
1
H D =( h C h D ) + A 2 2 =( 21.221.4 ) cm+
2 g AC AD

( )

137.0
=0.592
231.3

Weight
(kg)
10
10
10
10
10
10

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits
3

137.0 cm /s

2
10.

Q2A 1
1
H B =( hG h H ) +
2 = (19.219.2 ) cm+
2
2 g AG A H

10

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

Table of Results
Rotame
ter
(cm)

QA
(cm3/
s)

QT
Vent
uri
(cm3/
s)

QT
Orific
e
(cm3/
s)

Vent
uri
Loss,
HV
(cm)

Orifi
ce
Loss
, HO
(cm)

Rotame Wide
ter
Loss,
Angl
HR (cm)
ed
Loss
, HD
(cm)

137.0

172.1

231.3

1.60

1.75

9.80

0.12

Righ
tAngl
ed
Loss
,
HB(c
m)
-0.34

178.6

187.5

301.9

0.80

2.99

10.00

0.34

-0.38

10

222.2

231.7

372.4

1.00

4.51

10.00

0.63

-0.80

12

277.8

275.4

447.3

1.70

6.21

10.10

1.10

-1.31

14

357.1

327.6

530.4

2.50

7.76

10.20

1.65

-2.14

16

384.6

377.5

610.3

3.20

11.3
3

10.70

1.80

-2.41

Coeffici
ent of
Dischar
ge, Cd
(Venturi)

(Orifice

0.79611
3
0.95234
1
0.95928
1
1.00847
0
1.09014
8
1.01891
7

0.59

Table 2: Calculated Results

Graphs
a. Between QA and QT(venturi)

I
1
2
3
4
5
6

QT

QA

xi
172.1
187.5
231.7
275.4
327.6
377.5
xave =
262.0

yi
137.0
178.6
222.2
277.8
357.1
384.6

i
173.3
188.8
233.3
277.4
329.9
380.1

i = 1.007
xi
(yi- i)2
1316.8
105.0
122.2
0.2
742.0
20.2
=
2306.4

(xi-xave)2
8080.4
5543.1
918.4
181.8
4309.8
13343.6
=
32377.3

Table 3: Analysis between QA and QT(venturi)

At 90% confidence interval,

t 0.05,4

Coeffi
ent o
Disch
ge, C

SS e
2306.4
=2.132
=0.28452
4SS xx
432377.3

C D =1.007 0.28452
11

0.59

0.60

0.62

0.67

0.63

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

QA against QT(venturi)
500.0
400.0
f(x) = 1.01x
R = 0.99

300.0
QA(cm3/s)

200.0
100.0
0.0
150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

350.0

400.0

QT (cm3/s)

Graph 1: QA against QT(venturi)

Removing the first point,

i
2
3
4
5
6

QT

QA

xi

yi

(yi- i)2

(xi-xave)2

187.5
231.7
275.4
327.6
377.5
xave =
279.9

178.6
222.2
277.8
357.1
384.6

191.7
236.8
281.5
334.8
385.8

170.3
212.4
13.9
495.1
1.5
=
893.2

8543.4
2331.3
20.2
2272.5
9513.4
=
22680.8

Table 4: Analysis between QA and QT(venturi) with Row 1 data omitted

At 90% confidence level,

t 0.05,3

SS e
893.2
=2.353
=0.26960
3SS xx
322680.8

C D =1.0221 0.26960
Margin of error is reduced minutely by removing the first set of data. The relative error is 27%
which is a reasonably low number. The value of CD should be close to one because the
Venturimeter does not present a major obstruction or constriction to the fluid flow.

12

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

QA against QT(venturi)
500.0
400.0
f(x) = 1.02x
R = 1

300.0
QA(cm3/s)

200.0
100.0
0.0
150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

350.0

400.0

QT (cm3/s)

Graph 2: QA against QT(venturi) with Row 1 data omitted

b. Between QA and QT(orifice)

1
2
3
4
5
6

QT

QA

xi
231.3
301.9
372.4
447.3
530.4
610.3
xave =
415.6

yi
137.0
178.6
222.2
277.8
357.1
384.6

i
145.8
190.3
234.7
282.0
334.3
384.7

i =
0.6303 xi
(yi- i)2
77.3
137.1
156.4
17.4
520.9
0.0
= 909.2

(xi-xave)2
33973.7
12931.5
1866.1
1006.6
13180.6
37908.8
=
100867.3

Table 5: Analysis between QA and QT(orifice)

At 90% confidence level,

t 0.05,4

SS e
909.2
=2.132
=0.10121
4SS xx
4100867.3

C D =0.6303 0.10121

13

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

QA against QT(Orifice)
500.0
400.0
f(x) = 0.63x
R = 1

300.0
QA(cm3/s)

200.0
100.0
0.0
200.0

250.0

300.0

350.0

400.0

450.0

500.0

550.0

600.0

650.0

QT(cm3/s)

Graph 3: QA against QT(orifice)

Omitting the first set of data,

2
3
4
5
6

QT

QA

xi
301.9
372.4
447.3
530.4
610.3
xave =
452.5

yi
178.6
222.2
277.8
357.1
384.6

i
190.9
235.4
282.8
335.3
385.8

i =
0.6322 xi
(yi- i)2
150.9
174.6
25.3
475.9
1.5
= 828.2

(xi-xave)2
22674.5
6410.0
26.4
6075.1
24912.8
=
60098.8

Table 6: Analysis between QA and QT(orifice) with Row 1 data omitted

At 90% confidence level,

t 0.05,3

SS e
828.2
=2.353
=0.15947
3SS xx
360098.8

C D =0.6322 0.15947
Magnitude of error is significantly reduced through removing the first set of data. The relative
error is 13% which is even lower than the previous error. The value of CD at around 0.63 is less
than one, and that is reasonable for a bend as it presents a disruption in the smooth fluid flow.

14

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

QA against QT(orifice)
500.0
400.0
300.0
QA(cm3/s)

f(x) = 0.63x
R = 1

200.0
100.0
0.0
250.0

300.0

350.0

400.0

450.0

500.0

550.0

600.0

650.0

QT(cm3/s)

Graph 4: QA against QT(orifice) with Row 1 data omitted

15

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits
c. Between Head Losses and QA

Head Losses against Flow Rate

15.00
10.00
Head Loss (cm)

5.00
0.00
100.0
-5.00

150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

350.0

400.0

QA(cm3/s)
Venturi Loss, H_V (cm)

Linear (Venturi Loss, H_V (cm))

Orifice Loss, H_O (cm)

Linear (Orifice Loss, H_O (cm))

Rotameter Loss, H_R (cm)

Linear (Rotameter Loss, H_R (cm))

Wide-Angled Loss, H_D (cm)

Linear (Wide-Angled Loss, H_D (cm))

Right-Angled Loss, H_B (cm)

Linear (Right-Angled Loss, H_B (cm))

Graph 5: Head Losses against Flow Rate QA

All the head losses except for the orifice head loss seem to demonstrate a linear relationship
with the flow rate, whereas the orifice head loss shows a quadratic relationship. Examining
closer on the results,

QA (cm3/s)

Venturi
Loss, HV
(cm)

Orifice
Loss, HO
(cm)

Rotamete
r Loss, HR
(cm)

137.0

1.60

1.75

9.80

WideAngled
Loss, HD
(cm)
0.12

RightAngled
Loss, HB
(cm)
-0.34
16

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

178.6
222.2
277.8
357.1
384.6

0.80
1.00
1.70
2.50
3.20

2.99
4.51
6.21
7.76
11.33

10.00
10.00
10.10
10.20
10.70

0.34
0.63
1.10
1.65
1.80

-0.38
-0.80
-1.31
-2.14
-2.41

Table 7: QA against Head Losses

The Rotameter head loss is consistent with a mean average of 10.13cm, but beyond
QA=277.8cm3/s the orifice head loss takes over. This shows that changing the flow rate will affect
the orifice head loss much more than the Rotameter head loss. This may be due to the orifice
head loss being related to a power of velocity, whereas the change in Rotameter head loss
involve doing work to lift the Rotameter higher up, which is linear.
d. Between CD and QA

QA (cm3/s)

Coefficient of
Discharge, CD(Venturi)

Coefficient of
Discharge, CD(Orifice)

137.0
178.6
222.2
277.8
357.1
384.6

0.80
0.95
0.96
1.01
1.09
1.02

0.59
0.59
0.60
0.62
0.67
0.63

Table 8: CD values against QA

CD against QA

CD

1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

350.0

400.0

QA(cm3/s)
Coefficient of Discharge, C_d Venturi

Coefficient of Discharge, C_d Orifice

Graph 6: CD against QA

17

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits
The coefficients of discharge are relatively constant over the varying flow rates, with that of the
Venturimeter varying from 0.80 to 1.02, with 0.97 as the mean average. For the orifice, CD varies
from 0.59 to 0.63, with 0.62 as the mean average.

Explanation of Why Flow Rate is Proportional to the Rotameter Reading

For equilibrium, the downward weight of the Rotameter must be balanced by the upward
buoyancy force and drag force:

W =F B + F D
1
2
mg= w V + Cd w v A
2
where w is the specific weight of water, V is the volume of water displaced, w is the density of
water, v is the mean fluid velocity at that point, Cd the coefficient of discharge and A is the area
of the bodys projection on
a plane perpendicular to the relative direction of motion. (E12.4 - Douglas, 2005). Since W and FB
are constants:

v=

2(W F B )
W C d A

and v will be constant as WCdA is constant. So flow rate:

Q A =A A v

the height of the Rotameter L as the tube is tapered:

A A L . Since

where AA is proportional to

Q A vL

where v is

constant,

QA L

H.Precautions

Parallax error may cause errors in measurement, especially since the fluid level fluctuates.
Care is taken while reading the value by observing the fluid level for awhile and taking the
reading where the fluid level spends more of its time at. Also, the liquid used is orange
coloured so that the reading is made at eye level.

18

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits
Air bubbles must not be in the setup when the experiment is running, as they will affect
the height of the pressure head. A thorough check is made before starting such run and if

any bubbles are discovered, the system is flushed to remove them.

Adjust the knob to change the flow rate slowly, so that the Rotameter will move steadily

downwards and not overshoot the required height.

When adding the 10kg weight, we do so gently, ensuring that the loading remain still and

not oscillate.
As the flow rate changes, the rate at which the level is lifted up fully changes. Therefore,
the timing should be stopped the moment the lever starts to move, as that is when the
10kg of water has flowed through.

I. Limitations

Human reaction time may induce random errors in the timing when 10kg of fluid has
flowed

through.

Two readings should be taken and then averaged to minimize these errors.

J. Conclusion

By making use of the principle of conservation of energy (Bernoulli equation) and

conservation of mass (continuity equation), head losses and coefficients of discharge can

be computed given the pressure head measurements.

At 90% confidence interval the coefficient of discharge for the Venturimeter is determined
to be

1.0221 0.26960 , and that of the orifice is

0.6322 0.15947 .

Plotting a graph of head losses against QA, we can see that head loss increases as the flow
rate increases; and the relative rates at which each head loss changes accordingly as the
flow rate varies.

Table of Figure

19

CE2134 Lab Report

Flow Measurements in Closed Conduits

K.
FIGURE 1: EXPERIMENTAL SETUP................................................................................................................... 3
GRAPH 1: QA AGAINST QT(VENTURI)...................................................................................................................... 7
GRAPH 2: QA AGAINST QT(VENTURI) WITH ROW 1 DATA OMITTED.........................................................................8
GRAPH 3: QA AGAINST QT(ORIFICE)....................................................................................................................... 9
GRAPH 4: QA AGAINST QT(ORIFICE) WITH ROW 1 DATA OMITTED.......................................................................10
GRAPH 5: HEAD LOSSES AGAINST QA........................................................................................................... 10
GRAPH 6: CD AGAINST QA............................................................................................................................. 12
TABLE 1: RAW DATA OF EXPERIMENT............................................................................................................. 5
TABLE 2: CALCULATED RESULTS.................................................................................................................... 6
TABLE 3: ANALYSIS BETWEEN QA AND QT(VENTURI).......................................................................................6
TABLE 4: ANALYSIS BETWEEN QA AND QT(VENTURI) WITH ROW 1 DATA OMITTED..........................................7
TABLE 5: ANALYSIS BETWEEN QA AND QT(ORIFICE)........................................................................................ 8
TABLE 6: ANALYSIS BETWEEN QA AND QT(ORIFICE) WITH ROW 1 DATA OMITTED...........................................9
TABLE 7: QA AGAINST HEAD LOSSES............................................................................................................ 11
TABLE 8: CD VALUES AGAINST QA................................................................................................................. 11

L. Works Cited
Douglas, J. F. (2005). Fluid mechanics. (5th ed., p. 399). Pearson Education Limited.

20