DPW (99) Manual de Diseño PDF

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CostmEffective Welding
STD*AWS DPW-ENGL L999
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07842b5 0519498 938 I
International Standard Book Number: 0-8717 1-605-4

American Welding Society,550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL33126
O 1999 by American Welding Society. All rights reserved
Printed in the UnitedStates of America
NOTE: Although care was taken in choosing and presenting the data in this guide,AWS cannot guarantee that it is error
free. Further, this guideis not intended to be an exhaustive treatment of the topic and therefore may not include all available information, including with respect to safety and health issues.
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11

Contents
Section
1 Primary
ncepts
Page No
..
of Weldablllty ..................................................................................................................
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Accepting Metal Fabrication Projects..........................................................................................................
Production Welding Cost Analysis

................................................................................................................
Modular Construction..................................................................................................................................
17
Welding Process Selection

............................................................................................................................
23
Primary Conceptsof Welding Design .........................................................................................................
33
Fatigue Considerations.................................................................................................................................
45
Welding Safety Considerations ................................................................................................................... 51
Weld Joint Design Considerations .............................................................................................................. 57
10
Weld Distortion and Control.......................................................................................................................
63
11 Checklist for Sound

Welding Decisions ...................................................................................................... 71
12
Defects and Discontinuities of Welding ...................................................................................................... 75
13
Nondestructive Examination....................................................................................................................... 93
........................................................................................................................ 103
14 Information for the Welder
15
Fitting Aids ..................................................................................................................................................
109
16
Welding Metallurgy: Practical Aspects....................................................................................................
119
17
Arc StudWelding ........................................................................................................................................
129
................................................................................................................... 133
18 Thermal Spray Fundamentals
...
111

Acknowledgment
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The original Manual was the resultof a contract between Ingalls Shipbuilding and the Maritime Administration with
support from theU.S. Navy. This project was performedby Puget Sound Naval Shipyardfor the Welding Panel, SP-7, of
the Ship Production Committee of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers. Recognized contributors to the
original project included the American Welding Society, the Lincoln
Electric Foundation, Mr. Omer Blodgett, and Newport News Shipbuilding. Inaddition, Mr. Frank Gatto, Puget Sound representative toSP-7, was singled out for appreciation. The Manual is meant to serve as a practical guide for engineers, planners, and hands-on professionals to improve
scheduling and lessen rework.The Manual was released to the public in1992.
iv

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SECTION
Primary Concepts
of Weldability
Contents
Weldability ..........................................................................................................................................................................
.....................................
Fundamentals of Welding Decisions................................................................................................................................
Personnel Concerns about Fabrication Projects

...........................................................................
Coordination of Expertise....................................................................................................................................
..............4
Education.........................._......_...
....._.
....._.....................,......,....... ................... .....
.. ................ ....
.................... ................4
The Welder, Technician, and Production Supervisor
........... ........_.
.............._...
..............................................................
The 100% Quality Weld and Weld-Associated Failures................................................................................................
Weldability Can Be Determined by the Manufacturer

._......_........
.........,.............................._........ .. ..............................4
Bibliography/RecommendedReading List....................................................................................................
1

.................4
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STD-AWS DPW-ENCL 1999
CONCEPTS OF WELDABILITY
Section I-Primary
Concepts of Weldability
Weldability
From the customer:
Welding is used to make large and sometimes complex structures from smaller and simpler metal components. In general, a weld is a localized coalescence of
metal that is used to join or repair metal components.
Filler metal may or may not be added to the weld. The
capacity and ability tojoin these metal components with
available resources helpdefine the term weldability.
The definition of weldability is: The capacity of a
metal to be welded under thefabrication conditions imposed into a suitably designedstructure, which will perform the intendedservice.
Whenthedefinition
of weldabilityisreducedto
its lowest common denominator, this definition is it.
To ensure weldability, interaction of countless groups
and individuals with specificneeds may be involved. Fora
project to reach a successful conclusion, these needs must
be identified, clarified, and, when in conflict, resolved.
All metals may be considered weldable by the very
fact that they exist as metals. Depending on whether you
are the customer, the welder,the inspector, or the fabricator your definition of weldability may be different. Generally, it is the suitability for service, cost, and weldment
aesthetics that determines weldability. With a fundamental understanding of welding and a knowledge of the resources available, lack of weldability causing inservice
failures, production failures, cost overruns, and schedule
delays may be avoided.
In common usage the term weldability is somewhat
ambiguous and about as varied as the people who use it.
The degree of weldability can be definedin terms of
weld costs; the capacity of the fabrication to perform its
intended service; the ability of the weldment to meetfabrication acceptance standards; or the difficulty ofjoining
a material with a specific process.
Does the fabrication perform the intended service

and will it last as long as intended?
Is the fabrication completed within cost and on
schedule?
Is it aesthetically pleasing?
Fromthe engineer:
Does the weld and its heat-affected zone meet the

critical base metal requirements that are necessaly
for the intended service of the customer?
Fromthemanufacturer:
How much money does it cost to make the weld (i.e.,

whats myprofit) ?
Are thereany inspections or requirements associated
with the weldthat will prevent acceptanceof my work?
not
Am I subject to anyliabilities if my fabrication is
completed on time or fails in
service??
Fromthewelder:
Do I have clearly defined instructions(such asdrawings that specifyweld size, joint design,
material type,
material size, stress relie$ and welding procedures)?
Is there adequate weldjoint access?
Is there adequate environmental protection
?
Do I have the proper equipment to accomplish the

work?
Are the fabrication requirements achievable from the
standpoint of accessibility, position, distortion control, weld size, inspection requirements and fabrication sequence ?
Personnel Concerns about

Fabrication Projects
Am I trained and qualified to per$orm the welding

required??
Majorconcernsabout
a fabricationprojectandits
weldability are expressed by those involved as follows:
2

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SECTION 1-PRIMARY
07842b5
0539502
SECTION 1-PRIMARY
It is obvious, since the weldability of a metal intersects so many disciplines, that the solution to many weldassociated problems and the ultimatesuccess of a project
lies in afabricators ability to coordinate its available
expertise.
There can be no question that people are still
the most
important resource in the fabrication enterprise. Because
of this, it is recommended that a preacceptance bid review group, including production as well as technical
personnel, be established to review projects prior to acceptance. Formation of this group may be the single most
important action taken to ensure a successful and profitable completion for all parties involved. Unless the same
project is repeated over and overagain, it is obvious that
one person cannot resolve allthe issues necessary for the
project to be a success for all theparticipants.
The Welder, Technician, and

Production Supervisor
Oneindividual in a metals fabrication firmwith a

varying workload will find it difficult to make good
welding decisions for all of the firms needs. The complexity of welding decisions is immense if the work varies. If an individual makes enough welding decisions,
expertise will be required beyond that of filler metals,
base metals, and welding processes. This expertise will
require a background in, and integration of the technical
fields.
The 100% Quality Weld and WeldAssociated Failures

Designers often mistakenly expect the welds they design to have properties that equal or exceed the desired
properties of the base metal.The major error in this logic
is that the base metal and the weld metal do not perform
independently.
Rarely does theweldimprovetheproperties
of the
metal it joins. The base material, the weld, and the welds
heat-affected zone are not homogeneous regions. They
are, in effect, structural and metallurgical discontinuities
within the weldment. This is due to the fact thatthe base
materials usually have undergone significant mechanical
and/or thermal treatments to optimize their properties,
the weld usually performs itsservice in the as-cast condition, and the heat-affected zone has undergone widely
varying heating and cooling rates. In many cases a weld
joint lowers fatigue properties and lowers impact properties; in some cases a weld joint also lowers the tensile
and yield properties. However, large or complex structures must be welded with high joint efficiency, since
large monolithic cast or wrought structures cannot be
made in most cases.
Since welds are usually located at changes of cross
sections (commonly associated with highly stressed
areas), the welds are often in areas where the structure
fails. These failures may be wrongly attributed to welds
that are perceived as inherently weak or flawed. These
Coordination of Expertise
One person normally does not have expertise in all of
the areas required to make sound welding decisions. It
will benefit a company to have a welding engineer to
handle the majority of the welding problems that will
arise. However, this individual will find it necessary to
coordinate with other available expertise to make the best
decisions for the company. If a company is small, this
may require hiring a part-time consultant.
Education
There is no substitute for education of personnel involved in welding. Education is needed by the fabrication shop superintendents, the design engineers, the
planners and estimators, the production supervisors, and
the welding mechanics. Each has different needs. Often,
a specification or procedural requirement will not befollowed unless there is an understanding of why the requirement is necessary. Understanding the importance of
preheats, postheat treatments, and filler metal selection
3

I
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The resolution ofmany weldingproblemsrequires

much more than technical solutions. Welding problems
require practical solutions as well. For this reason, the
practical expertise of the journeyman mechanic and his
supervisor cannever be overlooked. They are absolutely
essential if a company expects to remain profitable. It is
for this reason the use of welding engineering technicians is quite common in larger companies. Technicians
frequently are trained individuals with journeymen production experience. A balance of welding engineers and
welding engineering technicians is most desirable for resolving most welding problems.
Fundamentals of Welding Decisions

and how they can affect the safety of personnel and the
suitability of the part for service creates a desire by all individuals to follow requirements. Knowing the basics of
welding engineering can prevent a company from extensive rework or a customers refusal to accept a manufacturers product.
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SECTION 1-PRIMARY
failures are more likely caused by poor decisionson the

part of engineers orcompany management due to a lack
of knowledgeor training.
Improperly selected joint designs, welding processes,
locations of welds, and filler metals are frequently associated with weld failures. The root cause of these types
of failures is in the decision-making process and not in
the quality ofthe weld.
Weldability Can Be Determined by

the Manufacturer
When a manufacturer designs and fabricates a weldment, it can truly be said that the manufacturer determines weldability. The manufacturer then controls most
of the variables thatdetermine weldability. The weldability of a metal, to a large extent, is determined by the
manufacturers ability to:
Recognize the cause of existing and potential production problems.

Properly utilize, coordinate, and develop cooperation of
available expertise to make sound welding decisions.
Often weld-associated failures are caused by lack of
knowledge about welding andits effect on the base materials. These failures are wrongly viewed as resulting
from inherent weaknessesof welds. In most cases, with
proper utilization of available expertise, the failures
could have been avoided.
Bibliography/Recommended Reading
List
Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding Technology
(WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
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STD.AWS DPW-ENCL 3999
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I
SECTION
Accepting Metal
Fabrication Projects
Contents
Background ........................................................................................................................................................................
Defining Special Projects..................................................................................................................................................
Establish a Prebid Review Group (Before Accepting Special Projects)

.........................................................................
Establish a Detail Planning Group(Prior to Issuing Job Orders)

................................................................................
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Summary ................ ........_._.

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.. ...... ..................... ...................................................7
5

Section 2-Accepting Metal Fabrication Projects
Background
Special project should be defined as follows:

(1) Not a repetitive project, even though a company
may have procedures that are applicable to the work.
This includes work that the company has accomplished
before but has notdone for a long period of time.
( 2 ) Any type of field work thatis away from the companys home ofice, and involves a significant number of
man hours. Field work limits the companys flexibility
for
scheduling work accurately. Inaddition, field work limits
the companys ability to combine work activitiesfor economical use of materials, man hours and equipment.
(3) Any projectthat requires manydifferent disciplines from the same company to accomplishits task.
(4) Unusual or complex work requirements (including inspections, paperwork, and records).
The critical question asked by a metals fabricator for a

completed project to be considered successful is:
Did the
project make a profit and was it completed on time?
When large or small companies have repetitive work,
they are usually quite successful. They also know the pitfalls. They know what their minimum bid should be and
what delivery or schedule times can be met. They probably have experienced the normal day-to-day items that
threaten their profit and thequality of their work. Knowing these pitfalls, they can make allowancesfor them.
However, for a companytobe
successful whenit
accepts work that can be defined as a special project
(meaning adifferent type of work for the company), the
engineer, the fabricator, and the welder need a fundamental understanding of the weldability of metals and the
basics of sound welding decisions. During the acceptance of work, many decisions that seem innocuous to
welding end upjeopardizing the weldability of materials
and the service suitability of the completed weldment.
Establish a Prebid Review Group

(Before Accepting Special Projects)
Since a special project is a nonrepetitive project that

may
include multiple workshopshaving new or unusual
Defining Special Projects
requirements, the acceptance of such work should be reThe critical first step for
a company is the ability to recog- viewed by a small prebid review group before accepting
nize a special project. Nearly all special projects require
high
special projects. It cannot be expected that a single perup-front costs. Thereare increased costs in determining:
son who plans and estimates jobscan assemble and understand all the technical, quality, material, and process
Should the company bid on the project?
requirements of unusual work. When the structure of a
What should the bid be?
company permits, it is recommended that the memberTo what extent are production instructions required?
ship of the preacceptance bid review group consistof
What are the costs to establish these instructions?
comptroller, planner and estimator, design, production
How and when to monitor the work in production?
lead shop, and quality assurance representatives.
Are the company resources adequate?
A comptroller or planner and estimator should overDo company equipment and personnel capabilities adsee this group. The primary goalof the group should be
equately meet projectrequirements?
to assess the companys limitations andcapabilities in reWhatadditionaltraining/equipmentisrequiredto
gard to technical, quality, and special process requiremeet project objectives?
ments before accepting
.
.work. The group should also
Resolvingtheseissuesshould
be accomplishedwith
determine the limitations andconditions that should be
smallreviewgroupswith
specific tasks in mind.placedontheproject
for bid acceptance.
6
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SECTION 2-ACCEPTING METAL FABRICATION PROJECTS
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Sometimes accepting a job justto keep the workforce

busy can cost you the company. The companys limitations and capabilities should be determined in regard to
technical, quality, and special process requirements before accepting special projects. If deemed necessary
from this determination, the company should place limitations and conditions on the bid acceptance, or not accept the work.
To determine whether the company should bidor how
much it is willing to bid, the prebid review group should
evaluate the following items:
chaired by engineering. After the production workstarts,

similar meetings should be held with the lead production
shop chairing the meeting, to enable them to receive fast
and direct technical resolution to unexpected fabrication
problems.
Internal quality reviews or audits should be planned
for aswork progresses. The first review should take place
early in the project. This ensures that the work instructions are adequate to accomplish the work, that contract requirements are clear to the workforce, and
the material that is to be received is correct. Trying to recover from incorrect material after a job has commenced
is almost impossible without the company experiencing
large material and labor losses. Therefore, the prebid review group should also be responsible for material acquisition recommendations. Any project is slated for failure
where material requisitions are made haphazardly. Material must be ordered properly and receipt inspected accurately, if a project isto progress within the preestablished
schedules. Simple, clear and concisejob order instructions should be provided inthe following areas:
Quality requirements (establishment of special procedures, i.e., quality manual).

Inspectionrequirements.
Record requirements (degree of detail).
Material requirements certification-receipt inspection.
Material and labor losses in production (rework).
Cleanliness and shipping requirements.
Special
process
requirements
(mockup
testing
or
control samples).
Personnel availability and special qualifications.
Special welding equipment and fixtures required.
Health and environmental considerations.
Specification(materialandfabrication).
Fabricationdocuments.
Quality requirements (receipt inspection included).
Records.
Inspectionrequirements.
Specialprocesscontrols.
Establish a Detail Planning Group

-ders)
After a special project is accepted, a planning group is
needed for detailingthe job requirements to the production workforce. This detailed planning effort is necessary, because the work is nonrepetitive, may involve
multiple trades, and may have different quality requirements than the company normally uses. The greatest potential for noncompliance und error is when the project
is nonrepetitive and has extensive quality and technical
requirements. This detailed planning group should be
headed up by a design engineer, if possible.
Once a specialproject is acceptedby a company,
resources must be expended in advance planning. Work
instructions should be clear, concise,and when practical,
they should be listed as line items with specific directions and accountability.The referencing of general specifications should be avoided where contract requirements
are obscure and can be easily missed. Establishing this
group early helps resolve many critical issues that make
a project a success. It also establishes early ownership in
the project by the participants. It is crucial that this group
has authority to make and implement decisions.
During the planningandengineeringtimeofthe
project, weekly or biweekly meetings should be held to
discuss the impact of technical requirements on production with shop supervision. These meetings should be
Summary
If a project has been determined (by a companys definition) to be a special project, a prebid review group
should examine all the job requirements. This group will
determine whether the company wants to make a bid on
the project and what considerations and limitations
should be placed with the bid. The group should consist
of a designer, a planner and estimator, a productionshop
leader or project leader, and a quality assurance expert.
After the project has been accepted,a planning review
group needs to be established to provide clear and concise work instructions. Job orders should provide details
in areas that would be expected to cause production and
record problems. Details concerning the receipt of material, quality assurance requirements, and productionshop
requirements must be provided.
Early in the production cycle, work instructions and
receipt inspection of material should be audited, or at
least reviewed. During production, work surveillances
should be made of workmanship, inspection, and records
to ensure work instruction compliance.
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SECTION
3
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Production Welding
Cost Analysis
Contents
Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................................
10
Review of Cost Estimating .............................................................................................................................................. 10

Welding Cost Variables...................................................................................................................................................
11
Rework ..............................................................................................................................................................................
11
Fire Protection .................................................................................................................................................................
11
How to Control Costs......................................................................................................................................................
11
Joint Designs....................................................................................................................................................................
12
AutomatiodMechanization ofNew or Existing Thermal Joining Processes

.............................................................
12
Records: Accountabilityfor Accomplishment of Work and Inspections...................................................................
13
Cost Considerations of Nondestructive Examination (NDE)

......................................................................................
13
Summary ..........................................................................................................................................................................
14
BibliographyACecommended Reading List ...................................................................................................................
14
9

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SECTION 3-PRODUCTION
WELDING COST ANALYSIS
Section 3-Production Welding Cost Analysis
Introduction
of specific projects for a customer. As an example, this

includes any personnel assigned to a specific end use
project. Particular attention should be considered not to
exceed the estimated manhourslmandays for project
accomplishment.
The application of welding as a major fabrication process in United States industry began during the late
1930s. Prior to this time period, the welding process did
not play a significant role in production applications.
Welding was primarily utilized for small-scale fabrication, maintenance, or repair.Its use was acceleratedby the
military. The U.S. Navy required massive ship construction for deployment during World War II and the U.S.
Army needed significant ordnancelweaponry equipment
that could only be practically constructedby welding.
Overhead costs are those costsof indirect services, materials, or other expenses that cannot be specifically identified toa productive effortlcustomeror do not result in direct
productive work. Such examples includepaid vacations,
health insurance premiums,sick leave, electricity, water,
building construction or maintenance, and capital investments not tied toa specific customer.
Review of Cost Estimating

There are severalfundamentalvariables (costs) that
need to be considered prior to submitting a competitive
bid for a specific project, in terms of welding costs. For
purposes of this review, many of the following terms can
apply to repair welding or new construction applications.
These cost estimates include material, direct labor, overhead,flxturing, and welding. Definitions of these five expenses are listed below.
Fixturing Costs
Fixturing costs are expenditures for tools, jigs, or fixtures that are directly utilized in the manufacturing process, which can be traced or charged to an end product.
Welding Costs
Material Costs
Material costs involve those materials (Le., steel plate,
piping, or other hardware) that ultimately become part of
a finished product. These individual components canbe
traced to the finished project, in terms of a unit of measure expended. Materialcosts also include consumables
used during the manufacturing evolution. Required receipt inspection and traceability documentation should
also be included.
Direct Labor
Asnotedin the AWS Welding Handbook, costs for

welding basically include the same elementsthat are applicable to manufacturing costs, i.e., labor, material, and
overhead. However, thereare other variables that needto
be considered:
Joint design type.
Weld size.
Weld type.
Weld process.
Electrode deposition efficiency.
Special weld procedure development or verification
of
essential elements.
Direct labor is a level of effort or services that can

readily be charged or identified towards accomplishment
Heat and fire protection.

10


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Overhead Costs
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07842b5 0519510 2b5

Welding Cost Variables
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If at all possible, it ispreferable to accomplish the majority of welding fabrication in the shop vs. in the field.
There are a large numberof welding variables that can
For example, in one case history involving Cres piping,
affect the manufacturing costs. For example, the design
the field reject rate was 420% over thosejoints welded in
engineer should be concerned with
joint design, weld size
the shop. ForMonel@,the same reject criteria was 189%,
or type, and weld process.The welding supervisor should
and 107% higher for carbon steel. The average among
be aware of thesetup (field or shop), production welding
these three materials welded in the field was 238%
time, finishing, and inspection costs. The welder holds a
higher than the shop welds!
very key role. Prior to welding, he/she must be familiar
The disparity between shop and field reject rates can
with the applicable weld procedure that lists variables
be explained by reviewing the complexity behind field
such as type of shielding or required flow rates, welding
conditions. In many situations, the welder will encounter
parameters (volts and amps), travel speed for autovery tight space restrictions, which may require the aid of
matedmechanized welding, preheat or interpass temperamirrors to complete the particular pipe weld. Other physitures, and typeof filler metals required.
cal problems might include weldingout-of-position, vs.
the normal horizontal-fixedor rolled position welds found
in shop welding. Some additional negative conditions
Rework
may involve moisture or contaminationin a piping system, or a difficult configuration that restricts the flow of
The welder, in many instances, has major control over
the purging gasfor piping welds.
the amount of rework. Since rework can be as high as
Another variable affecting welding rejectratedcosts is
25% of the project costs, the existence or eliminationof
the
available skilled workforce. Promotion of experienced
potential rework costs deservesa high degree of attention.
personnel into management positions, retirements, etc.,
can cause an increase in the reject rates. Replacement of
skilled personnel with inexperienced welders can be one
Fire Protection
source of higher reject ratedcosts.
Currently, it is estimated that for every hour of actual
Regardless of the location of the particular project,
welding time, a similar amount of timeis required for rejob preplanning, definition of scope, and scheduling are
essential. These should include an in-depth review of the
lated fireheat protection. These costs may include the use
of firewatch personnel and the installationof flame reapplicable fabrication specifications, drawings, material
lists, work documentation requirements, and schedules.
tardant material or cloth for protection from the welding,
Conduct meetings with the designer, shop supervisor,
or burning evolutions.
and other technical support staff to determine the proper
Finally, the company ownedmanagement is concerned
direction. A strong preplanning effort will providea solid
with all of the above and additionally: utility/labor rates,
project estimate regarding manufacturing costs and succonsumable costs, transportation, and overhead
costs. It is
cessful job accomplishment. As an example of required
very apparent why welding costs makea significant monpreplanning, determine what type of variables need to be
etary impact in the overall manufacturing costs.
evaluated prior to making decisions about utilization ofa
Now, thenextobviousquestionis,How
can these
costs be controlled, and yet provide assurances for quality particular welding process for a specific job. The AWS
Welding Handbook offers the following criteria for
weldments? Has the designer given adequate thought to
fitness for use, or has the component been overdesigned consideration:
which increases costs? The remaining portion of this section will attempt to introduce answers/suggestionsto aid
Type of welding operation to be performed.
in solving these questions.
A clear definition of what physically can and cannot
be done.
Nature of the material to be joined. Is preheating or
How to Control Costs
postweld heat treatmentrequired?
Joint geometry, thicknesses, and
parts
fitup/
Many weldments involve a combination of shop and
tolerances.
field fabrication. It is critical to understand that differWeldquality requirements.
ences exist in job preplanning through project compleSafetyrequirements: enclosures, shielding, scaffoldtion. For example, shop fabrication drawings are specific
ing, etc.
in nature, whereas drawingsfor field installation or modifications provide sectional views to show the location of
Locatiordorientation of fixturing (positioners, etc.) is
numerous components.
important.
11


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DPW-ENGL
L999
SECTION 3-PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
sary down timeto replace the spooled filler metal containers during the welding operation. Also, ordering filler
metal in large quantities, whether it be covered or bare
electrodes, decreases the basic costs per pound. Proper
planning regarding future needs of specific electrode
types, and their proper storage
is required here.
In his discussion about estimating welding costs, in

the Design of Weldments (published by the James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation), Omer W. Blodgett states
the following:
The cost of welding i s directly affected by the
amount of weld metal required.Veryfew peoplerealize the great increase in weld metal and cost that
results from a slight increase
in weld size.
AutomatiodMechanization of New or
Existing Thermal Joining Processes
Joint Designs
In a further representation of Mr. Blodgetts words, it
has been shown thata decrease of 30 in joint design bevels can result in a savings of almost 50%, which includes
the welding time, reduction infiller metal and distortion!
In the inverse scenario, anincrease in fillet weld sizes by
a factor of 50% will require a significant increase in all
the above factors. For example,an increase in fillet weld
sizes from 1/4 in. to 5/8 in. (using 1/4 in. as 100%)will
increase the labor costs by a factor of 500%! This does
not include the potential problem of weldment distortion
due to the additional welding.
Another factor involving design decisions,or joint design selections, involves the decision of when to utilize
fillet or groove welds.There is obviously a significant difference between these designs, and equally so in costs.
Based on deposited filler metal costs alone, it is evident
that for 1/2 in. plate, fillet welds are the cheapest design
per foot, but as the plate thickness increases up to three
inches, a 45 double bevel groove joint design becomes
the least expensive. The responsibility of the design engineer is very significant in controlling welding or manufacturing costs.
Following a review of joint designs, another tool that
needs to be evaluated is the applicable welding procedure/process to support fabrication. A welding procedure
provides the welding foremadwelder with the essential
welding elements including required gas shielding/flow
rates, welding current, applicable preheathnterpass temperatures, and typeof filler metals required.A careful review of available procedures/processes will afford an
opportunity to determine costs, etc.
When considering the filler metal selection, thought
should be givento using the largest diameter suitable for
the joint design, without violating heat input requirements, to improve the electrode deposition rate. Also, it
should be noted when purchasing bare filler metal
(spools) for Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Flux
Cored Arc Welding (FCAW),or Submerged Arc Welding
(SAW) processes, that the largest available spool poundage be considered if filler metal types do not need to be
frequently changed. Thiswill obviously avoid unneces-
Processing speed of parts per unit of time.

Economic requirements: initial investment and operation costs, and payback period.
Location of the automatedequipmentshouldbe
as
close to the prospective work as possible.
The pathbetween the work area and control unit
should be unobstructed.
Past experiences with similar automated equipment.
Efficientmaterialhandlingand
fixturing equipment
requirements are important with a new process and
higher production rates.
Part programming is a critical time aspect, as there is
a need for a flexible software system. The necessary
coordination between the welding and actual operation of the automated equipment is important to
achieve the desired weld quality.
12

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Another aspect of controlling manufacturing/welding

costs, although it involves long-range preplanningwith
the possibility of only long-term payback on investment,
is the introduction of automation or mechanization of
new/existing thermal joining processes. However, before
serious consideration is given to automate (i.e., use of
robots), or to mechanize specific welding processes
(GMAW, FCAW), it is critical that fabrication projects
exist to support its development. Purchase of complex
equipment is a large capital cost, not including associated
operator training, engineering support,or maintenance. A
projected return must exist. As an example, at one naval
shipyard, after a successful development program involving a new welding process (Flux Core-Twisted wire),
specific production applications were identified. Utilization of this new process resulted in major labor savings
over the previous welding method in reduced
joint design
preparation, and increased welding depositionrate. The
savings can be realized on
future thick section weldments.
In addition to the variables previously mentioned during the preplanning section regarding the utilization of
welding processes, othervariables need to be evaluated
prior to making decisions on adapting or purchasing
automated welding equipment. Additional criteria for
consideration are:
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SECTION 3-PRODUCTION WELDING
After review of the abovecriteria, one of the most crucial decisions remains: is there a high degree of assurance
that utilization of the automated welding equipment or
new processes will bring abouta positive rate of return on
the investment?
provides assurance that the quality level

for the productor
weldment is being met for critical applications.
Specific definitiondapplications of NDE are covered
in another section, however, a brief overview of the six
available nondestructive inspection/testing methods includes the following: Visual Testing (VT), Eddy Current
(ET), Magnetic Particle(MT), Dye Penetrant(PT), Radiographic (RT), and Ultrasonic Testing(UT).
Records: Accountability for

Accomplishment of Work
and Inspections
For all weldments, VT is one of the best and most

economical inspections employed. It can be accomplished quickly by qualified inspectors to verify pre or
post welding criteria including, but not limited to, adequate joint designs, weld size, appearance (contour,
cleanliness, etc.), or detection of surface flaws, (i.e., undercut, cracks, slag, etc.). Themost significant disadvantage with this method is that it cannot detect subsurface
or minute surface indications. Visual inspection of each
weld layer canensure quality, as it has been shown that if
an in-depth VT is accomplished, there can be a 35% decrease in associated NDE inspections.
Maintaining accountability for accomplishment of

work and inspection-nondestructive examination (NDE),
receipt inspections, in-process, personnel qualifications,
etc., is a tremendous, but necessary overhead cost.
Several commercial code or military codes or specifications that might be referenced on drawings or be
included in the contract provisions, require that anextensive quality control system for record origination/
retention be established. Some examples
of these required
records include:
Vendor certification of welding electrodes, or test results for compliance with the applicable specification/
receipt inspection requirements.
ET is an electromagnetic inspection method in which

small electrical currents are induced in a material. Flaws
are detected by the interruption of these currents. This
method can be used on a wide range of electro conducting materials, though the depth of inspection on ferrous materials is restricted to approximately 0.100 in. to
0.200 in., depending on the frequency used. It is excellent for measuring platingthicknesses and can be used on
painted surfaces. This is ETS main advantage over MT.
The equipmentfor this technique is not expensive, easily
suitable for automation, and the labor costs are minimal.
Records for welder/brazer/NDE operator qualifications.

In-process inspections or data collection (measurements, etc.).
MT, PT, RT,UT,
Records of casting fabrication, plates, shapes or forgings, and the applicable inspections.
Verification of thermal joining surveillance inspections.
Magnetic Particle Testing
Before bidding on a project, a thorough review of the

required records, specified by the applicable fabrication
documents, is necessary. The volume of required documentation may involve hiring of additional staff, thus increasing overhead costs.
MT can be accomplished only on ferrous materials.

This method is reasonably economical, and serves as an
excellent tool in detecting indications on joint preparations (including backgouged roots), root welding passes,
and finished weldsurfaces. Magnetic particle is basically
a surface and slightlysubsurface inspection process.
Cost Considerationsof
Nondestructive
Examination
(NDE)
Dye
Penetrant
Testing
The requirement to incorporate nondestructive testing

during the manufacturing or welding evolution isanother
cost which has dramatic impact. Utilization of this type
of
testing has great potentialfor increasing costs, however, it
There are two types of dye penetrants: liquid andfluorescent. Both types can only detect defects open to the
surface, and can be used on nonferrous and
ferrous materials. Dye penetrant inspection isrelatively economical,
13

Eddy Current Testing
Records that support test data for welding/NDE.
Records of NDEinspections(ET,
VT).
Visual Testing
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COST ANALYSIS

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although more time consuming thanMT. However, PT

requires a better surface finish than MT for satisfactory
inspection to be accomplished.
Radiographic Testing
Of the six NDE methods, radiographic inspection is
the most expensive. This nondestructive method uses the
penetrating radiation of X-rays, or the gamma rays of a
radioactive source, to penetrate a specific object to reveal
discontinuities. It is verylabor intensive for the following
reasons:
High cost of equipment and film.
Stringent controls of the radiation source.
Skilled personnel capable of producing exposed film.
Required chemical processing of the exposed film.
Trained personnel to reviewhnterpret the film.
Restriction of production efforts in the area of inspection, due tothe presence of harmful radiation.
This method can be used on most materials, and provides a permanent record
of most surface or internal defects or flaws. RT is widely utilized in inspection of pipe
and structural butt welds.
Ultrasonic Inspection
One of the most versatile NDE methods is ultrasonic
inspection. UT has several advantages including location
of internal flaws in components, and abilityto be used on
most materials. However, in termsof ease of operation, it
is fairly complex, and requires the interpretative skills of
trained technicians. In regard to cost, one individual can
operate the machine and interpret the ultrasound wave
signals. This makes UT considerably less expensive than
RT. Because UT produces no radiation, inspection areas
need not be evacuated. Thoughunable to provide a per-

manent record as the radiograph, improved equipment

provides computerized printoutsfor records.
Summary
Withever-shrinkingbudgets,andstrongcompetition
from abroad, controlling costs in the public and private
industry is a major concern. As we have seen, there are
several variables to consider when welding and related
nondestructive testing is involved. This section has attempted to describe some of the welding variables that
need to be considered. Table 3.1is a condensed review. It
is not intended to be all inclusive, rathera brief narrative
about some of the major subjects which should be reviewed. Table 3.2 is a check-off sheet of costs to remember priorto the bid process.
List
Blodgett, O. W. 1963. Design of Weldments. The James F.
Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio.
Boyer, H., ed. 1976. ASM Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Fundamentals of Quality Controland Quality Assurance.
ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio.
Cary, H. 1997. Modern Welding Technology. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Cooper, N., Davis, W. J., and Pandjiris, A. K. 1968. Know
costs then weld. Welding Journal 47(7): 561-568.
Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, sec. 12. 1973. The
Lincoln Electric Company, Cleveland,Ohio.
Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding Technology
(WHB-1.8).Miami, Ra.: American Welding Society.

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SECTION 3-PRODUCTION WELDING
COST ANALYSIS
Table 3.1
Review of Production WeldingCosts
1. Job preplanning, definition of scope, and accurate scheduling are three critical and necessary steps that must be accomplished
prior to any project bid submittal or start of production.
2. Maintaining accountability of work accomplishments or inspections via the use of formal records is a necessary overhead cost
that must be factored into the bid.
3. If at all possible, it is preferable to accomplish the majority of fabrication or welding in the shop vs. in the field.
4. Increasing fillet weld sizes beyond what is required can be detrimental. Aside from raising the filler metal and labor costs, the
additional welding may contribute to serious distortion of the weldment.
6. There are several factors that affect the efficient utilization of the many welding processes, .e., deposition rates, joint geometry, fixturing. etc. Careful considerations must be made prior to utilizing a particular welding process or mode.
7. The selection of automated equipment requires a close review of several variables, including long-term preplanning and costs.
There must be a projected positive rate of return, which will justify the capital expenditures.
8. Fireheat protection costs have significantly increased. It has been estimated that for every hour of welding time, an equal
amount of time is required for related fireheat protection.
9. Weld procedurelpersonnel qualifications pose two problems. Both are expensive, and can require considerable time to accomplish. Early identification of specific needs is required.
10. Inexperienced welders or craftsman can affect the reject rates. Maintaining a skilled workforce should be a high priority.
1 1 . Nondestructive testing during the manufacturing process has potential for increasing costs. However, it ensures that a quality
product is being produced, and may in the long run actually reduce costs.
12. The roles of the design engineer, welding engineer, supervisor, welder, etc., are all varied, with each being critical for successful project accomplishment. Joint meetings to discuss particular attributes or suspected problem areas are necessary for unified direction. The results of these meetings will decrease costs and enhance the product quality.
15

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5. Choosing the correct joint design for the particular plate thickness is very important. For example, for thicknesses over
1-1/2 in., the double bevel Tjoint design is more economical to employ than increasing the fillet weld size.
Table 3.2
Checklist of ProjectMlelding Cost Variables
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Advance planning costs; i.e., meetings, accomplishment of tasking actions, etc.
Costs of originatioddistribution of funding or work standard documents.
Cost of originatioddistribution of pertinent engineering instructions or drawings for prefabrication support.
Receipt inspection costs; i.e., issue instructions for base and filler metal inspections, etc.
Weld procedure and welder performance qualification costs.
Material and welding electrode costs.
Special equipment purchases: welding machines, fixtures, etc.
Inspection costs: in-process, nondestructive, and other, such as hydrostatic.
Estimated rework costs.
Formal record costs: origination, tracking, and retention.
Possible post weld heat treatment costs.
Costs for preparation prior to welding; i.e., base metal cleaning, joint designs, fitting, etc.
Rigging or crane costs in the movement of the materials during and after the weldments are completed.
Labor costs associated with welding, machining, casting or forging fabrications.
Distortion control costs during in-process welding, etc.
Fireheat protection costs (including labor) associated with weldinglbuming.
Final cleaning, preservation, and shipping costs.
Surveillance and audit costs.
Supervision (labor) costs.
Overhead costs (vacation, electric power, medical insurance, etc,) associated with labor and operation of the required equipment for the fabrication of weldments.


SECTION
Modular
Construction
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Contents
Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................................
18
Productivity Value ...........................................................................................................................................................
18
Dimensional Accuracy (Process Control)

......................................................................................................................
19
Preoutfitting-A Major Advantage ...............................................................................................................................
20
Designing for Zone and Preoutfitting Construction

.....................................................................................................
21
Summary .........................................................................................................................................................................
17

. 21
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SECTION 4-MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
Section 4 M o d u l a r Construction
Introduction
Optimizing Resources
Modular construction or blockconstruction was a natural evolution of large structures. It became advantageous for structures to be assembled in small blocks
followed by joining these small blocks together until the
entire structure was completed. Thismethod of construction offered new opportunities to the outfitting trades.
The assembliescould be turned overso work was at a
more convenient physicallocation and much of the welding could be flat position work. Also, machinery and
electrical components could be packaged ina less expensive shop environment and landed on the block, reducing
the field assemblytime. This conceptinitiated the movement of the design and planning functions toward the
zone outfitting approach. By implementing zone methods, the blocks could be preoutfitted
prior to erection and
joining of additional blocks.
Implementation of modular construction encompasses
more than just assembly and fabrication work,it requires
the engineering design and production work scheduling
to be an integral part.
By designingandplanning
for thezonework,the
scheduling of people and material is optimized. The
amount of time lost for material movement and relocation
of people is minimized. A crew of craftsmen can complete a work package that mayinclude portions of multiple systems withina zone,prior to shifting to a new zone.
Productivity Value
The efficiency of a work package can bedefined by a
productivity value whichis a functionof
These three variables must be balanced to obtain an

optimum productivity value. Each of rhe variables is a
function of the other two and therefore must be considered together.
Trial and Error Evaluation

System Approach
Productivity value is a unitless term that cannot be

formulated mathematically. Rather, it is an expression
that can be used to evaluate performanceby comparison.
Each work package process and operation can be evaluated by trial and error, until the optimum level of productivity is determined. This may require changes in work
package definition until the proper balance of time, resources, and quality is achieved. This process shouldbe
repeated periodically to reevaluate the productivity
value. As methods change or schedules are readjusted,
the variable balance may be shifted and the optimum
conditions may no longerbe present.
A proper review of a specific zone project must include the prior and followingoperations after the specific
zone function is complete. Theprocesses should be evaluated in relation to resources, time, and quality.
The prior
process must be included, as it establishes a baseline
Traditional methods used a systems approach to construction. For example, an entire pipe system would be
designed, planned, and scheduled for production without
consideration of the other systems that would be fabricated during thesame time and in the same location. The
systems method enables designers, material personnel,
and planners to rapidly define the production
of an entire
system.
Modular Construction
In modular construction it is essential to change from
the systems concept to a zone concept to optimize productivity. The structure and its systemsare converted into
zones. These zones define work packages that define a
quantity of work to be accomplished within boundaries.
18

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Time.
Resources.
Quality.
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SECTION 4ODULAR
condition for the measured operation. Variations in conditions from the prior process or operation will affect the
productivity variables. Similarly, the following operation
will be impacted by optimizing the evaluated process.
The quality value is a good example of the effect of
one operation on the other process steps. Each processing operation must resultin a satisfactory consistent level
of quality being passed to the following operation.
Changes in the quality variable will skew the balance of
the three productivity value components and cause lessthan-optimum conditions. Starting with a poor-quality
product prompts the allocation of additional resources to
meet schedule requirements; or when resources are not
available, additional time is used to compensate for correction of quality deficiencies. Basically, each operation
of the production process will provide a final product to
the following operation. This process provides identifiable responsibility and accountability to individuals
completing incrementally completed segments. This
customer-supplier relationship must be measured and
controlled to maintain an optimum productivity value.
system components are located by measurements from

the nearest structure in lieu of the more traditional compartment or ship centerline. In addition, forcing structural block dimensional control, this now requires the
matching blocks to consider the alignment of the distributive systems (i.e., electrical systems) in addition to the
structural members.
Deviations from nominal values can become cumulative and the larger block connections must be monitored
for dimensional accuracy to ensure proper alignment. In
some cases, this will force the use of less than the traditional tolerances. Process control is necessary to ensure
that a zoneapproach to outfitting is successful.
Accuracy Control Program
An importanttoolfor
controlling processperformance in structural fabrication is an accuracy control
program. With the use of statistical process controls,
variations in process parameters canbe identified and the
causes evaluated.
Two of the more common methods of displaying the
data for accuracy control measurements are the histogram and the process control chart. Each of these methods utilizes basic statistical analysis.
Dimensional Accuracy (process Control)

Successful preoutfitting is greatly dependent on structural dimensional accuracy. Proper implementation of
these advanced concepts requires all structural members
and platforms tobe within predetermined tolerances. The
20 MEASUREMENTS
CONSTRUCTION
(1) Histogram. Figure 4.1is a typical histogram. The

data shown represent a series of actual measurements
ALL DIMENSIONS
IN INCHES
I
-1
.o
-0.5
+0.5
+1 .o
ZERO VARIANCE
FROM DESIGN
Figure 4.1-Typical Histogram
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19
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SECTION 4"ODULAR
CONSTRUCTION
sure that productivity is being improved andthe effects

on baseline performance can be determined.
An accuracy control program providesessential information for successful implementation of modular construction. When sequencing work byzones, it is essential
that the systems continuing from one zone to another
properly align at the boundaries. The structure must be
accurate and within predefined tolerances to ensure that
the matching systems in two zones are within dimensional tolerances to allow for proper connections.
taken over a period of time. By collecting the data in the

histogram format, the variations in the process can be
collected and displayed toprovide ameaningful analysis.
The histogram can beusedto approximate a "bell
curve." The bell curve is a standard statistical representation of predictable variations in a process. By utilizing
the bell curve, normal process inconsistencies can be
estimated and a process can be evaluated to determine
the frequency and magnitude of deviation from performance to established tolerances.
( 2 ) Process ControlCharts. The process control

chart shown in Figure 4.2 is another tool that is used to
measure the performance of a continuous process. The
chart is used to monitor an operationby comparing measured accuracy to the accuracy predicted by statistical
methods. The variation between the upper and lower
control limits are normal and are expected. Excursions beyond the limits are unusual and should be investigated to
determine the cause. Adjustments inthe process canactually move the upper and lowercontrol limits under controlled conditions, thus redefining normal performance.
Other similar types of charts can be used to assist in
monitoring process performance with statistical controls.
These methods are valuable tools for management decisions. By implementing a control program, process performance can be measured numerically anddecisions no
longer need to be based solely on management impressions. Changes in each process can be measured to en-
Preoutfitting-A Major Advantage

One of the most important benefits of modular construction methods is the opportunity to implement preoutfitting work. The objective of this approach is to
minimize the outfitting work after erection. Very thorough planningand scheduling is required to optimize this
effort. When outfitting does not follow zone preoutfitting
concepts, the result may be the erection of empty steel
assemblies, which then require the more expensive conventional methods ofinstalling the distributive systems.
Scheduling andImproved Work Environment

Production defines several objectives of this planning
effort. By advance planning, much of the fitting and
welding operations can be scheduled to allow flat
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
UPPER
CONTROL
LIMIT
PROCESS
AVERAGE
LOWER
CONTROL
LIMIT
- i.5 l
0
.
1
O
2
L
4
H
5
+
6
H
7
H
1
J
0
TIME UNITS
Figure 4.2-Process Control Chart

20
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SECTION 4ODULAR
position welding and horizontal fillets. As this positioning will allow greater use of mechanized and semiautomatic welding processes, laborwill be reduced and
productivity will be increased. Additionally, the quality
of the work will be enhanced.
By early zone planning, components can be identified
so that different typesof work can be scheduled and kept
separate at the earliest manufacturing operation. This
will simplify the manning andscheduling problems associated with multiple-operation manufacturing.
Another objective is to schedule work in uncongested
and more efficient work locations, rather than havingoperators perform their tasks in enclosed, high or narrow
sites. Quality and productivity will be enhanced by this
planning effort which incorporates important production
personnel needs to accomplish their work efficiently.
The time span for a production zone work package
can be reduced by scheduling multiple tasks, which are
not in conflict with each other, to be performed at the
same time. This objective must consider work area space
allowances to ensure that craftsmen have sufficient room
to perform their tasks without interfering with other
work. Similarly, compatible tasks can be scheduled to be
performed in unison, and considerations of conflicting
efforts must be discouraged. For example, it is not effcient to have a blast or paint operation being performed
in the same zone asa pipe-fitting operation.
and zone approach to design. For example, with a zone

approach to design, systems arrangement drawings can
be eliminated. Also, material lists canbe generated to
support the zone construction method.
Advancements in the use of computer-aided design
(CAD) will soon permit a design to be made with the traditional systems approach andthen be converted to a
zone configuration. This will maintain the advantages of
a system design methodology. From this base, the CAD
programming will enable a designerto define zones of a
structure and the applicable portions of each system will
be broken down into these zones. This will gain the benefits of a zone design conceptwithout a large amount of
duplication of effort.
Summary
To reapthebenefitsofthis
construction method,
changes in many areas must be considered:
The design effort must support a zone approach.

Planning must be directed toward a zone work package that is producible, to ensure the proper balance of
the key variables (time, resources, and quality).
An accuracy control program must be implemented to
adequately monitor the fabrication process to ensure
that the blocks and distributive systems align properly.
(1) A higherpercentage
of shop fabrication and
assembly.
(2) Less congestion andworker
interference for
structure installation.
Effective use of modular construction must incorporatedesign efforts that enhance zonedefinition for material and productionplanning. Design by system has value
in defining the capability of each functional individual
system and in demonstrating the location and path of the
distributive systems. However, the optimum base of zone
planning and work packages requires a zone approach to
design.
Implementation of preoutfitting will not be optimized
without the corollary design package. As stated in the
introduction, there are differences between the systems
(3) Reduction in lost material.

(4)Less on-site rigging and material handling.
(5) Less on-site cleaning and
reduction
in
fire
hazards.
(6) Improved worlung conditions on the assemblies.
If properly implemented, preoutfittingandmodular
construction will be cost effective and improve quality
and productivity.
21
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Some of the benefits of preoutfitting include:
Designing for Zoneand Preoutfitting

Construction

CONSTRUCTION
I
SECTION
Welding Process
Selection
Contents
Common Welding Processes
...........................................................................................................................................
24
Process Selection............................................................................................................................................................
24
SMAW...............................................................................................................................................................................
26
GMAW .............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
FCAW .............................................. ..................................................................................................................................
SAW ..............................
28
................................................................................................................................................... 29
GTAW ........_.................I............................,.,..................................,.,.,..............................................................................30
Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................... 32
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SECTION +WELDING
PROCESS SELECTION
Section 5- Welding Process Selection
Common Welding Processes

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The most common welding processes used in

industry
involve arc welding. The electric arc is a very effective
and portable heat source for melting most metals quickly.
When the base metal and filler metal become molten,
they mix together then solidify to produce one solid
piece. Most welding processesutilize a consumableelectrode, which conductsthe welding current and melts as it
is continuously fed into the arc and deposited into the
joint. The most common manual arc welding process is
the Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) process (see
Figure 5. l), in which a fixed length of electrode is hand
fed into the joint. Typical semi-automatic arc welding
processes includethe Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
process (see Figure 5.2) and the Flux Cored Arc Welding
(FCAW) process (see Figure 5.3), which automatically
feed a spooled electrodefiller wire into the joint while
the welder manipulates the torch manually. The Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) process (see Figure 5.4) is
an automatic processwhereby both filler wire and travel
speed are controlled by the machine which runs along a
preset track. The Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
process (see Figure 5.5) uses a nonconsumabletungsten
electrode to establish an arc in the weld joint, and typically, a separate hand-held filler wire is melted inthe arc
and depositedin the joint.
The molten weld pool created with all arc processes
must be shielded from oxidationand contamination during the welding process. SMAW electrodes have a thick
dry flux coating, whichcreates a gasshield and also provides many of the alloying elements to the weld. The
SAW process obtains shielding and alloying witha similar type of dry flux in a granular form that coversthe
welding arc and molten pool. Spooled FCAW electrodes
also use a dry flux contained in the center of a tubular
wire and typically obtain additional shielding from an
inert gas shield similar to the GMAW process. Both
GMAW and GTAW utilize inert shielding gases that flow
around the molten weld pool, while all alloying
elements
are supplied by the wire electrode alone. For each pro-
cess the weld metal composition is an alloy combination

of filler metal and remelted base metal. Weld metal composition varies with each process. Itis diffkult to predict
weld metal composition since many elements are diluted
when crossing the welding arc.
Figures 5.1-5.5 describethemostcommonwelding
processes and summarize their advantages and limitations.
Process Selection
When selecting a welding process for a specific application, several factors that affect productivity and weld
quality must be balanced. This can become a complicated decision, due to the number of conflicting advantages and disadvantages which each process possesses in
each situation.
Productivity is usually a very important consideration
on most jobs. The depositionrate is a significant part of
this factor. Each process can be ranked in terms
of its deposition rate in pounds of weld metal deposited per hour.
However, there are other factors that must be considered.
For example, it usually takes time for a shop to become
familiar with a new welding process, new equipment, or
even a new brand of filler metal. Until adequate training
and acceptance by the shop personnelare accomplished,
the actual productivity rate will be less than the average.
Reject rates also have a significant impact on actual productivity, since a considerable amount of time is required
to remove defective weld metal, replace it, and reinspect
it. Therefore, many factors must be taken
into account before determining which is the best process for a specific
application. Process selection must be made by someone
who is very familiar not only with the various processes,
but more importantly with the shopscapabilities and the
job requirements. As a minimum, the following items
should be considered prior to selecting
a welding process.
Base Metal Type

Some processes are better suited tocertain base materials than others. The maximum heat input must be
24

SECTION %WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
Availability of Equipment
limited on some types of materials, i.e., quenched, tempered, age-hardened, and other heat-treated or coldworked materials. Processes that derive their advantage
from high productivity and high heat input may be limited for theseapplications.
Most large welding shops have access to the welding

equipment required for the processes discussed. There are
times, however, whennew equipment mustbe evaluated to
determine if the increased productivity or versatility would
offset the initial cost and training.
Joint Design and Thickness

As the section thickness increases, welding productivity becomes more important.If possible, the process selection should reflect this. The length of the weld must also
be taken into account, since a higher-productivity process
may not realize this advantage-particularly if the operator has to frequently stop the process toset up for the next
pass, as would be necessary with a small repair. Since
some processes require more access to the joint root to
avoid lack of fusion defects, the selection of some processes may also requirea joint design change.
Fabrication and Inspection Standards

Most welding and inspection is governed by welding
standards that often limit the use of some processes on
certain materials, and also may limit the maximum heat
input used to ensure that specific mechanical properties
are met. A high-productivity process suchas SAW would
lose much of its advantage if the heat input were restricted down to the range achievable by GMAW.
Table 5.1 is a general comparison guide for the most
commonly used processes in the industry, relative to
some of the factors discussed above. While some of the
ratings are subjective, they do provide a general cornparison for many applications.
It can be seen from this
chart that many variables must
be taken into account when selecting the best welding
process for a given job. In practice, it takes experience to
identify and accurately weigh all of the variables involved. Some factors, such as the attitude and perception
of shop employees toward a new process or procedure
change, may be more difficultto analyze than others.
Anotherfactorcomplicatingprocessselection
is the
rapid change brought on by the computer age, which is
taking place in the electrical power sources used for arc
welding. It takes a considerable amountof study to take
full advantage of the wide variety of machines available
today and all of thefunctions each one is capable of performing. TheGMAW and FCAW processes are probably
the most influenced by these advances, in the form of
synergic power sources that manipulate the waveform
of
the welding current through complex electrical circuits.
These advanced machines automatically adjust all of the
waveform parameters to optimize the mode
of metal transfer across the arc with simple operator controls. Since productivity and weld quality are greatly affected by many
aspects of the metal transfer across the arc, these machines
offer a significant advantage over the previous generations
of power sources.
Welding Position
The weld joint position plays a very important part
when selecting a process, since many processes are limited to onlya few positions. Whenever possible, thejoint
should be in the flat position, since the highest productivity and weld qualityare attained when weldingis accomplished in this position. Since most repair work is done
on large weldments that cannot be repositioned and access to the joint is limited, use of high-productivity processes and filler materials is limited.
The four basic welding positions are: flat, horizontal,
vertical, and overhead, as shown in Figure
5.6.
Environmental Conditions
Wind and rain are the two field conditions that typically affect welding. It takes very
little wind to disturb the
gas shield that is critical for high-quality GMAW and
GTAW welding. This restricts their use outside of sheltered containments. The SMAW and FCAW processes
can also be affected by wind, but to a lesser degree. No
process is tolerantof direct rain. Proper placement of
tarps, dams, or other temporary containments can rectify
this situation. Due to the many problems associated with
welding outside (i.e., being exposed to the elements or
cramped inside of a structure), shop prefabrication is recommended where practical. Studies have shown that reject rates for field welding increased from 100% to
greater than 400% over those forshop welding.
25
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SECTION 5-WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
SMAW
ELECTRODE COVERING
Shielded metal arc welding is a manual arc welding

process. A covered electrode is used to deposit the filler
metal and supply shielding to the molten weld pool. The
12-in. to 18-in. long electrode has a dry flux coating that
decomposes in the arc to form a gas shield and a solid
slagcoveringonthecooledweld
deposit. The flux coating often provides alloying and deoxidizing elements.
/",
SHIELDING ATMOSPHER
METAL AND SLAG
WELD
DIRECTION OF WELDING
Limitations
Advantages
Higher potential for weld contamination than for other

processes.
All-position capability.
Many alloys are weldable.
Welding is frequently interrupted due to the short, fixed

length of electrodes.
Thick sections are weldable.
The process creates spatter and smoke fumes and leaves

a slag that must be removedbefore the next layer can be
deposited.
Excellent for field and repair work.
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Equipment is simple, low cost, low maintenance, and is

easy to set up.
Good accessibility in space-restricted areas.
Not suitable for thin material but issuitable for thin-wall

repairs on thick material.
Arc visibility is good.
Poor usability for aluminum and most bronzes.
The process is fairly tolerantof environmental conditions.
Special electrode care is required since most fluxcoatings absorb moisture.
Electrode travel, which helps to control heat input, is

required.
Foreign material exclusion for nuclear applications is

poor.
Severe arc blow can be a problem when using direct
current (dc)
Figure 5.1Chielded Metal Arc Welding
26

GMAW
~~~
Gasmetalarcwelding
is a semiautomatic or automatic process. A small-diameter, continuous consumable
electrode is melted in the arc and deposited in the joint.
Shielding is provided by a gas that flows through the
weld torch. Depending on the amperage and wave form
used, four modesof metal transfer are possible: short circuiting, globular, pulsed spray, and spray transfer.
CONSUMABLE
'WELD
METAL
I
Advantages
Limitations
High-quality welds.
Gas shielding is easily disturbed duringfield work.
H.igh deposit rates (three times that

of SMAW).
Handling gas bottles for field work can be expensive.
Most metals are weldable.
Equipment is complicated and expensive.
Minimal stub loss.
Flash bums easily obtained.
All-position welding with someGMAW processes.
Excessive weld spatter with COz, shielding.
No slag removal and minimum interpass cleaning.
Not used for thin metals except with pulsed spray and
short-circuit transfer welding.
Limited accessibility.
Good weld puddle visibility.

Spray transfer limited to the flat position.
Restriction on the use
of short circuiting transfer welding.
Figure 5.2-Gas
Metal Arc Welding
27

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Easily adapted to robotics.
STDeAWS DPW-ENGL 1999 E 07842b5 05L952b 622

SECTION >WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
FCAW
WIRE GUIDE AND
CONTACT TUBE
Flux cored arc welding usesequipment

similar to GMAW. The main difference is
that the electrode is atubular wire with a
flux core. Some electrodes provide adequate shielding with the flux core alone,
but others require the addition of gas
shielding.
SHIEUJING GAS
TUBULAR ELECTRODE
POWDERED METAL,
ANDSLAG
SLAG
/ FLUXAND
FORMING MATERIALS
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L WELDPOOL
ARC AND METAL

TRANSFER
Limitations
Advantages
Large single-pass fillets possible.
Large amounts of smoke and fumes.
Tolerant of mill scale.
Weld spatter can clognozzles.
Self-shielded process is good

for field work.
Self-shielded process has lower-quality welds than external gas shielded.
High deposition rates possible.

Flash bums easily obtained.
All-position welding possible.
Slag coatingmust be removed betweenlayers.
Less joint preparation required than forSMAW and
GTAW.
The flux core is susceptible to moisture pickup, which

may cause porosity and worm tracks.
Good penetration with gas shielding.

Equipment is bulky, and accessibility can bea problem.
Equipment is complicated and expensive.
Figure 5.3-Flux Cored Arc Welding
28

SAW
Submerged arc welding is very similar to
GMAW exceptthe weldpool is shielded,
deoxidized, and alloyed with a granulated
flux that melts in the arc. The flux is fed
through a hopper and a guide tube and deposited in the joint ahead of the welding arc.
Two or more electrode wires can be used in
tandem or metal powders can be added toincrease deposition rate toobtain optimum mechanical properties.
Slag
Metal
Weld
Metal
Weld
Path
Direction of Travel
High deposition rates.
Welding positions limited to flat and horizontal.
Excellent weld quality.
Limited to ferrous metals and high-nickel alloys(no agehardenable alloys).
No flash bums.
Best suited to long welds and thicksections.
Less angular weld distortion.
Weld appearance excellent.
Special care required for the flux, since it absorbs moisture easily.
Maintenance
relatively
Slag
unfused
and
low.
removed.
flux
bemust
Smoke and fume quantities are low.
High toughness properties are hard toobtain.
Penetration is excellent.
Joint fit-up and design are critical to penetration control.
Less
joint preparation.
I
Figure 5.4-Submerged Arc Welding
29

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Limitations
Advantages
weld
____t
SECTION 5-WELDING PROCESS
SELECTION
GTAW
4
DIRECTION OF WELDING
Gas tungsten arc welding is a gas shielded manual or

automatic process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten
electrode to establish the arc. The filler metal is added to
the weld pool separately. Shielding of the weld pool and
electrode is provided by predominately inert gases. Autogenous welding (no filler wire added) is possible with
some materials.
ELECTRODE
SHIELDING GAS IN
COLLET BO
GAS NOZZLE
NONCONSUMABLE TUNGSTEN
GAS SHIELD
FILLER METAL
LlDlFlED
WELD METAL
WELD METAL
Limitations
Advantages
Lower deposition rates compared to SAW, GMAW, or

SMAW.
Excellent arc visibility.

Precise filler metal placement.
High-amperage, water-cooled torches are heavier and

bulkier than air-cooledtorches.
The best undercut control.
Both hands must be used to hold

the torch and filler wire,
which limits accessibility.
Wide rangeof thicknesses canbe welded.

Very clean welds can be achieved withno significant slag,
spatter, or smoke.
Shielding gas is easily disturbed by gusts of wind.
Excellent weld quality on most metals.
Flash burns are easily obtained.
Amperage can be controlled by remote foot or hand

switches.
Very limited for outdoor field work.

Difficult to monitor heat input.
The process can be used either manual or automatic.

All-position welding possible.
Filler metal is not always required.
Figure 5.5-Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
30
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SECTION 5-WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
(B) HORIZONTAL
EAD
(D)
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1
(C) VERTICAL
Figure 5.6-Four Primary Welding Positions
Table 5.1
Process Comparison Chart
SMAW
GTAW
GMAW
FCAW
SAW
Good
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Excellent
Fair
Poor
Good
Good
Excellent
Excellent
Poor
Fair
Excellent
Poor
Equipment Maintenance
Low
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
SmokelFumes
High
Low
Medium
High
Very Low
Excellent
Poor
Good
Good
Satisfactory
Good
Excellent
Satisfactory
Satisfactory
Poor
Satisfactory
Excellent
Good
Good
Fair
Process
Quality
Deposition Rate
Field Work
Heat Input Control

Arc Visibility and Filler Metal Placement
Variety of Metals Weldable
31

SECTION 5-WELDING
PROCESS SELECTION
"_
. The Everyday Pocket Handbook f o r Shielded

Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) (PHB-7). Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society.
List
American Welding Society. Recommended Practices for
Gas Metal ArcWelding ( 0 . 6 ) . Miami, Ha.: American
Welding Society.
. The Everyday Pocket Handbook

for Gas Metal Arc
Welding (GMAW) and Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW}
(PHB-4). Miami,Ha.: American Welding Society.
. Recommended Practices for GasTungsten Arc

Welding (C5.5).Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
. Welding Processes and Practices (WPP). Miami,

Ha.: American Welding Society.
. Recommended Practices for Laser Beam Welding, Cutting, and Drilling (C7.2). Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 2, Welding Processes (WHB-2.8). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
Society.
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32
STDaAWS DPW-ENGL 1999 m 07842b5 05B953L T9T m
SECTION
Primary Concepts
of Welding Design
Contents
Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................................
34
What the Designer Should

Know about Welding.........................................................................................................
34
Service Requirements......................................................................................................................................................
34
Base Metal Selection

........................................................................................................................................................ 35
Welds Create a Discontinuity in the Base Material
...................................................................................................... 35
Weld vs Base Metal Properties

......................................................................................................................................
35
Welds Rarely Improve upon Base Metal Properties

....................................................................................................
35
Keep Weldment Designs Simple

.....................................................................................................................................
35
Standardize Component Welding

Design ...................................................................................................................... 35
Minimize the Numberof Welds ......................................................................................................................................
35
Location of Welds ............................................................................................................................................................ 36

Weld Deposit Mechanical Properties.............................................................................................................................
Joint Designs-Amount
36
and Type of Weld ................................................................................................................... 36
Partial Penetration Welds ...............................................................................................................................................
36
Full Penetration Welds .................................................................................................................................................... 38

Fillet Welds.......................................................................................................................................................................
39
Design Considerations for Changeof Cross Sections................................................................................................... 39

Residual Stress-Fact
or Fiction? .................................................................................................................................. 40
Summary for Improved Fabrication

Design .................................................................................................................
40

33
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STDOAWS DPW-ENGL 1999 9 07842b5 05L9532 92b

SECTION GPRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
Section 6-Primary Concepts of Welding Design
Introduction
Service Requirements
Inexperienced engineers frequently believethat

if
their design can be conveyedto paper as a drawing, it can
be welded. Welding is the most common means of joining two pieces of metal, but it requires special consideration if it is to be done economically.What appears to be
a good design on a computeror drawing board may be a
disaster when it hits the production floor if the fabrication requirements are not properly considered. Using
quenched and tempered steel in a complex design for
strength-to-weight savings may appear to provide cost
savings. However it may be more expensive to fabricate
than heavier section mild steel.
The term designer is used in this section to address
any engineer, technician, draftsman, or other person issuing instructions regarding metal fabrication requirements. These individuals are engineering type employees
with cognizance of structural, machinery, piping, and
pressure vessel fabrication. The intent of this section is
not to provide detailed weldingdesign information but to
provide basic welding design concepts. Recommended
reading is provided atthe end of this manualfor more detailed information on welding design specifics,
Service requirements are the first item that must be

clear in the designers mind before making welding design decisions. Welding decisions will be less than fully
adequate without clear definition of the service requirements, and the weldment may be subject to premature,
in-service failures.
Service requirementsmaybevery
simpleor quite
complex. Weldments experience high and low temperatures, high pressures and stresses, corrosive environments, and fatigue and impact loading. Often more than
one of these conditions is involved simultaneously.
The designer should consider
only the service requirements that make the weldment(the combination of weld,
HAZ and base metal) suitable for the expected service.
Some of the service requirements the designer may consider are:
Tensile, compressive, and shear stresses and strains.
Corrosion resistance.
Erosion resistance.
Abrasion resistance.
Impact resistance (stress and temperature dependent).
Creep strength.
Temperature (high and low temperature).
Fatigue resistance.
Aesthetics (color match, anodizing, appearance).
What the Designer ShouldKnow

About Welding
It is rarethat a designer wouldbeconcernedwith

more than a few of these service requirements for a specific design.
It is poor practice to seek to achievecertain properties
from a weldment, based upon the materials ability to
achieve these properties, even though the properties are
not related to the service. If a quenched and tempered
materia1 is used for its strength-to-weight ratio properties, and impact loading is not of concern, the designer
should not impose requirementsof impact propertiesjust
because the material used has the ability to achieve high
impact resistance. If 300 Series stainless steel is used
because of its high-temperature yield and oxidation
Weldingdesignmustnotbebasedon
isolating the
weld alone. The designermust understand how the weld
and the heat-affected zone (HAZ) next to the weld will
affect the structures service. Many factors influence the
effect of the weld on a structures performance including
the filler metal type, the welding process andparameters,
and how and where the filler metal is placed in the structure. It is essential for the design engineer to review the
actual production site prior to and during fabrication, and
to review the finished product. This provides some practical perspective to weld design that would be missed if
the designer were primarily an analytical type.
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34
SECTION &PRIMARY
resistance, as required i n steam boilers, the designer

should not be concerned about weld sensitization of the
base metal during fabrication. In many cases, boilercomponents Will operate in the sensitizing temperature range
in service anyway.
Base Metal Selection
CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
Allowable stress.
High-temperatureservice.
Impactloading.
Fatigueloading.
Leaktightness.
Corrosionresistance.
Welds Rarely Improve upon

Base Metal Properties
Weldments should be madefrom the most economical

and readily weldable base metals available that are suitable for in-service requirements. Mild steel is much less
expensive to purchase andto fabricate than the quenched
and tempered steel alloys or the heat-treatable steels and
will usually require considerably less rework. Steels designed for special applications frequently require preheat, and interpass temperature controls during welding,
and sometimes stress relief. Special electrodes and electrode care may also be required. Since fabrication is
much more expensive with quenched and tempered
steels, special consideration should be givento their use.
From a design
prospective,
in
some instances,
quenched and tempered steels offer little advantage. Fatigue stress ranges are not improved with these steels,
only the maximum allowable fatigue stress
or static loads.
If complete reversal of service stress is expected, these
steels offer little advantage for fatigue. These steels also
have lower buckling stabilityfor similar cross sections of
mild steel, because they are typically used for higher
loads and will most likely require additional stiffening.
As comparedtobasemetals,weldswill
weldment to have:
cause the
Keep Weldment Designs Simple

Weldment design should be kept as simple as possible.
Weldments that involve multiple crossing of stiffeners on
the same plane, multiple intersecting I beams, or complex patterns of stress flow should be minimized. Complex designs are expensive to fabricate and can lose
serviceability, due to high residual stress and distortion.
Complex designs also limit welding access and may
cause
the inability to meet post-weld inspection requirements.
Standardize Component Welding

Design
The designer always must keep in mind that a weld

does not create a monolithic structure that has uniform
properties throughout. Welds do not act the same as the
base metal and they have different properties. Weldsare,
in fact, a discontinuity (a stress riser) in the structurecaused by their metallurgical, chemical, and mechanical
property differences. Because welds are different than
the base metal, they must be given special design consideration.
Standardization of design is necessary for automation

and mass production of similar items. Standardization
also reduces engineering analysis time and may include
complete foundations, stiffeners, pad eyes, weldjoint designs, or even the size and shape of structural members.
Unique welding processes, specialty items, varied member size, and different materials are not economical in
terms of fabrication or engineering time to analyze each
structure. Standard design details will simplify fabrication and reduce costs.
Weld vs. Base Metal Properties

~
Welds are usedto join base metalsbecausethey are

economical, have high joint efficiencies, and reliability
relative to other fabrication processes. Service areas
where welds can perform favorably toward base metals
are:
~the Number
i
~ ofi Welds
~
~
Welding and its related processing is one of the most

expensive operations in fabrication. Shaping plate by
pressing or breaking is usually preferable to welding one
35
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The weld is a discontinuity which is both a geometric

and metallurgical notch that decreases the suitability for
service below thatof the base metal alone.
Welds Create a Discontinuity

in the Base Material

Lower fatigue resistance than the base metal.

Lower impact properties than the base metal.
Higher residual stress than the base metal.
SECTION G P R I M A R Y CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
or more pieces of plate together. Reducing the number

of
component parts by improving the design or purchasing
standard shapesis usually more economical than welding.
Location of Welds
than the welding filler metal specification requirements.

In production the weld metal properties are dependent
upon the base metal chemistry, how muchit hasbeen diluted into the weld metal, and the rate of weld metal
cooling. The cooling rate of the weld can also affect the
mechanical properties of the weld and the heat-affected
zone. The coolingrate can bedrastically affected by base
metal type andthickness, the amount of weld deposit, the
technique used todeposit the filler metal, and the temperature of the base metal prior to each weld pass (Le., the
preheat and interpass temperature). In general the designer should use the lowest possible yield strength filler
metal compatible with the design.
Designers will frequently use filler metals that produce a deposit that exceeds base metal properties. Often
these higher-strength deposits, in combination with the
base metal HAZ, result in the weldment having:
From a design point of view, a structures ability to

carry service loads is only as good as the weakest part of
the structure. In most cases, the weakest link is the weld
deposit and the localized effects on the structure (especially for fatigue applications). The allowable loadsthat
welds are permitted to carry are determined in many instances by a standard or code to which the item is fabricated. Examples of such controlling codes are the AWS
Dl. 1, Structural Welding Code-Steel, and the American
Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Code.
Welds should be locatedaccording to the cost of mak* Decreased fatigue resistance.
ing the weldment, inspection requirements and the service requirements.
impact Decreased
resistance.
Becausewelds represent a metallurgicalnotchand are
Increaseddistortion.
Increased base metal crackingstress risers, welds should be kept in the lowest stressed
Increased amounts of residual stress.
areas as practical. When fatigue, impact, or creep is a primary concern, the welds should be placed in low-stressed
Increased costs.
areas.
Whenpossible, the designer should arrange for the
welds to be made inthe flat position. The most economiJoint Designs-Amount and Type of
cal, fastest and highest-quality weld is achieved in the
Weld
flat position with standard welding processes. Flat position welding with simple designs allows high deposition
The type and direction ofloading of the weldment
rate mechanized, semiautomatic, or automatic welding
will determine the type and amount of weld. The least
processes at substantial cost and time savings.
amount of weld should be used to meet the necessary
deThe location ofweldsshouldalwaysprovidethe
sign service requirements. Specific weld joint design sewelder easy and openaccess. The most costly welds to
lection is discussed by another section of this manual.
make are predominately those where proper welding acHowever, it will sufficeto say the primary reasons for secess has not been providedfor by the designer.If welding
lecting a joint designare to provide the desired service
access is difficult, then Nondestructive Examination
requirements (i.e., the ability to accommodate service
(NDE) will usually be difficult,as will any necessary folstresshtrain and corrosion) andto accommodate welder
low up repairs. Snipes or rat holes should be as
large as
accessibility.
practical to provide access for welding and NDE.
There are many other secondary factors thataffect
Designsshouldavoidwelding
across flanges under
joint design selection, such as available processes and
tension as drastic reductions to allowable service loads
skill levels, cost, aesthetics, environmental conditions,
are imposed by most codes.
system status, base metal thickness and properties, location of the weld, position of the weld, the number of
Avoid welds on edges of members subject to tensile
fatigue. Edges of members subject to tensile loads usuwelds, the schedule of the project, etc.
ally experience higher loads than the rest of the member
and, since a weld acts as a stress riser, premature failure
of a componentcould occur due to unanticipated loads.
Partial Penetration Welds
A partial penetration weld is a weld that intentionallv

does notcompletelypenetratethroughthe
thickness of a
joint (see Figure 6.1). Partial penetration welds can often
be used for tension, compression, and shear stresses that
act parallel to the longitudinal axis of a weld and for
Weld Deposit Mechanical Properties

The as-depositedmechanical properties of a weld in a
fabrication should always be considered to be different
36
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9 07842b50539535b35
SECTION &PRIMARY CONCEPTS
SECTION
CROSS
E
OF WELDING DESIGN
WELD
o
\
WELD CROSS SECTION
SYMBOL
WELD CROSS SECTION
SYMBOL
WELD CROSS SECTION
SYMBOL
Figure 6.1-Partial Joint Penetration with Joint Geometry Optional
37

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314
STD.AWS DPW-ENGL 1999 E 07842b5 051953b 5 7 1 E

SECTION &PRIMARY CONCEPTS
OF WELDING DESIGN
Full Penetration Welds
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compression loads normal to a weld (see Figure 6.2).

Making full penetration welds on very thick material for
these types of loads can cause higherresidual stress than
the anticipated service loads. In some cases, particularly
on heavy sections, weld failures will be experienced during fabrication before service loads are imposed. Often
welds that are subject toshear stresses can be designed to
be 50% efficient, thereby allowing partial penetration
joint designs orlower-strength welds to be used.
Welding defects thatareplaced
in compression or
shear while in service are much less critical than those
placed in tension by service loads. In a practical sense,
partial penetration welds have crackstarters and continuous lack of fusion conditions at their roots. Openroots of
partial penetration weldsmay be subjectto crevice corrosion. They should not be used in corrosive environments
unless the metal is resistant to crevice corrosion. These
joints have poor resistance to fatigue and impact loading,
and they should not be used whenthe weld roots are subject to transverse cyclic tensionor bending tension loads.
Partial penetration welds are less expensive and cause
less distortion thanfull penetration welds.
A full penetration weld penetrates through the thickness of a joint (see Figure 6.3). Groove weldsare used on
butts, corners, and tees. Full penetration welds should be
used only where requiredby the design service requirements. Services involving high shock, high temperatures,
axial or bending cyclic loading (fatigue), and pressure
vessels often require full penetration welds. Fullpenetration welds are expensive, often cause the largest distortion and have high residual stress. However, they are
permitted the highest allowable stresses for design service by all codes.
Full penetration welds on heavy sections require special joint design consideration to minimizeresidual stress
and the possibility of cracking and lamellar tearing (see
Figure 6.4). Mild steel structural plate has low ductility
through its thickness and it cannot accommodate high
through thickness strains. Lamellar tearing and cracking
of the base metal adjacent tothe weld is a common result
of poor weldingjoint details on heavy structural steels.
t
PARTIAL JOINT PENETRATION
GROOVE WELD
FILLET WELD
PARTIAL PENETRATION
GROOVE WELD
Figure 6.2-Compression and Tension Loads for Partial PenetrationWelds

38

,
"
-
NOTE OVERLAP
r NOTE OVERLAP OF 1/8
Figure 6.3-Full Penetration Groove Welds

--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fillet Welds
penetration, the actual mechanical properties of the weld

deposit and HAZ, the amountof weld reinforcement, and
the actual failure path. These varying conditions lead to
some conservative positions by design engineers. However, it is extremely rare that fillet welds resultin service
failures unless unanticipated service fatigue or impact
loads are experienced. Great care should be taken by designers in not applying liberal safety factors and oversizing fillet welds. Oversize fillet welds are very expensive and can result in excessive distortion, welding time,
filler metal, and possibly the need for flame straightening. Fillet weld sizing formulas and tables can be found
in AWS D l . 1, Structural Welding Code-Steel, or see
AWS Design Handbook for Calculating Fillet Weld Size.
Fillet welds are generally triangular in cross section

and are used to join two relatively perpendicular sections. Small fillet welds result in low residual stress and
weld distortion. A 5/16-in. fillet weld can be readily
achieved in one pass.
Larger fillets will require a minimum of three passes,
which greatly increases the cost of welding.
If possible, it
is better to keep the fillet size down to one pass and
extend the length of the weld to achieve joint efticiency.
The smallest typical production welds are generally
1/8-in. fillet welds, because a 1/16-in. fillet weld isnearly
impossible to produce. Since fillet welds are used primarily in shear, they are unlikely to propagate weld defects
into failures except under fatigue service applications.
Intermittentfilletweldsandcontinuousfilletwelds
made from one side only should be avoided where fatigue, corrosion, or debris and contamination traps are a
concern.
One of the common mistakes of engineers is that they
will frequently increase the fillet weld by one size
(1/16 in.) above their calculated values to play it safe. It
also is not uncommon for production personnel to be
conservative and go oversize due to increased attention
being given to visual inspection. Increasing fillet weld
sizes by two sizes (1/8 in.) has the potential of increasing
welding time, distortion, and cost of filler metals by
more than 100%.
Fillet weld sizing is not strictly based on engineering
calculations that are backed up by extensive laboratory
tests. The various codes and standards each have different requirements based on different theories and assumptions. Laboratory tests and calculations can also vary by
the selection of the welding process, the depth of weld
Design Considerations for Change of

Cross Sections
One of the fundamental errors made by design engineers is not allowing for stress and strain to take place
through gradual changes of the cross section. Failures
commonly occur as a result of thermal and/or mechanical
fatigue associated with rapid changes of the cross section.
Changes of the cross section must be gradual in both the
weld metal and the base metal when fatigue isof primary
concern (see Figures 6.5 and 6.6). It is preferable to have
changes in the cross section take place in the base metal
instead of in the weld metal through a weld
joint. It should
also be noted that, in general, those items that affect fatigue life are also of concern
if impact loading is expected.
Some common design practices allow tapered sections or
changes of cross sectionto be a 2 : I ratio. However, a 4: I
ratio is consideredto be the most desirable.
39


SECTION 6-PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sidual stresses caused by welds? Yes! Residual stresses

as high as the yield point do exist in weldments. Theeffects of residual stress can be seen in distorted weldments, and fractured welds and base metal. This metal
fracturing can take place duringfabrication or in service.
Without stress relief, localized areas of yield point residual stress are common and should be expected. One way
to allow for this residualstress in the design is by placing
welds in low-service stressed areas. Some items that can
minimize residual stress and metal fracture:
Use low-yield strength base metals.
Use low-yield strengthfiller metals with high ductility.
Use the minimum weld size or the least amount of
weld metal consistent with the design requirements.
Avoidtheuse
of notches,sharpcomers,
or rapid
changes of cross section (stress risers).
Peen the welds lightly during the welding process.
Prestress the weld joints prior to welding.
Avoid full penetration welds on heavy wall structural
assemblies (jumbo sections).
In general, observing preheating and interpass temperature for a quenched and tempered metal or
quench-hardened material will lower residualstresses.
Stress relieve the weldment.
Sequencing the weld by back stepping, balancing the
weld around the neutral axis
or welding toward rigidity.
Avoid joint designs that cause highresidual stress
through the plate thickness. Joint details, when practical, should have the welds placed across the plate
ends (through the plate thickness) on heavy sections.
Summary forImproved Fabrication

Design
(1) Only consider service requirements that make the
weldment suitable for service.
(2) Welds are geometric and metallurgical notches in
base metal.
(3) Welds in base metal frequently cause the designallowable stresses for fatigue to drop.
(4) Welds can raise the residual stress in base metals
to the yield point.
( 5 ) Keep weldment design simple. The weld is usually easier and less expensive to make.
(6) Avoidweldingwhen
practical. Usestandard
shape material or use castings. Reduce componentparts
or the number of plates.
(7) The weld and heat-affected zone are usually the
weakest link in a weldment design. The weld is a stress
riser that is preloaded by residual stress.
(8) When practical, keep welds in low-service stress
areas.
Figure 6.4-Weld Configurations that

May Cause Lamellar Tearing
Residual StrescFact or Fiction?

What every welder knows as a fact of life, the inexperienced design engineerquestions. Do welding residual
stresses exist and do they affect welding design? Are re40

I
W
8O
*m
a
W
n
cw
m
I
o m
L
L
41
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---


SECTION &PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
+-b
II
i,p,
. ...
..,_
i,,-I
,*
^
i ,L
c.
Ii r
TRANSITION BY SLOPING WELD SURFACE
REMOVE
AFTER WELDING
WELDING
AFTER
REMOVE
AFTER WELDING
TRANSITION BY SLOPING WELD SURFACE AND CHAMFERING
CHAMFER
BEFORE WELDING
WELDING
CHAMFER
BEFORE
CHAMFER
BEFORE WELDING
TRANSITION BY CHAMFERING THICKER PART
OFFSET ALIGNMENT
(PARTICULARLY APPLICABLE
TO FLANGE PLATES)
CENTERLINE ALIGNMENT
(PARTICULARLY APPLICABLE
TO WEB PLATES)
Figure 6.6-Design Considerations for a Change of Cross Section (Nontubular)
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

42
SECTION 6-PRIMARY
(9) Design for prefabricating the material in the shop

when practical.
(IO) Use flat position welding. It's cheaper, faster and
usually higher quality.
( 1 1) Avoid designs that require welding across tension
flanges.
( I 2 ) Avoid comer welds or edge welds that are subject
to tensile fatigue.
( I 3) "As deposited" welds will have mechanical properties that are different from their specifications due to
base metal dilution.
(14) Use the lowest yield strength filler metal compatible with the design. This reduces costs, residual stress,
distortion, and cracking.
(15) Use the least amount of weld metal necessary to
meet design requirements. A 1/8-in. fillet is typically the
smallest practical fillet size.
(1 6) Use partial penetration welds in lieu of full penetration when the design permits (i.e., all compression
loads, tension and shear loads that act parallel to the axis
of the weld).
(17) Use full penetration welds only when required by
the service requirements.
(18) Use fillet welds when practical. Use single pass
fillet welds where possible (5/16-in. to 3/8-in. maximum
leg sizes depending on the welding process). Some standards require a two-layer minimum for leak tightness if
they are tobe used for fluid containment.
(19) Balance welding about the neutral axis.
CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
(20) Use partial penetration welds for joints subject to

axial tension and compression loads.
(21) Do notusepartialpenetrationweldswhenthe
weld root is subject to cyclic tension or impact loads.
( 2 2 ) Basemetalstiffness
does notincreasewith increasing yield strength. Additional stiffeners may need to
be added to a structure which uses high-strength material
in order to decrease plate or section thickness.
List
American Welding Society.Design Handbook for Calculating Fillet Weld Sizes (FWSH). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
. Structural Welding Code-Reinforcing Steel

(Dl .4).Miami, Ra.: American Welding Society.
"-
. Structural Welding Code-Sheet Steel

Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
( D 1.3).
. Structural Welding Code-Stuinless Steel (D 1.6).

Miami, Ra.: American Welding Society.
. Structural Welding Code-Steel (D 1 . I). Miami,
Fla.: American Welding Society.
. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding
Technology (WHB- 1.8). Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
"
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
43

I
SECTION
Fatigue
Considerations
Contents
.
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 46
.
Loading ............................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Stress Concentrations...................................................................................................................................................... 46
Crack Initiation Sites ......................................................................................................................................................
46
Inspection .........................................................................................................................................................................
48
Repair of Fatigue Cracks................................................................................................................................................
48
Surface Finishing to Improve Fatigue Life...................................................................................................................
48
Peening..............................................................................................................................................................................
48
Surface Shape andits Effect on Fatigue........................................................................................................................
48
Grinding ...........................................................................................................................................................................
49
Base Metal andWeld Metal Changes in Cross Section

................................................................................................
49
Thermal Fatigue.............................................................................................................................................................. 49
.
Checklist for Fatigue Considerations............................................................................................................................. 50
BibliographyIRecommendedReading List ...................................................................................................................
45

50
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Code Allowables and Actual In-Service Fatigue ...................................................................................................

Life
48
STD*AWS DPW-ENGL 3999 0784Sb5

SECTION 7-FATIGUE
0539543 701 W
CONSIDERATIONS
Section 7-Fatigue Considerations
Introduction
caused by welding. The residual stresses become redistributed under the influence of cyclic loading and cracks
propagate out of the tensile residual stress field.
Component failures resultpredominatelyfrom

fatigue, corrosion and wear, or a combination of fatigue
and corrosion (corrosion fatigue). A large percentage of
failures are directly related to fatigue. Welded structures
that are subjected to repeated fluctuating loads (cyclic)
are candidates for fatigue failure at strain levels well
below their yield strength. Many structures can sustain
static service loads forever, but under cyclic conditions
the structure may fail in a short period of time, with an
average load no greater than the static condition. Essential elements of fatigue are fluctuating loads with a tension component, a stress concentration, and localized
plastic strain. Failures are associated with a permanent
physical change in the metal at and near the stress concentration (crack tip).
Stress Concentrations
Fatigue cracks only initiate at stress concentrations.
When they do occur in service on weld-fabricated structures, they are usually associated with welds and their
heat-affected zones. Welds and their heat-affected zones
are, by definition, discontinuities and stress risers. Welds
that have been deposited for repair, buildup, or cladding
must be considered stress concentration areas that may
be subject to fatigue failure. As soon as a fatigue crack is
initiated, the crack itself becomes the primarystress concentration factor.
Progressed fatigue cracks havecaused catastrophic
failures, where the members have lost their ability to
carry stress because of loss of load-carrying cross section. In some cases, members fail cataclysmically dueto
overload and/or brittle failure during their final stages of
cracking (unless the stress and/or the cyclic loading is
reduced).
Loading
Fatigue loads are cyclic in nature. The loads may be
induced by cyclic mechanical forces, temperature variations, pressure fluctuations, vibration from machinery or
a combination of these loads. Under somecircumstances,
environmentally corrosive conditions may increase the
fatigue crack propagationrate. The fluctuating fatigue
loads must have a tension component but may reverse
even into compression loading.
Loads may also be placed on a component by fluctuating bending loads, or rotational bending as is common
in pump turbines, and electrical motor shafts. Varied
loads of tension or tension and compressionmay cause
failure in fatigue in a matter of a few thousand cycles,
well below a load that would cause yielding. In bending
and torsional fatigue, surface discontinuities are most
significant since the maximum tensile loading is at the
surface.
The fluctuating service fatigue load can bepurely
compressive in nature and still cause crack initiation.
This occurs in regions of high tensile residual stress
Crack Initiation Sites

Crack initiation sites are typically at weld-base metal
interface surfaces located along the toesof fillet welds or
edges of butt welds (see Figure 7.1). Also, hard rough
flame-cut edges that have not been dressed by grinding
are subject to fatigue. In addition, weld termination sites
are common locations for failures. Few welds experience
fatigue crack growth from the roots of fillet welds, or
from the roots of partial penetration groove welds. However, partial penetration welds with insufficient throat
thickness will typically fail through the center of the
weld and the crack will not progress into the base metal.
It is also uncommon that fatigue cracks initiate from internal weld defects. However, defects that are large in
46
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---


0784ZhS 0539544 h48

SECTION 7-FATIGUE
m
I
II
/ \
LEGEND:
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1 CRATER
CRACK
2 FACE
CRACK
3 HEAT-AFFECTEDZONECRACK
4 LAMELLAR
TEAR
5 LONGITUDINAL
CRACK
6 ROOT
CRACK
7 ROOTSURFACECRACK
8 THROAT
CRACK
9 TOE
CRACK
10 TRANSVERSE
CRACK
11 UNDERBEAD
CRACK
12 WELDINTERFACECRACK
13 WELDMETALCRACK
14 LAMINATION
Figure 7.1-Cracks
47
CONSIDERATIONS

SECTION 7-FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
area, typically associated with lack of fusion, cracks or

slag, open to or very close to a weld surface, are most
likely to progress into cracksif undesirable loading is
present. Fatigue crack growth fromthe toes of welds will
typically progress from the edgeof the weld and through
the heat-affected zone (HAZ)into the base metal at right
angles to the fluctuating primary stress in the weldment.
By proper examination of fatigue fracture surfaces, il
can be determined where the failure initiation sites were:
and the direction and amount of primarystress.
loading, the rate of loading, or the number of cycles

should be examined. Welds should be kept in lowstressed areas. Reverse cyclic loading (tension-compression) should be avoided. High-yield base metals havelittle advantage if reverse cyclic loading
is experienced.
Surface Finishing to Improve Fatigue

Life
Since surface shapes can directly affect fatigue life, it
is necessary to know how surface conditioning can improve fatigue life. A simple example of this is that a
finely finished smooth machined plate or shaft will have
an improved fatigue performance (numberof cycles and
stress limit) over base metal with mill scale. Also, plates
or shafts with mill scale will have considerably better fatigue resistance than the same base metal that has been
subject to surface pittingby corrosion.
Inspection
Fatigue cracks aredifficulttofindduring
the early
stage of growth since they are tight and exhibit no deformation. Visual inspection is of limited value during this
stage of crack growth. The magnetic particle (MT), penetrant (PT), and eddy current (ET) tests would be the best
inspection processes for discovering fatigue cracks.
Peening
Code Allowables and Actual

In-Service Fatigue Life
Light peening of a surface, if accomplished properly,

will provide a smoother surface than the as-welded condition, it will lower the residual stress in the weld joint,
and place the surface of the weld under light compression which will increase fatigue life. Improvements as
high as 20% in the fatigue stress range or the number of
cycles can be achieved with proper peening. Somestandards do not permit peening of the last layer of a weld
because finished inspections may not be able to be properly accomplished. However,for fatigue applications it is
critical that peening not be limited to internal weld
passes. Fatigue cracks most commonly progress from the
surfaces of components and peak service and residual
stresses are on the base and weld metal surfaces. Peening
of these surfaces is essential to improving fatigue life. If
necessary to facilitate subsequent inspections, light contour grinding of the peenedsurface may be accomplished
to facilitate subsequent inspections.
There are codes, such as the American Welding Society's Dl. 1, Structural Welding Code-Steel, that designate certain allowable cyclic loads based on the type of
weld, the location of the weld, and the direction of loading. It should be noted that some
codes, such as the AWS
Dl. 1, provide no advantage in the allowable stress ranges
for high-strength steels in fatigue applications other than
permitting higher maximum allowablesfor static or dead
loads. To obtain actual fatigue life data, it must be determined by testing with controlled mockups, or the actual
component. (The airline industry manufacturers subject
complete airplane fuselages and wing assemblies to fatigue testing.)
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Repair of Fatigue Cracks

Since fatigue failures are common in machinery service, the repair of such cracks and their prognosis for
success needs to be discussed. Repairs should completely remove thefatigue crack. Peen each weld layer to
minimize tensile residual stress loads. Finish welds
should be contour ground to a smooth finish. Weld reinforcement should be kept to a minimum. Any major
abrupt changes in the cross section in the weldor the adjacent base metal area should be avoided. The final surface condition should be inspected and proven freeof
linear discontinuities. The original condition that initiated the fatigue crack must be changed. A reduction of
Surface Shape andits Effect on

Fatigue
The surface shape of a component is critical to its fatigue life. All as-welded surface shapes result in stress
risers or stress concentrations. That means that the stress
in the component in these as-welded surface areas is
higher than the nominal cross-sectional stress of the
component, just because of a changeof shape.
48


~~
07842b5051954b
1110
SECTION 7-FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
gles is very beneficial for improving the fatigue life of a

component. In every case,fatigue life should be expected
to be improved over the as-welded condition by proper
grinding. Grinding that is properly accomplished can improve fatigue performance by at least 20%. However,
grinding should not leave gouges or heavy grind marks.
Also, removal of weld reinforcement to nearlyzero without creating a noticeable angle between the reinforcement and the base metal improves fatigue life. Contour
grinding of welds should be performed prior to stress relief on components, such as pressure vessels. Since contouring of welds is very expensive, and in some cases it
is more expensive than making the weld, it should only
be accomplished for critical applications, or where
known service problems exist.
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The following weld geometry attributes are stress risers that directly lead to a lower fatigue life (see Figure
7.2).
It isimportantto realize that the onlythingthatis
being addressed here is the shape of the surface and not
differences due to a weld deposit being present, such as
residual stress or different mechanical properties. Reduction in fatigue life due to these surface conditions would
be present regardless of whether a weld were present or
not. If all base metal fatigue samples are machined into
different shapes, such as increasing amounts of reinforcement or increasing re-entrant angles or machined in
simulated weld ripples, thefatigue life will be decreased.
For example, if simulated undercut is machined into the
surface of a plate it will reduce the fatigue life of the
plate even thougha weld is not present.
Contourgrinding of weldsand the adjacentbase

metal to remove undercut, excessive weld reinforcement,
weld ripples, weld defects and sharp weld re-entrant an-
A
Excess
Base Metal and Weld Metal Changes

in Cross Section
Grinding
$
,
r Reinforcement
Weld Reinforcement
A-
Improper change in cross section is one of the most

common causes of reduced fatigue life. Abrupt changes
in the cross section (stress concentrations) must be
avoided or minimized for improved fatigue resistances.
Poor transitions in thicknesses cause higherlocal cyclic
fatigue stresses, and consequently, lower fatigue life.
These localized stresses and strains can be induced in the
component by different sources. Fatigue is often experienced due to differential thermal expansion or vibration
of structural and machinery components. Piping system
fatigue failures are often caused by vibration of nearby
machinery components, not allowing systems to freely
expand during heating periods, or improperly installed
pipe hangers that were used to support service loads and
dampen the number of fatigue cycles.
Removed By
.<Grinding
B Improper Treatment 01 Reinforcement
.- -
,f-
Removed By
Grinrlinn
C Acceptable Treatment of Weld Reinforcement
Thermal Fatigue
When a component is comprised of thick and thinsections and is subject to transient changes in temperatures,
high thermal strains can easily develop at abruptchanges
of the cross section without considering other external
loads. Duringthe heat-up cycle the thin material will heat
up much more rapidly than the thick sections. The hot
thin sections must thermally expand, but will be restrained by the thicker cooler sections. During the cooldown cycle, the thinner sectionswill cool-down much
more rapidly than the thick sections, causing high thermal strains, again due to differences in temperature. Further, thermal strains can be induced as a result of the
difference in thermal conductivity between materials
used in a given joint configuration.
Figure 7.2-Surface Geometry Effects

on Fatigue Life
49

SECTION 7"FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
Checklist for Fatigue Considerations
(1 3) Continuous fillet welds have betterfatigue performance than intermittent filletwelds.

(14) Full penetration welds have better fatigue performance than partial penetration welds.
(15) Avoid
the
use
of welds
on
external corners or plate edges when practical for critical fatigue
applications.
(16) Avoid welding transverse to primary tension fatigue stress (i.e., across tension flanges of beams).
(17) Flame-cutedges on heat-treatable basemetal
should be ground to a smooth surface to remove peak
hardness residualhtresses and stress concentrations.
(18) Avoid forcedalignment of flanged joints and
weld joints, as this may result in fatigue cracks adjacent
to welds during service.
(1) Keep welds in low-stressed areas.

(2) Keepthemaximum
stress andthenumberof
cycles as low as is practical.
(3) Avoid reverse cycles (tension and compression).
(4) Avoid rapid or abrupt changes in cross-sectional
thicknesses especially in weld-associated areas.
(5) Keep weld reinforcement and re-entrant angles to
a minimum.
( 6 ) Contour grinding or peening will improve fatigue
performance.
(7) Keep components painted;itimproves
fatigue
performance and minimizessurface corrosion.
(8) Reverse thermal strains are common in piping and
machinery components where abrupt changesof thickness are present or components' piping systems are not
allowed to freely expand. Theseinternal loads can be reduced by providing gradual changes in cross sections,
flexible supports, sliding foundations or bends in piping
systems to allow gradual strain distributions over larger
areas.
(9) When repairing a fatigue crack, be sure the crack
is completely removed. Contour grindthe weld and inspect the weldfor critical applications.
(10) Unless the stress pattern, the rate of loading, the
number of cycles, or the basic design is changed, repaired fatigue cracks will redevelop (usually at a more
rapid rate).
(1 1) Avoid the use of doubler or cover plates where
fatigue considerations are critical.
(12) For dissimilarmetalweldsinvolvingthermal
fatigue applications, the filler metal should have a thermal expansion rate approximatelymidway between the
two base metals selected.
List
American Welding Society. Structural Welding CodeSteel (Dl.1). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.

Technology (WHB-1,8). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
"_
Fatigue Assessment of WeldedJoints Using Local Approaches. England: Abington Publishing. (Available
through AWS.)
Fatigue Strength of Welded Structures, 2nd ed. England:
Abington Publishing. (Available through AWS.)
Proceedings of the International Conferenceon Fatigue.
50
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SECTION
Welding
Considerations
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Design................................................................................................................................................................................
52
Production ........................................................................................................................................................................
53
Respiratory Protection and Ventilation

.........................................................................................................................
53
Use of Inert Gases............................................................................................................................................................ 54

Planning for Safety .......................................................................................................................................................... 54
Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ...................................................................................................................
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

51
55

SECTION &WELDING
07842b5 0539549 L2T W
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Section 8- Welding Safety Considerations
Introduction
Can the assembled unit be lifted andtransported to the

installation site?
Joint design as related to accessibility.
Fabrication processes.
Materials.
Processsafety.
The purposeof this section is to provide the designer,

planner, or mechanic with insights into potentially
hazardous conditionsthat commonly exist in production
and work environments, but unfortunately are often
overlooked. All too often, hazardous conditions are
present and overlooked or not properly considered. This
results in unnecessary risk to personnel, equipment,and
product.
It can be said, with reasonable certainty, that no designer, planner, production superintendent, or mechanic
ever plans to have an accident. Accidents are, by definition, unplanned occurrences, sometimes resulting in loss
of life, serious collateral damage, orboth.
The information provided anddiscussed in the following pages is not intended to address all of the potential
hazards associated with welding fabrication, or the subsequent safety precautions necessary to resolve every potential problem. This reference guide is intended to
stimulate the imagination of everyone, from the designer
to the mechanic, to look for potential hazards and eliminate them before an accident occurs and it becomes a
costly lesson learned the hard way.
Safety, as related to weldingfabrication, must be considered from three specific points of view: design, planning, and production fabrication. Each area has specific
responsibilities and concerns and will be looked at individually in this section.
Allof the above are important aspects of a wellformulated plan. While these items do not directly address safety, it can be seen that several of the items will
greatly impact the safety of the production personnel performing the specified task.
The designer must use knowledge and experience to
weigh production techniques against worker safety requirements. For example, are theweld joint design and
component configuration consistent with the intended
weld process, i.e., will a joints backside accessibility be
in a tank, with a single access at the top of the tank, jeopardizing a welders safety by asphyxiation due to lack of
oxygen? Thisresulting from the plan-specified weld process, gas metal arc welding which incorporates an inert
shielding gas. It cannot be assumed by the designer that
production personnel will takethis type of potential hazard into consideration beforestarting work.
There are manyindustrypublicationsavailablethat
cover industry-associated health and safetyhazards, e.g.,
AWS 249.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and AlliedPmcesses, and AWS Effects of Welding on Health I-X.
These and other industryreference materials can bevaluable sources of information if your organization is not
fabricating under some other safety standard, such as
those of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
The following are specific areas that designers should
consider prior to issue of plans and
instructions:
Design
Safety during the design phase is usually not a field
that is given independent consideration. Safetyis usually
limited to general areas of consideration, and more often
than not, related to production capabilities and costs,
more than safety, such as:
Canthecomponentbehandled
fabrication?
(1) Design and lay out welds which will allowfor adequate and safe welder accessibility.
(2) Design assemblies so that fabrication welds can
be performed in areas where adequate ventilation can be
provided.
or positioned for
52
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STD-AWS DPW-ENGL 3999 M 07842b5 0519550 941

SECTION &WELDING SAFETY
(3) Provide direction on plans and instructions where

known fire and safety hazards exist, .e., tanks which
have contained or presently contain flammableor healthhazardous material and air-tight compartments or voids
which have been closedfor long periods of time.
(4) Design assemblies to utilizeautomated systems
wherever possible.
CONSIDERATIONS
found that the majority of fires have been caused by

portable equipment. Permanent weld stations are
made fire safe.
Do not weld on tanks that contain or have contained

combustible material or liquids unless they have been
inerted according to IAW local instructions.
Do not weld when material or personnel are improperly supported or staged.
Do not weld with equipment that is improperly insulated or has broken electrical insulation.
Production
Whilesafetyiseveryones concern, theultimateresponsibility for a welders safety is the welder who is
performing the work. Without a thorough understanding
of the risks and the initiative to eliminate potentially hazardous conditions in the interest of their own and their
fellow workers safety, injurious and costly accidents
will occur.
Trainingthat instructs thewelderonthe
types of
safety hazards which exist in hisher particular work environment and even more important, how to spot unsafe
conditions under various circumstances, whetherrelated
specifically to welding or someother trade, must be provided. As the safe working environment ethic becomes
intrinsic to all workers, supervisors, planners and design
personnel, accidents and losses will be greatly reduced.
The following is a listing of many common hazardous
conditions and practices that have caused and will continue to cause lost time, serious injury, and death.
Do notoxyfuel cut, weld, or carbonarcgouge on

bulkheads or walls without stationing a fire watch or
taking appropriate precautionsto protect against fire
on the opposite side. Equipment and machinery in the
area must also be protected.
Do not enter a previously sealed void without checking theatmosphere for the presence of oxygen and potentially harmful gases.
Do not weld in a tank or void without adequate ventilation and especially when using processes such as
gas tungsten and gas metal arc welding that employ
inert gases.
NOTE: All inert gases will displace air:

Do not weld or grind without appropriate eye and skin
protection.
Do notweldoroxyfuel
weldcut inan
oxygenenriched environment, as the potential fire hazard is
greatly increased.
CAUTION
Do not forget that argon, carbon dioxide, mapp, propane, and natural gas are heavier than air and will
flood a space if stored inside a room or compartment.
Always store in a well-ventilated area. Never store
leaky cylinders indoors.
Respiratory Protection and

Ventilation
Do not dip a hot electrode holder in water to cool it
The respiratoryhealthhazards associated withwelding operations evolve largely from the inhalation of
the gases, dusts and metal fumes produced. Whether
respiratory damage occurs during welding will depend on the useof precautionary measures thatare indicated by an evaluation of the hazards involved. With
only a few, relatively simple precautions, the chance
of respiratory damage can be eliminated.
Off.
Do not assume thatbecausepower sources are low

voltage they are not dangerous. A welder should avoid
standing on wet floors and never touch the bare metal
parts of an electrode holder with any exposed skin or
wet covering on their body. The danger of electrical
shock is particularly present in hot weather wherethe
welder may be wet fromperspiration.
The single mostimportant

factor influencing the
amount of fumes inhaled by a welder is governed by
the welder himself, by the position of his head with
respect to the plume of the fumes.
Do not weld while standing in water without properly

insulated footwear.
Do not transport arc welding cables coiled around the

shoulders when the conductors are carrying power.
The nature of any toxic materials to which a welder is

exposed will depend on the type of welding process,
filler and base metal, presenceof contamination on
Do not weld in areas that are not fire safe, especially if

the work can be moved to a safe location. It has been
53
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SECTION &WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Use of Inert Gases
the base metal or the presence of volatile solvents in

the air.
Due to the serious nature of the potential hazards associated with the use of inert and other gas mixturesrequired during welding, additional emphasis is warranted.
The use of nonflammable (inert) gases within structural
enclosures, piping systems, etc., creates a potential personnel hazard. The inherent danger in the use of inert
gases is that sufficient quantities may be released into an
occupied compartment or space to reduce the oxygen
content of the atmosphere below that required to support
human life.
in
Inert gases are used in many production methods
the building and repair of ships, argon (Ar) for purging
piping systems, nitrogen (N2) for drying air piping,
helium (He) for some types of welding and carbondioxide (COz) for inerting tanks containing flammables, to
name a few.
An atmosphere deficient in oxygen ( 0 2 ) usually gives
little or no warning, particularly if the gas that has displaced the oxygen is odorless. A trained observer may
notice an increase in pulse or breathing rate intime to escape; however, the average individual may fail to recognize the lackof oxygen until he istoo confused and weak
to save himself, especially when a considerabledistance
must be traveled to reach fresh air.
To minimize the hazards, the use of inert gas must be
closely controlled. Positive exhaust systems must be in
operation to reduce the possibility of an inert gas
buildup, should accidental leakage occur. Low areas
where heavier gases tend to accumulate require special
attention. In addition to general ventilation requirements
to reduce this hazard, localexhaust ventilation should be
installed in such a manner as to exhaust the inert gas.
Each opening from which the inert gas is flowing must
have individual ventilation.
Personnel usingandor having access to inert gas should
receive additional training about its potential hazards and
the appropriate methods for handling
and working with it.
Zinc and magnesiumoxide inhalation.

- Toxicity produces chills, fevers,nausea
four to
eight hours after exposure.

-
Toxicity disappears almostinvariably,within

hours.
24
Copper fumes toxicity.

- Toxicity symptoms similar to zinc and magnesium
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except it is more severe, longer lasting and is precipitated by less exposure.

Nickel (1 mg per cubic meter), cobalt(O. 1 mg per cubic
meter), and mercury(O. 1 mg per cubic meter) are:
of causing a chemical pneumonitis which may have severe or even fatal

results.
- Strongly suspected
Cadmium oxide and beryllium oxide.

- These oxidesproduce severe fume pneumonitis.
- They are extremely dangerous.
Iron and aluminum apparently do not cause a metal

fume fever although inhalation of very large amounts
of iron fumes for a period of years maycause a condition known as siderosis, a deposit of iron in the lungs.
Materials coated, even accidentally, with toxic materials such as lead, cadmium, mercury or paints containing toxic materials produce what is probably the
greatest health hazard in welding or cutting. Any such
coatings should be removed prior to welding, or rigid
ventilation control measures should beestablished.
Welding on materials containing lead, or other toxic
materials such as high-lead bronze, may produce
a harmful exposure, depending largely on the amount of such
material present and the amount of metal melted. Professional safety advice should be consulted prior to
welding.
Welding on materials containing Beryllium may produce an extremelydangerous condition. No such welding
should be undertaken until completecontrol of fumes has
been provided.
Welding on tanks, pipelines or containers of any sort
from which the contents have not been completely removed may introduce a serious hazard by volatilization
or decomposition of the residue. This is particularly
true when halogenated materials or plating solutions are
involved.
Planning for Safety

It is often the case during the planning and funding
phase of a project, that safety is assumed to be a normal
work practice and is just another unaccounted for expense of completing a project. This can be a dangerous
approach to doing business. This attitude or lack of
awareness of what is required to ensure the safety of the
workers places an unnecessary burden on those production people trying to meet the schedules. Not properly
identifying and subsequently funding safety requirements may cause production personnel, in their efforts to
complete a job in a timely, cost-effective manner, to
overlook serious safety considerations. Safe working
54

SECTION 8-WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
. Arc Welding Safely (AWS). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
conditions for your personnel are not an incidental part

or expense of doing business. Staging, eye, ear, ventilation, respiration, skin, and fire protection add considerable cost to a job and must not be overlooked.
Successful completion of
any
complicated task
requires thoughtful coordination of assets and personnel-usually from a variety of trades. The same
can be said for thorough planning and funding of that
task prior to the start of a complex job. Without careful
coordination between design, planning, and production
personnel, a costly lesson to be learned would be in the
making. Areas that require special safety considerations
may be overlooked, resulting in a potential loss of both
human and material resources.
Effects of Welding on Health, vols. I-X (EWH).

. Fire Safety in Welding and Cutting(FSW). Miami,

. Lens Shade Selector(F2.2). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.

. Safe Practices (SP). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
"_
List
. Safety and Health Fact Sheets (SHF), 2nd ed.

American Welding Society. A Sampling Strategy Cuide

for Evaluuting Contaminants in the Welding Environment (F1.3). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
. Safety in Welding, Cutting,and Allied Processes

(249.1).Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
55
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07842b5 0519553 b50
SECTION
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Weld Joint Design

Considerations
Contents
Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................................
58
Design................................................................................................................................................................................ 58
Weld Joint Design Considerations................................................................................................................................. 58
Accessibhty ....................................................................................................................................................................... 59
1 .
Environmental Conditions..............................................................................................................................................
60
Temperature Control.......................................................................................................................................................
60
Basfiiller Material .......................................................................................................................................................... 60

Pipe Welding Considerations
.......................................................................................................................................... 60
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................
Bibliography/Recommended Reading List...........
..................... .. .....
._...
..._...
.. .. ....
...._..
......_.
....._.
....... .......
.. ................,.6 1
57
61

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SECTION %WELD JOINT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Section 9- Weld Joint Design Considerations
Introduction
Weld Joint Design Considerations
Manufacture/assembly of most products requires

joining of component parts. When welding is used for
joining, the assembly is called a weldment. As in any assembly process, the basic objectiveof a weldment design
is to perform the intended function of the product with
minimum fabrication costs.
When selecting welded joint designs, the following

items need tobe considered.
Application
What is the function of the weldment? Generally all
fabrication is covered by a standard or code that is invoked by the customer. Standarddcodes have specific
sections that defineklarify structural welding, piping
systems, pressure vessels, machinery components, turbine components, etc. Information is also given for
allowable joint designsAirnitations, required nondestructive tests, and the acceptance standards that have to be
met.
Design
Duringtheconceptualdesignphase,
the designengineer needs to review items such as the fabrication
standardkode being invoked, operating conditiodenvironment, material selection, assembly techniques, required inspections and maintenancehepair. The design
engineer shouldhave basic knowledge or seek consultation from related engineering and production personnel
in the following areas:
cost
The designer should keep inmindthatvariablesin
joint design, material type, welding process, nondestructive testing, and fabrication sequence have an effect on
cost. During the initial desigdplanning stage, meetings
should be held to review the projected fabrication with
related engineering, funding, and production personnel
who will be involved with the work. Preplanning helps
minimize fabrication cost.Items to discuss at these meetings should include:
(1) Mechanical and physical properties of base metals and weld metals.
( 2 ) Weldability of metalsand the effectof their
strengthening mechanisms (alloyed, cold worked, age
hardened, heat treated).
(3) Welding processes (advantages and limitations).
(4) Preparation and fabricationof welded joints.
( 5 ) Thermal effects of welding, cutting, gouging, and
grinding.
(6) Effects of restraint, stress concentrations and
residual stress.
(7) Distortion control, prevention and cause.
(8) Nondestructive examination methods and the applicable acceptance standards.
(9) Applicable welding and safety codesktandards.
(10) Assembly and erection methods.
(11) The proper use of welding symbols and terms.
(1) Review of the fabrication standardkode requirements including weld type and size, and nondestructive
testing.
( 2 ) Review of possible base materials.
(3) Review of assemblysequence including weld
joint accessibility and position.
(4) Review of possible weldjoint designs and welding
processes with consideration to mechanized processes.
(5) Welder and procedure qualification requirements.
(6) Post weld stress relief and machining.
(7) Alternate fabrication methods.
(8) Staffing and equipment requirements.
(9) Documentation of job performance.
The AWS Welding Handbooks are a good source of

information on material properties and welding.
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58
~~
STDaAWS DPW-ENGL 3999
9 0784265 0534555 423

SECTION 9-WELD
JOINT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
lack of penetration or weld surface roughness should all

be avoided to maximize fatigue life. Weld reinforcement
sized to the members being joined will increase fatigue
life. Welds are often designed as full penetration and fillet welds designed as continuous instead of intermittent
in order to maximize fatigue life.
Welding Processes
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When selecting a weld joint design, it is necessary to

consider what welding processes are to be used. Will the
welding be accomplished in the field or in the shop?
Each welding process has its limitations. Gas Tungsten
Arc Welding (GTAW) should not be usedon heavy structural sections, but rather on piping or sheet metal. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) will only be used in the flat
or horizontal position preferably in a shop-type environment. If weld deposition rates are of concern in the field
then the Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) process
should be considered rather then Shielded Metal Arc
Welding (SMAW). Joint access and position may determine which welding process can be used.
This in turn determines the weld jointdesign.
Impact Resistance
Impact loading may result from any sudden application of a load. During impact loading, a member is required to absorb energy rapidly. Designs that are
susceptible to fatigue failures are often also subject to
impact failure. The weld and base material should be
ductile and have suitable impact resistance at the lowest
possible service temperature. Weld joints subject to impact loading will gain increased resistance by design incorporating many of the guidelines used for Fatigue
Resistance.
Corrosion Resistance
What type of service (operating media such as hightemperature steam, seawater, acidic fluids, etc.) will the
joint experience? Weld joints with backing strips or
backing rings and partial penetration joints with open
roots will be subject to crevice corrosion and should not
be used in the above-mentioned service without specific
consideration.
Distortion Control
There are a number of distortion origins during the
manufacture of structural sections and piping systems.
Distortion is primarily due to restricted expansion when
the heat of welding is applied. With preplanning, distortion can be kept to a minimum. Design factors of distortion control include:
Joint Efficiency
(1) Minimize welding by using standard shapes.
Joint efficiency is the abilityof the weld joint totransfer stresses between the members being welded and the
weldment. Weld joint efficiency requirements will, to a
large extent, determine what type of weld joints are
needed. Welds joints can be put into two groups, full
penetration and partial penetration. A full-penetration
joint has fusion through the entire cross section of the
weld. A partial-penetration jointallows an unfused area
within the joint cross section, and the welddoes not completely penetrate the joint thickness. Keep in mind that
joint efficiency is not totally equated with weld size, but
is largely dependent on factors including weld metal
properties and stress transfer.
( 2 ) Use
partial-penetration
joints when
design
permits.
(3) Balanceweldingaroundtheneutralaxis.Use
double V or U joints so that welds can be balanced
by welding alternately on either side of the plate.
(4) Weld toward restraint.
( 5 ) Do not use excessive force to align joints for fit
UP.
(6) Preplace or preposition weld joints to accommodate weld joint shrinkage.
(7) Prestress weld joints to off set weld shrinkage.
(8) Peen welds.
(9) Useprocessesthatuse
the minimumtotalheat
input to fabricate thejoint.
(10) Use the least amount of total weld metal consistent with adequate design.
( 1 1) Use subassemblies to accommodatedistortion
shrinkage.
Fatigue Resistance
When designing a weld joint, fatigue resistance must
be considered. Any abrupt change in cross section or direction along the path of stress flow will reduce the fatigue life. To increase fatigue life, sharp corners should
be replaced with smooth transitions, simple butt joints
should be used instead of lap or T joints, and changes
in cross section should include a minimum 4: 1 taper into
or out of a weld joint. Smoothly ground weld reinforcement will also increase the fatigue life. Weld discontinuities such as excessive reinforcement, undercut, overlap,
Accessibility
Jointaccessibility for thewelderneedstobetaken
into consideration when issuing design instructions and
drawings for assembly in the shop or field. Is the job new
59

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SECTION %WELD JOINT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
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construction or repair? Can component subassemblies be

accomplished in the shop? Shop assemblyincreases accessibility by permitting plates to be turned, and piping
to be rolled. To assist in making sound desigdplanning
decisions, the design engineershould visit and review the
job site prior to issuing work instructions.
(4) What physical and chemical properties need to be

considered?
( 5 ) What material types and thicknesses are available?
(6) Are dissimilar metals to be joined? (Some filler
metals are extremely crack sensitive depending on the
base metaufiller metal combination.)
Fabricatedcomponents, throughout their life span,
may have to be weld repaired. The designer shouldkeep
this in mind for weldability and welding access in the
field. Components that will be weld repaired orreplaced
often should be designed for ease of welder access and
ease of weldability (i.e., process to be used, base material
type, andjoint design).
Environmental Conditions
A jobsite and work condition review willassist in selection of weld process and associated joint design. Adverse weatherconditions and contaminates such as water,
paint, and oil in or nearan existing weld joint are factors
to consider when designing new weld joints, or specifying repairs and welding processes. Windy conditions require additional sheltering if a gas-shielded welding
process is selected.
Pipe Welding Considerations

Pipe Joint Design
Design criteria for welded pipe joints are set forth in
specifications. These criteria are dependent upon the
piping system. The designer is guided in selection of a
particular joint design by one or more of the following
factors:
Temperature Control
Heat transfer from the welding process into the weld
and the adjacent base metalcan cause damageto components. When welding a component with finished machined surfaces control of temperatures before, during
and after welding has to be addressed so as to keep distortion of those surfaces to an acceptable level. There
may be paint that needs to be protected on the inaccessible backside of a component that requires weld repair.
Material thickness and maximum temperature the paint
can withstand have to be known before welding. A
mock-up of thejob may have to be done.
O-ring seating surfaces located near weld repair areas
require heat input control for distortion protection. Some
considerations for controlling heat to a desired areacan
be done by preheat and interpass temperature restrictions, limiting length of weld bead, joint design, size of
welding electrode, numberof weld passes, and forced
cooling (air or water).
(1) Contractual requirements.

(2) System application (pressure, temperature, corrosion, erosion, etc.).
(3) Piping material.
(4) Piping wall thickness.
( 5 ) Specifications.
(6) Classification of joint (i.e., consumable insert,
backing ring, socket,or square butt).
(7) Availability of fittings.
(8) Welding accessibility for butt or socket joints vary
with location. Butt welds usually requiregreater working
space.
(9) Butt weld joints are more difficult and generally
more expensive to make than socket welds.
(10) Butt weld fittings may be joined directly to one
another, requiring only onejoint.
(1 1 ) A length of pipe between two socket fittings requires two weld joints.
BaseLFiller Material
A piping designer should take into consideration that

any joint in any piping system could besubject to failure
under a given combination ofadverse circumstances,and
must therefore be accessible for repair. Designers must
also consider that repairs may be necessary in the field
and not under ideal conditions. Consequently, whenever
a welded joint canbe eliminated in design, it automatically eliminates a sourceof possible future failure. This
could be done by designing bends instead of welded
joints into a given piping system.
Base metal and filler material selection can determine

what weld joints can be used. When choosing base/filler
materials the designer has to be aware of conditions that
may affect the final selection such as:
(1) Is the project new construction, rework, or repair?
( 2 ) What is the form of the base material (wrought,

forged, or cast)?
(3) What service environmentwill the materialbe
subjected to?
60

0'7842b5 053955'7 2Tb

SECTION 9-WELD
JOINT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Summary
List
When designing weldments,the

designengineer
needs to know the properties of the materials selected,
the service requirements of the weldments, and the fundamentals of the fabrication processes.
American Welding Society. Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination
(A2.4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
"_
Technology (WHB- 1.8). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
Engineersdesigning welded components need to

know basic mathematical formulas for calculating forces
and their effects. The calculations need direct application
to the specific weld joint design that is selected for joining component parts.
Blodgett, O. W., Design of Weldments. The JamesF. Lincoln Arc WeldingFoundation, Cleveland, Ohio.
Cary, H. 1997. Modern Welding Technology. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc. (Available through AWS.)
Weldment design should always be based on the thinner member beingjoined. The minimum amount of weld
metal should be used while maintaining weld joint
strength requirements.
Metals Handbook, 9th ed. vol. 6 , Welding, Brazing, and

Soldering. American Society for Metals, Metals
Park, Ohio.
61
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07842b5 0513558 132
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Weld Distortion
and Control
Contents
Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................................
64
Mechanisms of Weld Distortion ..................................................................................................................................... 64

Theoretical Shortening under Ideal Conditions
........................................................................................................... 65
Metal Properties Affecting Distortion...........................................................................................................................
65
Considerations for Minimization of Weld Distortion

................................................................................................... 66
63

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SECTION 1O-WELD
DISTORTION AND CONTROL
Section 10- Weld Distortion and Control
Introduction
UNWELDED PLATE
Control of distortion during fabrication is essential.

Weld distortion is evident on practically all weldments.It
is readily visible on thin plate and sheet metal when
welded. In addition to lowering stress-carrying capabilities, distortion can make it extremely difficult to fit subassembly parts together to complete a fabrication. Weld
distortion can be extremely expensive tocorrect and it is
easier to prevent than tocorrect for critical applications.
Fabrication distortion is caused by:
n
ARC IS STRUCK
HEATED PORTION
EXPANDS
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Volumetric shrinkage of molten metal solidifying to

ambient temperature.
Thermal shortening of metaladjacent to a weld.
Filler metal with higher yieldstrengths than their base
metals.
ARC IS
EXTINGUISHED
The metallurgicalandmechanicalproperties
of the
base metal greatly influence the degree of distortion experienced. Because of their different mechanical and
metallurgical properties, different base metals exhibit
varying amounts of distortion for the same amount of
heat input. The following base metalsare listed in order
of increasing distortion problems: HY-100, HY-80, highstrength steel, mild steel, Monel@, copper-nickel and300
Series stainless steel.
CONTRACTING
SHAPE WITH
COOLING
RESOLIDIFIED
WITH RESIDUAL
STRESS
Mechanisms of Weld Distortion

Figure 10.1-Shrinkage in a Weld Caused
by Expansion and Contraction
Weld Metal Solidification Shrinkage

(Shortening)
Figure 10.1 exhibitstheprimarydistortionmechanism involved when a weld is deposited in a grooved
plate. The weld that is deposited in the plate will decrease in volume about two percent during solidification
and cooling to ambient temperature. If the solidified
weld metal could be removed from the base metal it
would have a shorter length than the base metal lengthit
was deposited upon. Since the yield strength of the weld
deposit is invariably higher than the base metal, the weld
will cause the adjacent base material to distort and to

have high residual stress at ambient temperature.
Distortion of Metal Adjacent to a Weld Due

to Heat Input
Another mechanism by which weld distortion operates is that the metal (which includes previously depos64


STD-AWS DPW-ENGL L999 m 07842b5 05L95b0 690 m

SECTION 10-WELD
ited weld metal) adjacent to the weld is heated under

restricted expansion (compression). The metal is only
free to thermally expand and plastically deform in the
through thickness dimension of the base metal (perpendicular to the weld surface). The end result is that the
nonuniformly heated area adjacent to a weld is generally
thicker, narrower in width, and shorter in length than
base metal outside the heated area (see Figure 10.1).
cation can result in distortion. It should be noted that as

the temperature increases, the strain to cause yielding
(permanent deformation)decreases. As one inch of base
metal is heated, it must thermally expand (volumetrically) to accommodate this increased energy; and since it
cannot thermally expandin its length because of restraint
(ideal), the metal experiences compressive strains.
At low temperatures these strains are elastic (no permanent deformation). As the temperature is increased,
the compressive strains become so high that they reach
the compressive yield strain of the base metal, and any
increased temperatureresults in plastic deformation. By
subtracting the yield strain curve from the thermal expansion curve, the resulting curve represents the permanent deformation (shortening) of the one-inch length of
base metal after it has been subjected to temperatures
higher than approximately 180F.
By developing these curves for different base metals
from published data and then comparing them, increased
information can be gained as to what temperatures are
necessary to initiate deformation under ideal conditions
with single axial restraint. Under ideal conditions very
small changes of temperature are required to reach base
metal yield points and to cause plastic flow.
Restricted Expansion during Heating Cycle

When base metal is heated in a plate by a single pass
of weld metal, the base metal being heated adjacent to
the weld thermally expands as the temperature rises
while the base metal a short distance away from this
heated area is much cooler. The cooler base metal restrains thermal expansion in the plane of the plate. This
places the heated area adjacent to the weld under high
compressive strain. The yield strain of the base metal
being heated decreases with increasing temperature
while that of the adjacent cooler base metal remains
stronger due to its lower temperature. As the adjacent
metal continues to be heated to higher temperaturesas a
result of thermal conductionfrom the deposited weld, it
reaches yield point. The heated area adjacent to the weld
yields (or plastically flows) perpendicularto the plate or
weld surfaces (see Figure IO. 1).
Metal Properties Affecting Distortion
Cooling Cycle
Each component brings its own manufacturing history

of residual stress to the fabrication assembly. Castings
have solidification stresses, and plates are stressed by
rolling and cooling operations. Each metals properties
(thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, elasticity,
yield strength, its structural shape) influencethe severity
of manufacturing stresses and resultant weld distortion.
As the heated area adjacent to the weld cools off, the

area that is plastically deformedis always at a lower temperature than the center of the weld. This causesretained
increased thickening or deformation that was formed
during the heating cycle in this peripheral weld area.
During the cooling cycle, the periphery area (this may be
previously deposited weld metal or the base metal) has a
higher yield strength than the weld, due to its lower temperature. The average thickness at ambient temperature
of this plastically flowed area is greater than it wasprior
to heating. This thickening can only be accommodated
by shortening of dimensions in the plane of the base
metal. In other words, the thermally upset base and weld
metal now have a shorter length and shorter width in the
plane of the plate. The end result of this shortening in
width and length and increased thickness is highelastic
and plastic deformation of the weld and the base metal
adjacent to the weld metal. This results in weld distortion
and high residual stress.
Thermal Expansion
The coefficient of thermal expansion is used to express the amount of expansion and contraction of metal
with temperature change. The higherthe coefficient, the
more expansion and contraction is predicted for a given
temperature change. 300 Series stainless steel, coppernickel, and Monel@ all have high thermal expansion
rates
and this, in conjunction with relatively low yield strains,
makes them subject toconsiderable distortion.
Thermal Conductivity
Metals with low thermal conductivity will experience
increased distortion due to a greater temperature gradient
between the weld and base metal. The reason for this is
that when weld metal is deposited, the base metal cannot
conduct the heat of welding away rapidly and a large
difference in temperature is created in a narrow zone,
Theoretical Shortening under Ideal

Conditions
The nonuniformheatingand
cooling of theweld
metal and the surrounding base metal during weld fabri-
65
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STDmAWS DPW-ENGL L999

SECTION 10-WELD
0784265 05195bL 727
causing large thermal expansion in this localized area.

Plastic flow occurs in this restricted expansion area, resulting in distortion. Stainless steel has much lower thermal conductivity than mild steel and this is partially why
it is much more susceptible to distortion than mild steel.
Modulus of Elasticity
Modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of a
metal. A material with a higher modulus is more resistant
to distortion, since increased stress is required to strain or
stretch the material. However, it should be noted that the
mild steel and most alloy steels have nearly the same
modulus of elasticity.
Yield StrengtWStrain
Yield strength or yield strain is an indication of the
metals resistance to permanent deformation. A lower
yield strength filler metal accommodates someof the dynamic weld joint stresses by stretching rather than creating distortion. Conversely, base metals with high yield
strain are less susceptible to distortion due to their increased strength.
Manufacturing Residual Stresses

Components have their own residual stress patterns
that can affect the resultant distortion of the finished
product after welding. Because of different cooling patterns, castings, plate, and shapes have varying residual
stress patterns that directly affect distortion. For example, the flanges of rolled I-beams are typically under tension, while the webs are under compression, because
during manufacture the thinner cross section of the webs
cool first followed by the flanges. The cooling and shortening of the flanges place the webs under compression.
Considerations for Minimization of

Weld Distortion
Minimize Welding
Avoid welding when practical. Use standard shapesor
rolled sections, use castings or breakho11 material into
different shapes rather than welding several pieces
together.
Minimize root openings and bevel angles of full penetration joints. However, adequate accessfor the welding process andoperator must be provided.
A J or U grooverequireslessweldingthan
a
bevel or V groove and will result in less distortion
of thicker metals.
A double V groove requires less welding than a single V in the same plate thickness and will help balance angulardistortion.
Use partial penetration joints whenever possible.
Use smallest weld size possible to meet the strength
requirements. Oversized welds increase distortion.
Use flanged comers instead of welded comers.
Use intermittent welds to reduce welding where practical (see Figure 10.2).
Balance Welding
Weld in a sequence that offsets one shrinkage stress
against a previously deposited weld on the opposite side
(see Figure 10.3). However, the resultant shrinkage of the
second weld will not equal the distortion
of the first weld.
Distortion is best controlled by welding both sides simultaneously such asdouble fillet welds where practical.
Joint Design
Joint designs shouldhave minimum rootopenings and
bevel angles, yet provide adequate joint accessfor good
fusion for the welding process used. Joint designs need
to be selected that will balance welding (see Figure
10.4).
Restraint
Reduce distortion by restraining assemblies in fixtures
or to other assemblies. When practical weld toward maximum restraint; weld away from edges; weld toward the
centroid or the center of gravity when practical.
Neutral Axis
Position weld joints at a neutral axis to provide less
leverage for shrinkage forces, or balance welding around
the neutral axis.
Structural Tacks
Structural tacks help force the welds to deform rather
than distorting the base metal. Structural tacks are usually a minimum of two inches long andare often two layers thick. These tacks will restrain the root opening from
closing during welding and will help force the root weld
pass to deform instead of pulling the plates together. It
should be kept in mind that any restraint that can be
placed on hot weld metal will
be very effective, dueto its
low yield strength at high temperatures. The structural
tacks need to be thick enough so that they cannot be
fused through by subsequent passes, as this will reduce
some of their effectiveness.
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---


SECTION 10-WELD
(A) Double Sided Single Pass Fillet Welds

on a Lap Joint
(B) Single Sided Multiple Pass Fillet Welds

on a Corner Joint
(C)DoubleSided MultiplePassFilletWelds(D)FilletWeldsaroundtheDiameter
on a T-Joint
(E) StaggeredIntermittentFilletWelds,TopView(F)ChainIntermittentFilletWelds,TopView
Figure 10.2-Fillet Weld Applications
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

67
of aHole
07842b5 053195b3 5 T T W

SECTION IO-WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL
welded. This will counteract weld and base-metal shortening and reduce weld distortion. The two interference
fit examples show howit may be usedto maintain critical
inside dimensions and circularity when adding lengthto
or repair welding a finished machine part.
Preset
Figure 10.3-Sequence Welds
Alignmentof the joint is setupout of position to

allow for anticipated shrinkage during weldingto bring
the assembly to the desired position (see Figure 10.6).
Use mockup test assemblies to estimate amountof preset
necessary as the amount of preset will vary with each
welding process andthe parameters used.
BACKGOUGE
Overwelding
J-
Weld convexity increases shrinkage but does not increase strength. Use intermittent welds or partial penetration welds where practical. Do not oversize fillet welds.
Excessive distortion can result from oversizing small fillet welds by one size on thin material.
Weld Process Selection
Figure 10.4-Joint Designs

to Minimize Distortion
The greater the total heat input by conventional welding processesthe greater the distortion. Weld process selection should consider weld deposition, amperage, and
travel speed. Use of largest suitable electrode is frequently recommended as transverse weld stresses are
somewhat cumulative and distortion can be increased by
multiple passes.
Fit Up
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Properedgepreparationwith
joint alignmentand
minimum root openings decrease weldingand result in
less weld distortion. Do not use excessive forceto align
joints for welding. Highresidual stress will be induced
into the weld joint resulting in weld distortion.
Prefabrication
Welds made in the flat position or with joint rotation
allow use of larger electrodes and deeper-penetrating
weld processes with less joint preparation. The result is
less weld distortion.
Backstep Welding
Subassemblies
Backstep welding uses the restraint of a previously

deposited weld to minimize the tendency of the two
plates from pulling together as the welding progresses.
Fabrication of subassemblies provides additional distortion control, since each subassembly be

canadjusted for
distortion before being matched
to another subassembly.
Controlled Wandering (Backstep) Weld
Peening
A backstepweld
is usedinwandering
sequence.
Welds made in short segments, distributed along the
length of the joint, cause less distortion than continuous
welding (see Figure 10.5).
Weld shrinkage may becounteracted by peening,

which stretches the weld in the area peened. Peening is
most effective at higher temperatures. A blunt tool
should be used to plastically deform (stretch) the weld
after slag is removed. However, a root bead should only
be peened lightly or not at all because of the danger of
causing a root crack. Peening marks shouldbe removed
from the final weld surface if they are expected to inter-
Prestressing and Interference Fits

Prestressing surfaces to be welded by bending or by
interference fits develops tensile stresses
on surfaces to be
68

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SECTION 10-WELD
THIS POSITION FOR

FILLET WELDING HERE.
added to the load stress may exceed the materials yield

strength. Stress relief after welding reduces residual
stress of fabrication. Stress relief, properly accomplished, is essential for components that are to receive intricate machining to close tolerances. Without stress
relief, the component will walk or move during the
machining of the weld deposit (removing the weld deposit changes the residual stress pattern) and the part
may be lost as scrap when finished.
Figure 10.6-Presetting for

Fillet and Butt Welds
BibliographyDtecommended Reading
List
fere with final inspection. Peening marks may act as
stress risers if peening is not accomplished properly.
American Welding Society. Welding Handbook, 8th ed.,

vol. 1, Welding Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.:
Stress Relief
-
. Welding Processes and Practices(WPP). Miami,

The shrinkage of a cooling weld applies stress to the

weld metal and surrounding base metal. These stresses
69

--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 10.5-Controlled Wandering (Backstep) Weld
I
SECTION
II
Checklist for
Sound Welding
Decisions
Contents
The Intended Service Requirements
..............................................................................................................................
72
Base andWeld Metal Properties.................................................................................................................................... 72

Fabrication Conditions Imposed
....................................................................................................................................
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
71

73
O Tensile and compressive stresses and strains (axial/

bending).
O Corrosion resistance.
O Erosion resistance.
O Abrasion resistance.
O Impact resistance (stress and temperature dependent).
O Creep resistance.
O Temperature (high- or low-temperature physical
properties).
O Fatigue resistance (thermal and mechanical).
O Aesthetics (color match, anodizing, and appearance).
No itemhas a greater effect on weldabilitythan

the common everyday decisions made by the designer,
welding engineer, shop supervisor, and the journeyman
mechanic.
Before making a weldingdecision, there are three
basic areas that should receiveconsideration:
The intended service requirements.
The base metal and weld metal properties.
The fabrication conditions imposed.
As an aid, to make sure you have checked items that
can affect weldability, a Sound Welding Decisions
Checklist is provided in this section. This list is not all
inclusive and may be added to depending upon the individual's specific experience. However, it is a list of specific areas that deserve attention in avoiding the majority
of serious welding problems.
Once a problem or potential problem area is identified, it should be referred to or coordinatedwith the person having technical cognizance, i.e., the designer,
welding engineer, or the production supervisor. It should
be noted that:
Base andWeld Metal Properties

Welding Engineering Cognizance
The effects on the HAZ and weld metal properties
due to the maximum welding temperature reached
and the rate of change of temperature are of primary importance. They can result in weld defects,
metallurgical notches and drastic changes in base
metal properties.
The design engineer is most knowledgeable about the

intended service of requirements.
The welding engineer is mostknowledgeableabout
the weld metal.
The production supervisor andmechanicaremost
knowledgeable about the imposed fabrication conditions (environment).
O
O
O
O
O
Cl
O
O
O
The Intended Service Requirements
Design Cognizance
O
O
Will the weld and heat-affected zone

(HAZ) provide
the desired service? Consider only those service requirements that make the weldment fit for use.
O
O
O
Base metal chemical composition.

Diluted weld metal properties.
Tensile/yield strength.
Elongatiodductility.
Quench hardenability properties.
Work hardening properties.
Age-hardening properties.
Susceptibility to hot cracking.
Solubility ofgases(porosity, embrittlement, and
cracking).
Homogeneitykoundness (coring, loose structure,
and lamellar tearing).
Sensitization to corrosion and corrosion cracking.
Grain size.
Refractory oxide formation.
Conductivity (thermal).
Viscosity or fluidity.
72

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Section 11-Checklist for Sound Welding Decisions
~-
STD.AWS DPW-ENGL 1,979 W 07842b5 051,9567 145 W

SECTION 11CHECKLIST FOR SOUND WELDING DECISIONS
O Number of welds.
O Weld shrinkage.
O Distortion control, prestress, structural tacks, back
setting, and peening.
O Weldment design (joint design, weldment geometry,
material selection, weld sizes, and equipment
maintenance).
O Cleanliness.
O Weld location (accessibility, restrictions, position,
shop vs. field).
O Weid sequence (shopcontrolled).
O Weather or atmosphere.
O Purging requirements.
O Thermal stress developed Restraint Safety of men
and equipment.
O Quality control evaluations (defects vs. failures
and cost to meet NDE).
O Weld procedure (various welding parameters).
O Thermal expansion (yield strength vs. temperature

and restraint).
O Machinability.
Fabrication ConditionsImposed
Production
Supervisors
Cognizance
The actual welding environment and welding resources will often determine the success or failure
of a welding project.
-
O Skilled, qualified mechanics (experience and good

morale).
O Schedule.
O Available equipment, materials, and facilities.
O Welding process characteristics.
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
73

Defects and Discontinuities

of Welding
Contents
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 76
Weld Acceptance Standards........................................................................................................................................... 76
The Causeof Welding Defects ........................................................................................................................................ 76
Weld Discontinuities ........................................................................................................................................................
77
Cracking ...........................................................................................................................................................................
77
Delayed Cracking-Hydrogen Embrittlement ............................................................................................................. 83
Techniques for Allowing Hydrogen to Escape from Welds
......................................................................................... 84
Minimizing theAvailable Amount of Hydrogen to theWeld Deposit ........................................................................ 84
Welding Processes and their
Available Hydrogen ........................................................................................................ 84
Summary of Rules to Minimize Hydrogen Embrittlement Cracking
........................................................................
85
Slag Inclusions................................................................................................................................................................. 85
Lack of Fusion or Incomplete Fusion............................................................................................................................ 85
Lack of Penetration ......................................................................................................................................................... 86
Porosity ............................................................................................................................................................................. 87
Undercut (Including Root Undercut)
............................................................................................................................ 88
fingsten Inclusions ......................................................................................................................................................... 88
Arc Strikes........................................................................................................................................................................
89
Spatter ..............................................................................................................................................................................
90
Crater Pit.......................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Burn-Through .................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Incomplete Insert Melting..............................................................................................................................................
91
Root Centerline Crease................................................................................................................................................... 91
Melt-Through ................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Oxidation .......................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Root Concavity.................................................................................................................................................................
91
Root Convexity ................................................................................................................................................................. 92
Bibliography/RecommendedReading List ................................................................................................................... 92
75

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SECTION 12"DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Section 12-Defects and Discontinuitiesof Welding
Introduction
Personnel Skill and Experience
Weld discontinuities are unintentional conditions that

occur during the welding processand result in undesirable conditions in the weld or the adjacent base metal. If
weld discontinuities are expected to be detrimental to the
service, they must be evaluated. All unintentional weld
conditions that could possibly affect the weld's service,
and that are causedby the welding process, are called
discontinuities. Those discontinuitiesthat do not meet
the acceptance standards imposed by the ownerlengineer
or are reasonably expected to have detrimentaleffects on
service are call defects.
The operator's manual skill and knowledge with specific materials and processes cangreatly reduce weld reject rates.
Welding Process Characteristics

Each welding process has specific characteristics that
make it more susceptible to a certain type of weld discontinuity such as:
SAW-Solidification centerline craclung.
GMAW-( short arc)-Lack of fusion.
SMAW-Startingporosity.
GTAW-Tungsten inclusions.
Weld Acceptance Standards

Weld acceptance standardsare usually written for the
worst case. They may not bereasonable in all cases. Engineering evaluation and judgement may be necessary to
prevent unnecessary expenditures of resources to repair a
defect that would not affect the service of a weldment.
The designerlowner that imposes acceptance standards
should always keep in mind that in some
cases a weld repair just to meet acceptance standardsmay cause acomponent to becomeless useful, or insome casesuseless. A
pore of porosity that does not meet the acceptance standard and is deep within acasting wall would frequently
be better left as found rather than attempting repair. The
reason for this is that when the casting is repaired, it will
have: a nonuniform metallurgical structure (cast metal
has been replaced with weld metal); high residual stress;
lower fatigue performance; micro shrinkage in the adjacent cast metal may developinto micro casting tears; serious distortion problems may develop; and frequently,
corrosion resistance properties are lowered.
Base Metal Selection and Properties

The specific properties of a base metal can make it
much more prone than other base metalsto certain weld
defects such as:
Quenchandtemperedandheat-treatablesteels
are
very susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement and delayed cracking of the weld and the heat-affected zone
(HAZ).
En bronzes are susceptible tointergranularcracking
(hot shortness).
Copper-nickelalloys are prone to incomplete fusion
and porosity.
Inconel@alloys are subject to oxide inclusions, and
centerline cracking on concave bead shapes.
Aluminum alloys are susceptible to porosityandincomplete fusion.
Mildsteel is very susceptible to lamellartearingin
heavy sections with high through thickness stresses.
The Cause of Welding Defects
Welding Environment
There are many specific causes of welding discontinuities, however they can be generally categorized in the
following groups:
The welding environment probably has a greater influence on the total numberof weld rejects than any
other condition. The greatest influence is whether the
76
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STDOAWS DPW-ENGL L999
I07842b5 0539570 73T 111

SECTION 12DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Cracking occurs when the metal under stress exhausts

its ductility and does not have the ability to elastically or
plastically flow withoutfracturing.
Out of position welding.

Restricted access welds.
Mirrorwelds.
Wind, rain, cold, etc.
Wet systems to purge.
Service Impact
Cracking is one on the most serious discontinuities,
since it usually requires the least amount of energy to
progress intoa failure. Any cracking that exists transverse
to primary stress in fatigue or is subject to impact loading
must be considered hazardous, unless the base material is
specifically designed for energy absorption under these
types of conditions. However, because a crackis present
or exists does not mean that the weldment is unsuitable
for service. When cracks are left in service they must be
evaluated for suitability based upon orientation, location,
loading and the base metal properties.
Weld Discontinuities
The common discontinuities found on completed
welds are:
Crater cracks.
Face cracks.
Heat-affectedzone cracks.
Lamellar tears.
Longitudinal cracks.
Root cracks.
Root surface cracks.
Throat cracks.
Toe cracks.
Transverse cracks.
Underbead cracks.
Weld interface cracks.
Weldmetal cracks.
Lamination.
Thiscrackingoccurs
at elevated temperatures and
generally travels in grain boundaries between the grains
of crystalline metal. If fracture surfaces are exposedto
air during hot cracking they frequently will exhibit temper colors. Hot cracking is most common in bronze and
brass alloys, copper-nickels and base metals thatare high
in elements suchas lead, tin, zinc, phosphorous, andsulfur. Welds that experience galvanize (zinc) contamination or are made on free machining metals are also
subject to hot cracking.
Solidification Cracking
This cracking mechanism is commonly witnessed in
deep penetrating welds which may have long solidifying
surfaces that have a chevron shapeas is often seen with
submerged arc, flux cored arc andelectroslag welding. It
is generally caused by insuffkient liquid weld metal necessary to accommodate arestrained, contracting volume
of solidifying weld metal. When grain growths fromeach
side of a weld are nearly parallel to each other, as in deep
penetrating welds, theyclose off a finite amount of liquid
metal to accommodate weld metal shrinkage or contraction (see Figure 12.8). The last metal to freeze will most
likely be higher than the rest of the weld in low melting
constituents like sulfur, phosphorous, tin, lead, or zinc,
which also increases its crack susceptibility.
Cracking
Definition
A linear rupture of base and/or weld metal. It has
a
high length-to-width ratio and is characterized by a sharp
tip.
Shape
Usually a tight linear separation of metal that can be
very short (microscopic) to very long indications extending the full length of a weld.
Location
Crater Cracking
Cracking takes place in the weld, the weld-base metal

fusion line or the weld heat-affected zone (HAZ). Weldments of age hardened or brittle metal may sometimes
crack several inches away from the weld. Figure 12.7
exhibits potential crack locations.
The craters that appear at weld bead termination sites

are common areas of cracking (see Figure 12.9). This
weld metal is the most rapidly cooled metalof the entire
weld. It is being cooled in all directions after the welding
77
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Hot Cracking
For the location of the above-listed discontinuities in

weld joints and the associated base metal, see Table 12.1
and Figures 12.1-12.6.

Cause
weld is made in the field or the shop. Some field environmental conditions that increase weld rejects are:
STD-AWS DPW-ENGL 1999 m 07842b5 053195731 676 m

SECTION 12-DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Table 12.1-Fusion Weld Discontinuity Types

Discontinuity
Appearing in Figure Number Identification
Type of Discontinuity
Porosity
Uniformly scattered
Cluster
I
I
Linear
Piping
la
12.2, 12.6
Weld only as discussed herein
lb
12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.5, 12.6
Weld only as discussed herein
I 12.2, 12.6
I 12.1, 12.2, 12.6
IC
Id
I
1
12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6
Incomplete fusion
12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2a
Inadequate4joint
penetration
12.2,
12.1,
12.3, 12.4, 12.5
Undercut
12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6
Underfill
12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.5
Overlap
Laminations
Delamination
At joint boundaries or between passes
Root weld
of
preparation
~
~~_________
HAZ
Junction of weld and base metal at

surface
Outer surface of joint preparation
12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6
W/HAZ
Junction of weld and base metal at

surface
12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6
BM
Base metal, generally near

midthickness of section
12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6
BM
Basemetal, generally near

midthickness of section
12.1, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6
BM
Base metal surface, almost always

longitudinal
10
Lamellar tears
I Weld only as discussed herein

I Weld only as discussed herein
Inclusions
Slag
Seams and laps
Remarks Location*
Il
I 12.3, 12.5
BM
1 Base metal, near weld HAZ

~~
Cracks (includes hot

cracks and cold cracks)
Longitudinal
Transverse
12a
12.3,
12.2,
12b
12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6
12.1,
W, HAZ,
BM
Weld or base metal adjacent to weld

fusion boundary
12.4, 12.5, 12.6
base
Crater
12c
12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6
Weld, at point where arc is terminated
Throat
12d
12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6
Weld axis
Toe
12e
12.1, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6
Root
Underbead and
heat-affected zone
12f
12g
HAZ
I 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 I
12.1, 12.2, 12.4, 12.5,

12.6
Fissures
*W-weld, BM-base
HAZ
W
metal, HAZ-weld
Junction between face of weld and base

metal
I Weldmetal, at root
Base metal, in HAZ

Weld metal
heat-affected zone
78

Figure 12.1-Double-V-Groove Weld in Butt Joint

(See Table 12.1)
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 12.2-Single-Bevel-Groove Weld in Butt Joint

(See Table 12.1)
79

STDmAWS DPW-ENGL L979 m 0784265 0539573 449 W

Figure 12.3-Welds in Corner Joint

(See Table 12.1)
Figure 12.ADouble Fillet Weld in Lap Joint

(See Table 12.1)
80
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---


SECTION 12"DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIESOF WELDING
Figure 12.5-Combined Groove and Fillet Welds in T-Joint(See Table 12.1)
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 12.6-Single Pass Fillet Welds in T- Joint

(See Table 12.1)
81

H 07842b5 05L9575 211 M
LEGEND:
1 CRATERCRACK
2 FACECRACK
3 HEAT-AFFECTED
ZONE CRACK
4 LAMELLAR TEAR
5 LONGITUDINAL
CRACK
6 ROOTCRACK
7
6
9
10
ROOT SURFACE CRACK

THROAT CRACK
TOE CRACK
TRANSVERSE CRACK
11 UNDERBEADCRACK
12 WELD INTERFACE CRACK

13 WELD METAL CRACK
(B)
Figure 12.7-Potential Weld Crack Locations

--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
arc is withdrawn and does not have the arc as a source of

heat to slow its cooling rate. The weld crater solidifies
from its perimeter toward its center, making all of its
shrinkage strains away from the crater center. Weld bead
termination sites are usually concave in shape (a high
stress profile) andare very prone to cracking. Metals most
likely to crater crack have wide solidification ranges, low
ductility at high temperatures, or are subject to low melting temperature segregates. Aluminum, copper-nickel, Inconel@, Monel@,AISI 4130, and AISI 4140 are quite
susceptible to crater cracks, which is a form of hot cracking. For Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), welding
current decay should be used to help reduce
the shrinkage
stress while continuingto fill the crater to create a flat or
slightly convex bead termination site. By reducing (decaying) the current before extinguishing the
arc the actual
crater size that must solidify is much reduced in diameter.
Thin, concave welds (like weld craters) have high susceptibility to centerline cracking(see Figure 12.10).
Figure 12.8-Solidification
Cracking Mechanism
Figure 12.10-Typical Centerline Cracks

Due to Thin
Concave
Bead
Shapes
Figure
12.9"Typical
Crater
Cracks
82

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SECTION 12-DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIESOF WELDING
Cold Cracking
Cold cracking generally occurs below 400F. Martensitic base metals are subject to high stresses and have a
microstructure that is susceptible to low-temperature
cracking. Cold cracks are predominately transgranular,
occurring across metal grains, while hot cracking usually
occurs between grains or interdendritically.
Lamellar Tearing
( I ) Select weldjoints that minimize through-thickness

stresses.
(2) Peen all weld layers.
(3) Keep weld sizes down.
(4) Use low-strength filler metals.
(5) Use thin plate (less than one half inch).
(6) Provide for slight root openings under T welds.
(7) Select fine-grain steels with stabilized inclusions
than cannot be rolled out into lamellar inclusions.
Figure 12.11-Examples of
Lamellar Tearing
Delayed Cracking-Hydrogen
Embrittlement
presence and the effects of hydrogen during welding can

cause cracking of the base metal (under-bead cracking)
or weld metal immediately or several days after the weld
was completed. Thus comes the term delayed cracking.
The presence of hydrogencan develop tremendous

stress when present i n welds and their heat-affected
zones in low-alloy steels (heat treatable) such as HY-80,
HY-100, AISI-4130, AISI-8630, and AISI-4340. The
83

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Some mild steel base metals are subject to cracking

adjacent to welds due to their inability to withstand high
through-thickness stresses, because their through-thickness ductility is low. This low ductility is the result of
non-metallic inclusions that
developed
during the initial
pouring of the ingot to make the material. These inclusions are i n the form of oxides, silicates, sulfides, etc.
When the plates are rolled, some of these inclusions are
rolled out into thin, lamellar plate inclusions lying parallel to the plate surface at different depths throughoutthe
thickness of the material. When high through-thickness
stresses are placed on the plate by welding, cracking occurs by shearing from one inclusion in the plate to another inclusion within the base metal. This cracking
pattern has a stair-step appearance in the base metal (see
Figure 12.1I). Comer welds that involve welding across
the end of both members and butt welded joints, minimize through-thicknessstrains and are most desirable because in some applications they place the metal under
through-thickness compression.TEE welds are examples
of unavoidable through-thicknessstresses. In these cases,
the most successful remedy is clad welding the plate in
the area of the grooves reinforcement fillet or fillet weld
or peen each weld pass.
Recommendations to prevent lamellar tearingare:
200F minimum preheats and interpass temperatures are
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The presence of hydrogen causes a drastically localized

loss of ductility in ferritic weldsand their heat-affected
zones. Classical cracks are transverse across the weld deposit. Hydrogen may also contribute to other types of
cracks such as longitudinal cracksand localized cluster
cracks depending on the restraint and environmental conditions. Techniques and procedures that a welder must
use to minimize cracks are:
not suitable for all base metals.
Hold the Weld at Interpass Temperature

after Welding
The weld and the adjacent base metal should be held
near the maximum interpass temperature for at least one
hour after welding; and on heavy sections, 24 hours is
highly desirabre to permithydrogen to diffuse from the
weld without developing cracks.
(1) Minimize the amount of hydrogen available to the

molten weld metal.
(2) Allow hydrogen to escape from the weld and the
HAZ.
Minimizing the Available Amount of

Hydrogen to the Weld Deposit
Techniques for Allowing Hydrogen to

Escape from Welds
Welds should be made with the lowest hydrogen content materials available. Weld electrodes must be kept
clean, dry and properly stored in a heated, vented oven
when not in use. Welds should be made only on clean
and dry base metals. All sources of hydrogen should be
minimized.
Deposit Thin Beads

Thin weld passes allow hydrogen to escape much
more rapidly than thick weld beads, because thehydrogen has less distanceto travel. The time required for hydrogen gas diffusion is a square relationshipof the weld
pass thickness. Therefore doublingthe weld pass thickness quadruples the time for hydrogen to escape from the
weld.
(1) Water, rain water, condensed water from torches,

and the atmosphere are all sources of hydrogen.
(2) Combined water in electrode coatings and fluxes
are sources of hydrogen. Only baking will drive off combined water. Many coatings are hydroscopic and will automatically absorb moisture out of the air.
Time Delay between Deposition of Successive Weld Passes
(3) Paint, grease pencils, oils, wood, paper, shop dirt,

and tape are all potential sources of hydrogen.
Hydrogen escapes most rapidly immediately after a

weld is deposited, probably because of the amount of hydrogen present and the elevated temperature of the weld
deposit. It is much more effective to provide hydrogen
diffusion time between each weld pass than to deposit
several layers of weld metal and then allow time for hydrogen to escape. Hydrogen escapesmuch slower from
heavy weld buildups.
Welding Processes and their Available

Hydrogen
Of the commonly used welding processes, gas metal
arc welding (GMAW) has a lower amountof hydrogen
available than do the shielded metal arc, flux cored arc or
submerged arc welding. Since SMAW consumes its hydroscopic coating during the welding process, higher
amounts of hydrogen are available to the molten weld
puddle. Flux cored arc welding, like SMAW, has a flux
that is consumed in the welding process that may introduce hydrogen to the molten weld puddle. Of the arc
welding processes that utilize flux, submerged arc welding requires the greatest amount of concern because of its
high flux usage. SAW consumes approximately a pound
and a half of flux for eachpound of weld metal deposited. Also, itsweld passes are generally thickerthan the
other processes, which makes it more difficult for hydrogen to escape.
Closely Control the Preheat and Interpass

Temperature
Maintaining the preheat and interpass temperatures
increases the diffusion of hydrogen from the weld. It is
essential that the preheat soaks completely through the
base metal thickness. Rapid cooling of the weld deposit
makes it much more susceptible to cracking.It has been
reported that at temperatures above 200F hydrogen embrittlement cracking is unlikely to occur.This means that
a minimum preheat temperature of 200F during welding
will minimizethe possibility of hydrogen-induced cracking andalso accelerate the removalof hydrogen. However,
84

M 07842b5 0539578 T20 M

Summary of Rules to Minimize

Hydrogen Embrittlement Cracking
ing, paper, wood, grease, and paint will all contribute to

slag formation if they are allowed to contaminate the
weld joint.
(1) G d housekeeping and proper handling of welding materials.

(2) Use thin weld beads.
(3) Allow time for hydrogen to escape between weld
passes.
(4) Maintain interpass temperature for up to 24 hours
after welding.
(5) Useweldingprocessesthatwillminimizethe
amount of available hydrogen.
Cause
By far the most common reason for slag inclusions is
incomplete de-slaggingof the previous weld layer, leaving slag at sharp re-entrant angles and at the edges of
weld beads. When an SMAW deposit is made, slag may
tightly adhere to both the start and stop areas, leading to
slag inclusions. Slag entrapments can be caused by a
number of reasons: lack of operator skill; amperage too
low; improperly prepared weld joints; improper back
gouging; erratic progression; weave too wide; electrode
too large; and improper bead placement. There is also a
common misconception by welders that tightly adhering
slag, which is difficult to remove, can be burned out by
the next pass by turning up the amperage. This practiceis
extremely risky, unreliable, and should not be attempted.
Slag Inclusions
Definition
A slaginclusion is a non-metallicsolidinclusion
trapped within weld metal, between weld passes, or between the weld metal and the base metal.
Service Impact
Shape
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Most acceptance standards allow some slag to be contained within weld deposits but it is limited in size and
frequency. It is not considered nearly as severe a defect
as a crack, since slag is usually globular in shape. It is
more closely allied to porosity in its effects on service,
except that slag, when its area becomes significant or its
shape is not globular, will probably affectfatigue performance to agreater degree than porosity.
Slag inclusions are usually elongated globular shapes.

However, slag can be found in stringers and in thin or
very thick layers. Slag inclusions can be microscopic in
size or very much larger, extending through the entire
thickness of a weld or across a completelayer of weld(as
can be found in submerged arc welds).
Location
The most common area for slag entrapment is in the
first layer and between the root layer and the second
layer. Slag is also found at sharp re-entrant angles between weld passes and between weld passes and the base
metal. Overhead weldingis most proneto slag inclusions,
due to the quick freezing slag of
smaller weld beads.
Lack of Fusion or Incomplete Fusion

Definition
This condition exists when there is incomplete fusion
between the weld metal and a precedingweld deposit or
the weld metal and base metal (fusion that is less than
complete). Frequently, incomplete fusion appears as
metal-to-metal contact with a thin line between beads
with no metallurgicalbonding.
Sources of Slag
The majorsourceofslag
is thefluxand electrode
coating used in SMAW, FCAW, and SAW processes.
However, GMAW and GTAW processes may contain
slag inclusions due to metal and silicon oxides. As the
amount of oxygen increases in GMAW shielding gases,
the amount of slag produced increases. Slag can also
occur with GTAW process, when the molten end of the
filler metal is removed from the shielding gas and oxides
are formed. The oxidesare introduced into the weld puddle when the filler metal is added. Another source of slag
is the base metals themselves, since nonmetallic oxides
and nitrides are available to form slag fromthese materials. Shop dirt in the form of oxides of burning and goug-
Shape
Onweld cross sections, lackof fusion is usually a
curved line. On a radiographic image, lack of fusion will
frequently appear to have a straight portion with a curved
end (a tail).
Location
Lackoffusion occurs betweenweldpasses,orbetween weld passes andthe base metal (see Figure 12.12).
85


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SECTION 12"DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
INCOMPLETE
FUSION
(B)
FUSION
L INCOMPLETE
FUSION
(A)
INCOMPLETE
(c)
Figure 12.12-Lack of Fusion Locations

Cause
Table 12.2-Melting Temperature

Comparison Chart-Base Metal
vs. Refractory Oxide
The most commoncause of incomplete fusionis inadequate welding heat (amperagekurrent). The heat input
from welding must be great enough to melt the base
metal and to allow sufficient timefor thin surface oxides
to be removed.Other causesof incomplete fusion are improper travel speeds (too fast or too slow), insufficient
electrode size, improper joint design selection, improper
electrode or torch manipulation, impropersurface cleaning, and improper removal of refractory oxides.
Refractory oxides melt at much higher temperatures
than their base metals and are a major causeof incomplete fusion, particularly in high-nickel or aluminum alloys. The only oxide that melts at a lower temperature
than its metal constituent is iron oxide. Also some filler
metals are alloyed with elements that form refractoryoxides, such as: titanium, aluminum, nickel, magnesium
and chromium. Base metalsthat readily form refractory
oxides are: aluminum, Inconel@,copper-nickel, Monel@,
and K-Monel@(see Table 12.2).
Melting
Temperature
("F)
Oxide
Aluminum
1100
A1203
Monel@
2400
Ni0
InconeP
2525
cr203
Titanium
3137
Ti02
Metal
Melting
Temperature
4109
any lack of fusion. Lack of fusion is considered a serious

defect when it is open to the surface ofa joint. In general,
lack of fusion is considered a higher stress concentration
factor than slag,due to its linear shape and sharper
edges.
Removal of Oxides
Wirebrushinghas
little effectontheremovalof
refractory oxides for most metals except aluminum. In
most instances grinding, pickling, or machining is used
to remove oxides. When welding K-Monel@light grinding is frequently required between each layer or every
other layer of weld metal.
Lack of Penetration
Definition
Unintentional, incomplete penetration of a weld
through the thickness of a weld joint.
Service Impact
Shape and Location
Some acceptance standards permit lack

of fusion in
welds. However, other acceptance standards
do not permit
Lack of penetration is theunfused or unpenetrated

portion of a weld joint (see Figure 12.13).
86

--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
INCOMPLETE FUSION
SECTION 12-DEFECTS AND DlSCONTlNUlTlES OF WELDING
I
INCOMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION
INCOMPLETE
PENETRATION
JOINT
Figure 12.13-Incomplete Penetration
Cause
Lack of penetration is most commonly caused by improper weld joint selection for the weld process used, or
the use of improper welding parameters such as: welding
amperage too low, improper travel speeds, improper polarity, improper filler metal selection, improper filler
metal manipulation, or improper backgouging. Another
error is sometimes just forgetting to weld the opposite
side of a weldjoint. Weld joint designs must be properly
selected for the base metal,filler metal, and welding process used. The welding arc penetration and the weld puddle fluidity depend on these conditions. Unlike mild
steel, low-alloy steels, and stainless steels, high-nickel
and copper alloys do not spread or wet easily.
Figure 12.14-Locations of Porosity
Service Impact
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Few codes permit lack of penetration when afull penetration weld is required. Lackof penetration is a veryserious discontinuity when fatigue is involved (particularly
when the axis of the discontinuity is transverse
to primary
stress). Lack of penetration has resulted in a large percentage of service failures involving ship hulls, piping
systems, pressure vessels, and machinery components.
Lack of fusion that is totally enclosed within a weld
is not
nearly as hazardous as lack of penetration open to a joint
surface (.e., a one-sided joint weld). However, when
properly selected for service, partial penetration joints
welded from one side are desirablejoint designs.
Location
Porosityisalwayslocatedwithinthewelddeposit.
Lack of visual porosity on a weld surface is not an indication of a porosity-free weld.
Cause
Porosity is caused when there is not enough time for
the gas bubble to escape the molten weld metal before
the puddle solidifies. Porosity can be formed by any volatile material being trapped within molten metal; gas
evolving out of the weld from elements that were in solution at a higher temperature; the reduction of metal oxides or nitrides; chemical reactions that create sulfur
dioxide or carbon monoxide gas; and entrapment of
shielding gas. In some metals like aluminum, gaseouselements (most likely hydrogen) will come out of solution
near the solidifying dendrites growing into the liquid
metal. The liquid metal cannot keep the element in
solution as thepuddle cools and solidifies, so the element
collects into a gas pocket. Hydrogen is 20 timesmore
soluble in molten aluminum than in solid aluminum.
Porosity
Definition
Porosity is a void or gaspocketcontainedwithin
a
weld. The gasis entrapped within the weld during the
solidification process (see Figure 12.14).
Shape
The most common shape is spherical; however, porosity can be elongated and extend from one weld pass into
another.
X7

Sources of porosity include:

Moisture in electrode coatings or fluxes.
Shop dirt contaminationof the weldjoint.
Paint.
Oil.
Rust (oxides and nitrides).
Free machining constituents of metals such as sulfur
or selenium.
Excessiveweldingarc
lengths that aspirate atmospheric gas.
Inadequate purgingofequipmentthatuses
external
shielding gases.
Excessive amperage that will
disrupt the shielding gas.
Poorly maintained equipment.
Travel speeds that are too high or too low, etc.
UNDERCUT
OVERLAP
Figure 12.15-Undercut
Porosity can come from so many sources that it is

sometimes difficult to identify the contributing source
and resolve the problem.
Thereisa commonmisconceptionamongwelders
that porosity can be burned out by the following pass,
however, this technique rarely works.
that undercut would contribute to a weld-associatedfailUre other than for critical fatigue applications. The thinner the base metal, the more likely it is that undercut may
affect the service ofthe weldment.
Service Impact
Tungsten Inclusions
Nearly every acceptance standard permits some porosity to be present within aweld. Although weldshave
been removed from service with extensive amounts of
porosity, it is very rare to find porosity leading to service
failures, particularly if the amount of porosity is within
acceptance standard limits.
Definition
Particles of tungsten in a weld or in the adjacent base
metal surface deposited from the electrode used in the
gas tungsten arc welding process (see Figure 12.16).
Shape
Undercut (Including Root Undercut)
The tungsten inclusions may appear as globular

shapes or as splintered or flaked pieces. The inclusions
may occur in clusters or widely distributed particles. The
size of the inclusions may range from several thousandths of an inch to pieces largerthan the tungsten electrode diameter.
Definition, Shape and Location

Undercut is anintermittent or continuous narrow
groove, immediately adjacent toa weld toe, that has been
melted into the base metal and not subsequently filled by
weld metal. Undercut is always a groove that is left
below the adjacent base metal surface. Undercut may be
on either orboth faces of a weld, even if the weld was
made from only one side (see Figure 12.15).
Location
Inclusions can be located completely within the weld
deposit, on the weld surface, or on the adjacent base
metal surface. They most frequently occur at arc starts.
Service Impact
Cause
Undercut has a direct effect on weld performance in

fatigue loading of critical applications. Acceptance standards typically specify that undercut shall not exceed
1/64 in.; however, some standards allow undercut to
1/32 in. deep or 10% of the thickness of the base metal,
whichever is less. Other codes may state only that the
welds are to be reasonably free from undercut. It is rare
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Tungsten inclusions may be caused by excessive amperage for the size of tungsten, dipping the tungsten in
the weld puddle, touching the tungsten with the filler
metal, improperly ground tungsten, linear ruptures in the
tungsten as received from the manufacturer, tungsten
stickout too long,or inadequate shielding gas flow.
88
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STD-AWS DPW-ENGL 3999 m 07842b5 0539582 453 W

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--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 12.16hngsten Inclusions
Service
Tungsten is considered to have a similar effect on service as porosity. Service failures associated with tungsten
are rare, even where the amounts on tungsten exceeded
the acceptance standard. Tungsten inclusions are usually
accepted to the same standard as porosity.
Arc Strikes
Definition
zone
Anarcstrike is caused by unintentionalmelting or

heating of a finished weld or base metal surface by an
electric current. It results in a localized weld and heataffected
12.17-ArcFigure
89


Strikes
of concern. However, if thearc strikes are extensive, light

grinding of the surface may be advisable.
Cause
Arc strikes may be caused by improper manipulation
of the electrode, loose ground clamps, and lowamperage
that causes sticking and dragging of the welding electrode. Even magnetic particleinspection prods can cause
arc strikes, if improperly used.
Service Impact
Arc strikes are critical on heat-treatable steels. An arc
strike area creates a hardened weld and HAZ due to the
extremely rapid quenching caused by the surrounding
metal. Arc strikes should not be permitted on high-speed
rotating shafts particularly if they are made of quenchhardenable steel. Some standardsmay require that all arc
strikes and associated HAZ be removed by grinding.
Arc strike protection of the base metal adjacent to the
weld joint is agood practice and should be maintained
for critical applications.
Figure 12.18-Spatter
Service Impact
Excessive spatter could maska defect during weld inspections and in those areas it must be removed. Some
standards exclude the presence of weld spatter. Spatter
should be considered similar to arc strikes for highly
hardenable heat-treatable metals thatare subject to severe
fatigue loads, such as high-speed rotatingshafts.
Spatter
Definition
Globularmetal particles that are ejectedfromthe
welding arc area. Weld spatter does not form an intentional part of the weld.
Crater Pit
Shape
Definition, Shape, and Location
Spatter is usually spherical or globular in shape.
A crater pit is usually a circular-shaped depression. I t

is a cavity that extends down into a weld at its termination site (weld stop).
Location
Weld spatter may or may not attach or weld itself to
the existing weld or the adjacent base metal (see Figure
12.18).
Cause
Crater pits are caused by a volumetric contraction of
molten metal during solidification andlack of filler metal
to fill the void. It is usually the result of abruptly removing the welding arc or not using current decay with
GTAW. It may be minimized by gradually reducing the
weld current (current decay) at the weld stop, increasing
the travel speed, gradually withdrawingthe welding arc,
or adding additional filler metal at the termination site of
GTAW welds.
Cause
The most frequent causesof weld spatter include: excessive welding current; arc length too long; or short circuiting the welding arc causing a high surge of welding
current that will expel weld spatter. Some spatter is normal with most welding processes except submergedarc
welding and gas tungsten arc welding.
90
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---


Crease
Centerline
Root
Service Impact
Unless crater pits have cracks or other associated weld

defects, they are not expected to cause in-service failures.
Crater pits are not addressed
by most acceptance standards.
An intermittent or continuous shallow linear groove

(centerline crease) concavity formed by distortion or upsetting of the root surface by subsequent weld passes.
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Melt-Through
Burn-Through
A root surface or base metal irregularityon a consumable insert or closed root full penetration joint resulting
in fusion completely
through
a localized region
without
A 'Oid Or
fused and extendinginto the
On
the back side Of a
a backing
strap weld, or open root weld. Droplets of metal may
stick out from this bum-througharea.
development of a void or opening. The melt-through

may
or may not be associated with the weld root.
Incomplete Insert Melting
Oxidation
Incompletemelting of the consumable insert either

with or without the fusion between the insert and the
base metal along one or both sides of the consumable insert (see Figure 12.19).
Root surface oxidation results from partial

or complete lack of purge of atmospheric gases and moisture
from heated or molten weld metal on the root surface of
a
weld joint (see Figure 12.20). This condition may be in
the form of a slight oxidation, a heavy black scale, or an
extremely rough crinkled appearance. Similar conditions
result on the weld face when drafts of air displace the arc
shielding gas and permitoxidation.
Root Concavity
A root surface depression or concavity that may be
due to gravity (weld segment in the overhead position),
surface tension, or too high of an internal purge pressure
on the molten metal. Also, distortion caused by subsequent weld passes can causeconcavity of the root pass. It
is controlled by using the proper joint design, the correct
ORIGINAL INSERT
NOT MELTED
W
L INSERT
NOT
COMPLETELY MELTED
c WELDJOINTINSERT
COMPLETELY MELTED
12.19-Incomplete
Figure
12.20-Oxidation
Figure
Melting
91

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--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
size consumable insert, and proper welding parameters

(i.e., amperage, travel speed, and purge pressure).
Root Convexity
Root weld reinforcement (convexity) that is beyond
the base metal surface which may bedue to gravity (weld
segment in the flat position), surface tension, or low internal purge pressure effects on molten metal (see Figure
12.21). Also, distortion caused
by subsequent weld passes
can cause convexity of the root pass. It is controlled by
using the proper joint design, the correct size consumable insert, and proper welding parameters(Le., amperage, travel speed, and purge pressure).
Figure 12.21-Convexity
ReferencesKRecommended Reading
List
. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual Inspection and Weld Discontinuities (PHB-2). Miami,
American Welding Society.Guide for Nondestructive Inspection of Welds (Bl.10). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.

Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
. Guide f o r Visual Inspection of Welds (B1.11).
"
. Practical Reference Guidefor Radiographic Inspection Acceptance Criteria (PRG). Miami, Fla.:
. Welding Inspection (WI-80). Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
. Welding Inspection Technology(WIT). Miami,

Ha.: American Welding Society.
_"
. Standard Methods f o r Mechanical Testing of

Welds (B4.0). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
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SECTION
13
Nondestructive
Examination
Contents
Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................................
94
When Should NDE Be Performed?

................................................................................................................................
94
Nondestructive Examination Methods..........................................................................................................................
94
Bibliography/Recommended Reading List

.................................................................................................................
93
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102
STDmAWSDPW-ENGL
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1999
T33
SECTION 12NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Section 13-Nondestructive Examination
Introduction
The field of Nondestructive Examination (NDE) provides methods to measure or detect soundness criteria
placed on materialby design requirements.
NDE gathers this information through testing, in such
a way as to not adversely affect the serviceability of the
material; hence, the term nondestructive testing.
Quality cannot be inspected into a material; however,
NDE can ensure that the material has acquired quality attributes. The proper selection and application of NDE to
key phases of fabrication or assembly can save time, material, and money, as well as provide assurance that design requirements are met.
When Should NDE be Performed?

When to perform aninspection can be as important as
selecting an NDE method. After a designer has completed the selection of materials and determined an assembly design, it becomes the fabricators responsibility
to meet those requirements. To do this, inspection mile
markers are essential.
repair, base metal defect repair, and other repair welding

should be inspected prior to welding. A nondestructive
test of the repair area and surrounding material can be
used to determine the extent of defects and ensure part
soundness before repair welding begins.
Finished Product Inspection

With the proper selection and application of various
NDE methods, NDE can provide overall quality assurance of the finished product.
In-Service Inspection
Maintenance inspection can be scheduled to meet the
service needs of a product. Monitoring of known and
suspected wear and stress areas with NDE can determine
the frequency ofservice required.
Nondestructive Test Methods
Receipt Inspection
Raw materials thatmeetspecification requirements
are essential for high-quality fabrication. Various NDE
methods often provide a quick and relatively inexpensive
way to verify the materials properties or identification.
When material problems or discrepancies are caught at
this stage, rather than during fabrication or in service,
savings of time and money can be immense.
Visual Inspection Testing (VT)

VT provides important information about weld conformance and practical quality control. VT uses trained
observation and attention to requirements as the primary
inspection criteria. Although visual inspection is exclusively a surface application, experience and training can
reveal discontinuities such as surface porosity and some
types of surface cracks, weld bead contour and roughness, bead placement, residual slag and oxide films, undercut, joint misalignment, and other indicators of
potential inferior quality. Adequate lighting, cleaning of
inspection area, and specific inspection standards are required to effectively ensure quality. See Table 13.l.
In-Process Inspection
During fabrication, visual inspection of the joint designs, weld preparations, and the deposited weld metal
provides evidence of a quality product. In-processinspection ensures that quality is built into an assembly and
can reduce final inspection requirements. Welding applications that involve weld buildup for corrosionor wear
94

--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
There is a wide variety of NDE methods available today. More than one may be used on the same weldment.
The various test methods do not necessarily compete
with each other. For detailed military requirements see
MIL-STD-271 and MIL-STD-278. The following sections present a brief overview ofmajor NDE methods.
STD-AWS DPW-ENCL 3999
D78Y2b5 0539588 9 7 T 111

Advantages Disadvantages
Best method for detecting weld
bead contour and roughness, weld
bead placement, residual slag,
undercut, and joint misalignment.
Limited to surface and

alignment attributes.
No easily recordable
permanent record.
Minimal equipment required.

Very fast and economical to use.
Results are obtained immediately.
Cannot reliably detect

some types of surface
cracks.
Precleaning
Does not interfere with other work

in the area.
The test surface must be cleaned (usually with isopropyl alcohol) to remove contaminants to allow the penetrant to penetrate surface discontinuities
(see Figure 13.1).
Results are obtained immediately.
VT inspection acceptance criteria mustfirst be defined. VT provides a simple method of examination with
diverse applications and can be used in all phases of fabrication. Welders and fitters should continuously compare their product to the fabrication requirements. Inprocess observations should include joint alignment,
the
presence of cracks and surface porosity, the condition of
the weld crater, weld bead contour and placement, and
weld size.
In addition to a clean inspection area, lighting and surface finish are important factors for visual inspection.
Background lighting should be supplemented witha portable light directed atthe inspection area.The light should
be moved as a pointer to focus attention as the inspection
progresses. Areas that are questionable and need additional attention should be marked and inspected again.
Poor surface finish may mask surface discontinuities.
It is recommended that paint be removed andthe inspection preparation be extended a minimum of 1 in. beyond
the weld, or as required by the fabrication standard.
The following tests are often helpful aids to V T
Table 13.2
Penetrant Testing
Advantages
Disadvantages
Well suited to nonmagnetic Detection is limited to

materials that cannot be
discontinuities open to the test
inspected with MT.
surface.
(1) Visual. Color and written codes help identify material composition and characteristics.
(2) Magnification. It is often beneficial to use magnification as an aid to VT. However, it should be usedfor
acceptance only where specified in the inspection
requirements.
Inspection materials/
equipment are relatively
low cost, easy to use, and
highly portable.
Temperatures are restricted

(typically 50 to 100F) but hightemperature penetrants, up to
500F,are available.
Test results are easy to

interpret.
Post cleaning of penetrant and

developer is required.
Results are obtained

immediately.
Some penetrants are flammable

and some require special disposal.
Complex equipment not

required.
Some inspection materials can be

corrosive to sensitive base metals.
Personnel are easy to train
Inspection process is time

consuming (typically one hour per
inspection).
No practical limit to
specimen size.
Capable of detecting very

small (0.003) linear and
rounded indications.
Does not interfere with
other work in the area.
Penetrant Testing (PT)
Coatings such as paint and scale

must be removed prior to
inspection.
No easily recordable permanent

record of actual surface
indications.
Rough and porous surfaces can
hide actual indications and create
false indications.
A liquid penetrant (dye) is applied to the surface being

inspected, which penetrates any discontinuities open to
the surface. When the excess penetrant is removed and a
95

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developer is applied, the dye that bleeds out of the discontinuities provides a visible indication of the flaw.
PT is typically used to inspect forgings, castings, extrusions, and weldments of most solid, nonporous materials. The surface being inspected must be sufficiently
smooth to allow removal of excess dye without over
cleaning the test surface. If open to the inspection surface, all weld and base metal defects can be detected including cracks, lack of bond,cold shuts, edge lamination,
shrinkage areas, laps, and open porosity. The portability
of PT materials make them an ideal toolfor field inspection. See Table 13.2.
Table 13.1
Visual Inspection Testing
STD.AWS DPW-ENGL m 9 m
Figure 13.2-Penetrant on Test Surface

and in Crack
Figure 13.1-Cleaned Test Surface
Applying Penetrant
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
After the cleaners have evaporated, a liquid penetrant

is applied and allowed time to penetrate discontinuities
by capillary action (see Figure 13.2). Both color contrast
dye, which can be seen with visible light, and fluorescent
dye, which can only be seen with ultraviolet light, are
commonly used, depending on the specific application.
Removing Excess Penetrant

The excess penetrant not remaining in the discontinuities is removed (see Figure 13.3). There are three basic
categories of penetrants based on the method of their removal: post emulsifier, which becomes water soluble
after the emulsifierhas been applied; solvent washable,
which requires solvents to remove the penetrant; and
washable, which is removed with water.
Figure 13.SExcess Penetrant Removed
Applying Developer
The developer is evenly applied on the test surface.
Adequate time is allowed for it to act as a blotter for
the discontinuity (see Figure 13.4). The test surface is
then examined with visible light, when color contrast
dyes are used, or with ultraviolet light, when fluorescent
dyes are used.
Postcleaning
After the test surface has been evaluated, it is cleaned
(usually with isopropyl alcohol) to remove the developer
and any remaining penetrant.
Figure 13.4-Visible Indication after

Application of Developer
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A magneticfield (flux) is applied to theinspection

area (see Figure 13.5). The field is maintained while an
iron oxide powder is evenly applied to the surface. If a
discontinuity causes asufficiently strong disruption (flux
leakage) of the magnetic field, it willattract the iron particles. The stronger the flux leakage, the stronger the
forces of magnetic attraction (see Figure 13.6). The
greatest flux leakage occurs when the major dimension
of the discontinuity is perpendicular to the direction of
the magnetic lines of force. Conversely, where thereis no
disruption of the field, the particles are easily removed
by blowing them off with regulated air (when using dry
MT method)or by letting them flowoff with a liquid medium (when usingthe wet MT method) (see Figure 13.7).
When the field is oriented at 45 degrees or greater from
perpendicular, the flux leakage is undependablefor discontinuity detection. For that reason, the field must be
oriented in at least two directions (angled at from 30 to
45 degrees from each other) to ensure adequateflux leakage. The MTmethod is limited to the inspectionof ferromagnetic materials and can detect surface and (under
certain conditions) near-surface discontinuities. MT is
typically used to inspect ferromagnetic castings, weldments, extrusions, forgings, and components subject to
cracking. See Table 13.3.
\Discontinuity
Figure 13.5-U-Shaped Magnet in

Contact with a Ferromagnetic Material
Containing a Discontinuity
Precleanng
Usuallygrinding
or needle gunning to remove
paint, slag, and scale is sufficient precleaning. The iron
particles must be allowed to migrate freely across the inspection surface.
Figure 13.6Throat Crack in a

Fillet Weld Root
Applying the Magnetic Particles

The iron oxide particles are applied to the surface of
the test area while the electrical current is still producing
the magnetic field. There are two widely used methods of
doing this:
(1) Dry Method-in which a thin, even coat of dry
iron oxide particles are sprinkled or dusted ontothe surface. There are a choice of colors available to provide a
color contrast on the test surface.
(2) Wet Method-in which iron
oxide particles are
suspended in water, keroseneor a petroleum distillate.
The liquid is allowed to flow onto the test surface. Florescent coatings are usually added to the particles to enhance their visibility.
Lines of forca
wwin and on
surface ol the part
current
Longitudinal Magnetism
Establishing the Magnetic Field
Figure 13.7-Direct Method

(Longitudinal Magnetism)
There are four primary methods used to establish the

magnetic field within the part being inspected. The
97

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Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
Table 13.3
Magnetic Particle Testing
Advantages
Inspection materials
and equipment are
relatively low cost,
easy to use, and
highly portable.
Disadvantages
Crack parallel to lioes

nt force will NOT show
Limited to ferromagnetic materials.

An electrical power source is
required.

immediately.
Personnel are easy
and economical to
train.
Inspection time is
relatively short.
No practical limit to
specimen size.
Other work in the area
is not disturbed.
record.
Circular Magnetism
Multiple inspections (angled 30 to

45 degrees from each other) may be
required in order to detect all linear
discontinuities.
Figure 13.8-Central Conductor

(Circular Magnetism)
Degaussing may be required

(especially for machinery
applications).
are most easily detected. Defectsoriented perpendicular

to the length of the centra1 conductor cannot be detected
with this method since the direction of the magnetic field
cannot be maneuvered beyond that as shown.
Does not reliably detect rounded

discontinuities.
Inaccurate interpretation of
nonrelevant indications may result
from changes in:
Sectional geometry.
Heat treatment.
Magnetic permeability.
Magnetic writing.
(3) Wrapped Coil Method. A magnetic field can be

established by placing a wire coil around a longitudinal
part. As the current flows through the coil, alongitudinal
field is set up around the conductor and within the part.
Linear discontinuities lying perpendicular to the
axis of
the part are most easily detected. Defects oriented in line
with the length of the part cannot be detectedwith this
method, since the directionof the magnetic field cannot
be maneuvered beyond thatas shown.
geometry of the part and defect orientation usually determine which method or methods are used to inspect a
given part.
(4) Yoke Method. A magnetic field can be established as shown in Figure 13.9 by placing a yoke in contact with the flat surface of the part. When coupled with
the part, the magneticfield in the yoke induces a corresponding field in the part. No current from the yoke
flows into the part. The magnetic flux lines within the
part flow between the two ends of the yoke. Linear discontinuities lying perpendicular to the line connecting
the yoke ends are most easily detected.
(1) Direct Method. A magnetic field can be established as shown in Figure 13.8 by passing an a-c or d-c
current directly into thetest area with electrodes placed
in contact with the part. The magnetic flux lineswithin
the part run perpendicular to the currentpath that flows
between the two electrodes. Linear discontinuitieslying
parallel with a line connecting the two electrodes are
most easily detected. This method is best suited to flat
surfaces. Care must be taken whentesting certain materials with high hardenability to avoid moving the electrodes while the current is flowing. This can result in arc
strikes which result in very small, and potentially very
hard, heat-affected zones.
(2) CentralConductorMethod. A magnetic field
can be established by placing a central conductor within
a hollow cylindrical part. As the current flows through
the conductor, a cylindrical magnetic field is set up
around the conductor and within the part. Linear discontinuities lying perpendicularwith the central conductor
Removing the Excess Magnetic Particles

While the electrical current is still producing the magnetic field, the excess particlesare blown off with lowpressure air (when the dry method is used) or they are allowed to run off (when the wet method is used).If done
properly, only the particles attracted by the flux leakage
will remain. After the test surface has been evaluated, it
is easily cleaned, usually by brushing or wiping, to remove any remaining particles.
98


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Test results are easy to

interpret.
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SECTION l %"NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
SURCH
Figure 13.10"Sound Deflection

from a Discontinuity
tered by internal conditions and the geometric shape of

the test piece. A rapid succession of pulses (creating a
beam) are received and displayed on a cathode ray tube
(CRT) (for thickness measurements, a digital display
may be used) as spikes (blips). The blips (or lack of
blips) are evaluated as to their horizontal distance on the
CRT, their height, and their shape. These CRT presentations in turn are compared to known physical standards.
Like miniature sonar, UT can be used to detect, locate,
and in some cases describethe shape of discontinuities.
See Table 13.4.
Figure 13.9-Yoke Method
Discontinuity Detection
MTmaybeusedto
detect many surface andnearsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. These
include all types of cracks, voids, inclusions and laminations. As these discontinuities become closer to the surface and sharper (less rounded) they become easierto
detect.
Applications
Ultrasonic Testing(UT)
Pulses of ultrahigh-frequencysound
are produced
when a pulsed electrical current is used to "shock" a
piezoelectric transducer (search unit) (see Figure 13.10).
The pulses are dissipated rapidly in air; therefore, they
must be coupled onto the test piece through a liquid,
couplant medium. The transducer is then electrically
switched to receive (or another searchunit can be designated to receive) the reflected pulses which have been al-
In addition to being able to detect the discontinuities

mentioned below, UT can be used to accurately measure
thickness, loss of thickness, determine soundness,investigate attachment location, determine bond quality, and
determine liquid levels. It can do so by passing through
plastic, metal, glass, ceramic, and other materials from
one side only.
Ultrasonic Wave Types

Both longitudinal andshearwavesarecommonly
used for ultrasonic inspection. Longitudinal waves are
propagated into the test material at an angle normal to its
99

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Disadvantages
Advantages
Modem equipment is
highly sensitive,
programmable and
portable.
immediately.
Intemal discontinuities in
the proper orientation are
easily detected.
High initial cost for equipment

and training.
Equipment is complex and
fragile.
Considerable operator skill and
experience is required to
interpret the results.
Accurate location of the

discontinuity.
The test surface must physically

conform to the search unit
contact surface, grinding and
paint removal may be necessary.
Access is required from

one sideonly.
Poor surface and near-surface

resolution.
Excellent sensitivity.
Linear discontinuities lying

parallel to the plate surface are
readily detected.
Process can be automated

for rapid inspection of
plate and bar stock.
ET is a NDE method whereby a coil, energized with

high-frequency alternating current, produces an alternating magnetic field which
is introduced into the test material (see Figure 13.11). The field induces alternating
currents (eddy currents) in the metal. The eddy
currents, in
turn, produce a weaker, alternating magnetic field which
opposes the primary field. A second coil, used as areference, is electrically bridged (i.e.,inserted into a commercial Wheatstone induction bridge configuration) with
the primary coil. As the primary coil is moved across the
test material, the bridge electrically compares both coils.
If the eddy current field moves within
range of a discontinuity or change in material properties, the magnitude and
direction of the eddy currents are altered. This change of
eddy current density changesthe inductive reactance of
the primary coil.These variations are registered on anoutput device and,depending on the sensitivity of theelectrical instrumentation, can be used to locate discontinuities
or variations in the test material. Due to the skin effect
of both the eddy currents and the primary
current, the coil
is limited todetecting surface and near-surface parameters.
The depth of effective penetrationis determined by the primary coil power output and frequency.
See Table 13.5.

record.
Linear discontinuities
lying perpendicular to the
plate surface are readily
detected.
Large grain metal castings

(i.e., 300 series stainless) can be
difficult to inspect.
surface. They are mainly used for thickness and soundness examination. Shear waves are introduced into the
test material at an angle offset from normal to the surface. Shear wave frequency is much greater than that of
longitudinal frequencies. For that reason, their resolving
power is also much greater. Discontinuities whose major
dimension is oriented parallel to the ultrasound path are
difficult to detect with both wavetypes. Very thin materials are also difficult to examine with longitudinal and
shear waves.
Ultrasonic shear waves are able to detect:
Internal cracks and surface cracks on far side only.
Cold shuts.
Porosity.
Nonmetallic inclusions.
Voids.
Ultrasonic longitudinal waves are able to detect:
Laminations.
Porosity.
Nonmetallic inclusions.
Voids.
Figure 13.11-Induced Eddy Currents in

Test Object
100


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Eddy Current Testing (ET)
Table 13.4
Ultrasonic Testing
SECTION 13-NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Table 13.5
Eddy Current Testing
Advantages
Disadvantages
A permanent record can be

produced with special com-
The depth of the inspection area

is limited to about 1/4 inch
puter techniques.
(depending on the frequency of

the primary coil).
Equipment is low to
moderate cost and portable.
Some techniquesare easily
automated.
Some techniques/
procedures allow the paint
to remain on the test
surface.
Some techniquesallow the
inspection surface to be
wet, oily, or greasy if the
primary coil is waterproof.
Some types of equipment are

expensive and complex.
Some techniques require
expensive training.
The final evaluation is
dependent on inspector
interpretation.
The surface must be sufficiently
smooth and clean to keep the
test coil at a consistent distance
from the surface.
Applications
ET can be used to identify and classify materials
by
comparing them to a standard. Thickness measurements
of thin sheet materials and nonconductive coatings are
also common. Surface and subsurface discontinuities can
also be detected which may be related to welding or
other fabrication processes.
practical depth of detection, which is typically no more

than 114 in.
Radiographic Testing (RT)

RT uses the penetrating power of X-rays or gamma
rays to produce an imageof the interior conditions of the
test material on film (see Figure 13.12). The material is
positioned between thesource of radiation and a piece of
unexposed film. After going through the test material,
the rays expose the film. The film is developed, revealing
any change in thickness of the material by the variation
of shades of gray (film density) of the film. The pattern
and degree of variation in film density is used to determine the type, size, and position of the discontinuity, and
ultimately determine its acceptability. See Table 13.6.
RT is capable of detecting all of the discontinuities
detectable with VT, MT, PT, and also most subsurface
discontinuities, some of which may not be detectable
with UT. RT is most sensitive to discontinuities whose
major dimension is aligned with the source beam,
whereas UT is most sensitive to discontinuities whose
major dimension is perpendicular to the sound beam.
Limitations
The application of RT for weld inspection is largely
dependent on thelocation of the joint in the weldment,
the joint configuration, and section thickness. These factors may combine to limit the best use of RT and favor
another method. Oneof the primary limitations of RT is
its difficulty in detecting cracks or other closeddiscontinuities which are not aligned with the source beam. Multiple shots at various angles can be used to detect most
Advantages
The primary advantage of ET over other methods is
that it canbe completely automated and produce accurate
results at high speeds without ever contacting thepart
being tested. ET is, therefore, especially well suited to
continuous production lines. Another advantage is that
the signal generated by ET is often proportional to the
size of the discontinuity detected.
Limitations
Surface cleanliness is important for accurate results,
since any magnetic particles on the surface may cause
nonrelevant indications. The majorlimitation of ET is
that the primary coil design must be compatible with the
part geometry and defect or attribute type being investigated. Care must also be used when calibrating the ET
equipment with a reference standard as this will determine the accuracyof the results.Another limitation is the
FILM
Figure 13.12-Orientation of Radiation

Source, Test Plate, and RadiographicFilm
101


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STD.AWS D P W - E N ~ L
SECTION 13-NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
cially true for field work. For these reasons,RT should

only be required where absolutely necessary. When properly trained personnel use well-maintained equipment
according to approved procedures, RT is a safe and viable NDE method that plays a valuable role in assuring
that the required quality is obtained.
Table 13.6
Radiographic Testing
Disadvantages
Advantages
Permanent records easily
obtained.
High initial cost for equipment

and training.
Internal discontinuities in
the proper orientation are
easily detected.
An electrical power source is

required (except gamma).
ReferencedRecommended Reading
List
High hazard potential.

Excellent sensitivity.
American Welding Society.Guidefor Nondestructive Inspection of Welds (Bl.10). Miami Fla.: American
Welding Society.
Laminations and other linear

discontinuities lying parallel to
the plate surface are difficult to
detect.
Wide variety of materials

may be tested.
Linear discontinuities lying
perpendicular to the plate
surface are easily detected.
. Guide f o r Visual Inspection of Welds (B1.11).

Considerable time required

for setup, exposure, and
interpretation of results.
. Practical Reference Guidefor Radiographic Inspection Acceptance Criteria (PRG). Miami, Fla.:
. Standard Methods f o r Mechanical Testing of

Welds (B4.0). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
discontinuities; however, due to limited accessibility,
multiple shots are often not possible. When cracks are
suspected to occur in a critical applications, another
NDE method such as UT may be a better choice.
. The Everyday Pocket Handbookf o r Visual Inspection and Weld Discontinuities-Causes and Remedies (PHB-2). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
Society.
Radiation Hazard

Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
. Welding Inspection(W-80). Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
. Welding Inspection Technology(WIT). Miami,
102

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One unique disadvantage with RT is that radiation exposure to humans can result in permanent injury and
death, without the individual ever knowing they were exposed. The necessary precautionsthat must be taken to
protect the health of workers in the area accounts for
much of the expense associated with RT. This is espe-
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Information
for the Welder
Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................
104
Material ..........................................................................................................................................................................
104
Filler Material ................................................................................................................................................................
104
Welding Process .............................................................................................................................................................
104
Quality Control and Quality Assurance

......................................................................................................................
105
Weld Size and Penetration............................................................................................................................................ 105

Distortion Control.........................................................................................................................................................
105
Standards andSpecifications........................................................................................................................................ 105

Welding Department Required Information Facilitated by the Design Engineer/Technical Support
.................. 105
BibliographylRecornmendedReading List ................................................................................................................. 107
103

STD-AWS DPW-ENGL 1999 H 07842b5 0519597
FOR THE WELDER
Section 14-Information for the Welder
welding on metals strengthened by cold rolling or age

hardening will cause substantial loss in strength in the
HAZ. The chemistry determines the electrode typeand
heat treatment required to achieve the desired mechanical
properties. Although specific information is usually provided by a welding engineer, many machine-shop weld
repairs require material background by shop supervision
beyond that of the average welder. This additional information is helpful in making proper weld repairs. If the
base material is low-alloy steel and is being welded in
the final heat-treated condition, care must be taken so
that post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) does not exceed
the tempering temperature of the base material. If the
item is being heat treated after welding, a welding material that will respond similarly to the base material must
be selected. Improper heat treatment can cause loss of
mechanical and corrosion-resistant properties.
Introduction
For the welding department to joincomponents into a
product that will perform in service, the engineer must
communicate to the welder the exact requirements of the
design and quality control necessary to ensure that the
part is built as designed. To perform this function, the engineer may call on other experts to assist him. The welding department would provide information on equipment
and welding skills available to perform the work. The
metallurgist would provide information on material selections and their behavior, and provide procedures for
heat treating to achieve the desired mechanical properties. The welding engineer would provide information on
welding and provide the welding procedures. Welding
procedures can be written to cover a variety of situations
and base material grades. Because of this, details of the
procedure should be clarified to the welding department
by the design engineer. Documentation requirements
should be detailed on the engineering instruction with
clear direction to access forms or with copies of forms to
be filled out and attached. In most organizations, the
quality assurance requirements are buried deep in corporate procedures and difficult for the welder to uncover.
The procedures should be interpreted by the engineer,
and details provided to the welder. The term welder as
used in this section refers to the actual production welder
or his immediate supervisor.
The filler material should be specified by the welding

procedure or the engineering instruction. The welding
procedure should be reviewed to ensure that it is clearin
selecting the correct filler material. Some welding procedures are written to cover a variety of materials and situations and need to be clarified for the welder at time
of
use.
Material
Welding Process
A welder must know the base material to determine a

correct welding procedure. Providing material specifications to the welder ensures that he has this information.
In some special cases, the production welding supervisor
or welder must know the base material chemistry, along
with the mechanical requirements. Some specifications
only specify physical requirements, i.e., tensile and yield
strengths. These types of specifications allow a variety of
materials to be used for the end product. In other cases,
Each organization assigns the responsibility of process selection to different groups at different levels of
management. In todays world of CAD/CAM,
productivity improvements, and quality demands, the welding
equipment may be preselected by engineering and specified by the work document. In other cases,the selection
is left to the production shop foreman or the welder performing the work. Quality, weld appearance, productivity, qualifications, welder skills, equipment, and
Filler Material
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SECTION 14-INFORMATION
982
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SECTION 14-INFORMATION FOR THE WELDER
available electrode, all can influence the process selection and determine the end product cost. The jobmay require cleanliness levels to the point that flux and other
leftover items cannot be tolerated,e.g., work inside a nuclear plant. A high-quality, but slower welding process
can sometimes be more productive than the faster welding process that requires rework.The welding instruction
should specify the welding process or specify that the
process is the choice of the welding department.
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Quality Control and Quality

Assurance
Quality control and quality assurance can be confusing to the welder. The quality assurance requirements are
usually specified in some corporate document that is referenced on the engineering instructions. Because of this,
the welder gathers quality control information mostly by
word of mouth. Itis rare that a welder will spend his time
reviewing documents to determine the quality control
and quality assurance requirements. The welder will usually seek the information from a person that he knows is
familiar with the work. Surprisingly, this system works
quite well. However, theprocess can be improveda great
deal by providing this information via thework instruction. Information as to what inspections are required and
when, and what documents need to be completed will
help the job progress and avoid costly rework. For quality control and quality assurance, the more detailed the
information to the specific task and the easier it is for a
welder to understand, the better the job will progress.
Preferably, the welderis given a sheet of specific instructions to accomplish the desired work. The welder should
also know whether heis qualified to theappropriate standards to perform the work required.
dimension required. When hardfacing materials or

corrosion-resistance materials are being applied to improve service performance, the minimum material thickness should be specified.
Distortion Control
Allwelding creates distortion,which is caused by
shrinkage of the weld nugget duringsolidification. Welding shrinkage cannot be eliminated, but it can be controlled, through design and fabrication methods. The
assembly must be designed to allowfor the weld shrinkage that will occur. Weld sequencing and restraints can
be used to control the shrinkage in a desired direction.
Different welding processes will produce a different
amount of shrinkage. In general, the faster the welding
process and the more weld produced per pass, the less
shrinkage and distortion will occur. Also a smallerjoint
design cross section reduces shrinkage. A square butt
joint, with no bevel, and welded with the submerged arc
process would produce theleast amount of shrinkage.
Standards and Specifications

Specifyingstandards,specifications,andapplicable
revisions on the engineering instructions can be helpful
in
solving problems and answering unanticipated questions;
also, providing phone numbersof persons or departments
that have technical authority helps to resolve problems
quickly. Most standards cover avariety of work, so it is
wise to spell out the category
the work fits, i.e., high pressure and temperature pipingor low temperature and pressure piping, such as pressure vessel category. See Figure
14. l .
Welding Department Required

Information Facilitatedby the Design
Engineermechnical Support
Weld Size and Penetration

Joint configuration, buildup thickness, andor weld efficiency (Le., full penetration) should be clearly specified
to the welder. Fillet and partial penetration welds are the
most economical and are frequently used. In most structural fabrication shops, the routine of using partial penetration welds can cause errors when full penetration
welds are required and not clearly identified. This error
has caused serious rework in many instances. Proper and
consistent use of welding symbols is imperative and
AWS A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and
Nondestructive Examination, is a national standard,
Weld buildup, as in machinery repair work, should be
specified in final finish dimensions. The welder should
determine how much metal to apply to achieve the finish
Coordinate Decisions with FabricationShop

Prior to Issuing Instructions
(1) Description of work.
(2) Drawing numbers.
(3) Volume of work.
(4) Is process preselected? By whom?
(5) Details of selected process/equipment.
(6) Welding procedure.
(7) Status of welding procedure? Qualified?
(8) Base material specification.
(9) Base material chemistry (special cases).
105


FOR THE WELDER
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WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION

Company Name
Welding Process(es)
Supporting PQR No.(s)
JOINT DESIGN USED
TYP e z
Single WeldDouble Weld
Backing:Yes No
Backing Material:
Root Opening: Root Face:
Groove Angle: Radius (J-U):
Back Gouging:
BASE METALS
Material Specification:
Type or Grade:
Thickness:Groove Fillet
FILLER METALS
AWS Specification
AWS Classification
WPS#
Rev Date
BY
Type:ManualMachineSemiAutomatic
: Automatic
POSITION
Groove: Fillet:
Vertical Progression:
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Transfer Mode (GMAW)
Current AC DCEN DCEP
Other
Tungsten Electrode (GTAW)
TECHNIQUE
Bead: String Weave
Pass: MultipleSingle
Number of Electrodes:
Electrode Spacing Longitudinal Lateral
Contact Tube to Work Distance:
Peening:
Interpass Cleaning:
SHIELDING
Flux: Electrode/Flux Class
Gas:Composition:
Flow Rate: Gas Cup Size:
PREHEAT
Preheat
Temperature,
Minimum:
Pass or
Layers
Process
Filler Metals
Class
Dia.
POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT

Temperature:
Time:
Interpass Temperature,
maximum
Current
Type
Amps
Volts
Travel
Speed
I-
Joint D
We, the undersigned, certify that this Welding Procedure Specification meets the requirementsof
ANSI/AWS D1 . l .
Company
BY
Date
Figure 14.1Typical WPS

106

07842b5 0519b00 2T7 9

FOR THE WELDER
. Suggested Filler Materials for Welding Struc-
(10) Basematerialmechanicalrequirements(special
cases).
(1 1) Base material post weld heat treatrequirements.
(12) Filler material.
( 13) Joint type and weld penetration requirement.
(14) Inspectionrequirementsandwheninspection
is
to be performed.
(15) Acceptance criteria.
(16) Documentation (record) requirements, and who is
required to record andor certify.
(17) Specify the responsible oftice of the design engineer, welding engineer, andjob specialist.
(1 8) Standards applicable to this job.
(19) Whom to contact when questions arise.
tural Steels (chart). Miami, Fla.: American Welding

Society.
. Suggested Preheat Temperatures for Welded

Structural Steel Materials (chart). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Arc Welding
Steel (PHB-I). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
Society.
. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Gas Metal
Arc Welding (GMAW) and FluxCored Arc Welding
(FCAW) (PHB-4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
Society.
. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for GasMetal
Arc Welding (GMAW) of Aluminum (PHB-8). Miami,
List
, The Everyday Pocket Handbook f o r Shielded

Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)(PHB-7). Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society. WELDPERFECT The Easy

Guide to Perfect Welding (WPERF). Miami, Fla.:
. The Everyday Pocket Handbook f o r Visual Inspection and Weld Discontinuities-Causes and Remedies (PB-2). Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual Inspection of AWS Dl.1, Structural Welding CodeSteel, Fabrication and Welding Requirements (PHB-6).
. Joint Weld Terminology and Standard Welding

Symbol Interpretation (textbook). Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
. Lens Shade Selector(F2.2). Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
. The EverydayPocket Handbook on Metric Practices f o r the Welding Industry (PHB-5). Miami, Fla.:
. Prequalified Joint Details in AWS D 1.1, Structural Welding Code-Steel (chart). Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
. The Everyday Pocket Handbook on Welded Joint

Details for Structural Applications (PHB-3). Miami,
. Standard f o r Welding Procedure and Performance Qualification (B2.1). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
. Welding Symbols (chart). Miami,Fla.: American Welding Society.
107
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~~
STD-AWS DPW-ENGL L999 E 07842b5 OSL9b01 L33 m
Fitting Aids
Contents
Background .................................................................................................................................................................... 1 10
1 10
Fitting Aid Categories...................................................................................................................................................
1 11
Bibliography/Recommended Reading List .................................................................................................................
1 17
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Current Problems in Fabrication

.................................................................................................................................
109

STD=AWS DPW-ENGL L997
0384265 0519b02 07T
SECTION 15"FIlTING AIDS
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Section 15-Fitting Aids
problems during the fabrication process. Edges and surface conditions are not alwaysas they should be and need
to be checked when materials enter the plant. Mill tolerances are often excessive and can add up during fabrication, if not found before the material is used. The
cumulative effect of this may result in excessive localized stress and distortion.
Background
The use of fitting aids has been and will continue to
be an integral part of fabrication. Fitting aids were in use
when the ancients built the first wooden ships. Since
then, the methods used for fitting and aligning have
changed. Over the past one hundred years, materials and
fabrication methods havechanged dramatically.
Currently,buildingmaterials are mainly ferrous alloys. Non-ferrous metals, composites, and wood are used
in a small portion of the total fabrication. All of these
materials have flaws, inaccuracies, and stresses that will
manifest themselves during the fabrication process as
distortions of one sort or another. This, and the need to
hold and align components, create the basic need for fitting aids.
It may be said that a fitting aid is a method or device
used to holdor align (or both) twoor more parts ina predetermined location. They may also be used to correct
distortion while assembling components of structures,
and the structures themselves. The ideal situation would
be to use the minimum number of aids possible, but unfortunately, inherent flaws in the materials and other influencing factors seem to prohibit this.
It is important to have a knowledge of the available
aids so that an intelligent choice may be made for any
particular application. Current technology, such as line
heating, can dramatically increasethe accuracy of parts,
assemblies, and overall fabrication. Use of such technology should decrease the need for fitting, while increasing
productivity.
Storage and Handling

Storage and handling of such materials as plate, pipe,
shapes, and castings can have a deleterious effect on surface condition and dimensional accuracy if done improperly. Problems occur when material is handled roughly
or
misused while instorage.
Burning and Cutting

Burning or cutting operations can greatly increase the
accuracy of assemblies if performed correctly.
The heat of
cutting may cause shrinkage and other distortions that must
be monitored and offset. Edge conditionmust be held to
specifications or fitting and welding time will be increased.
Forming and Shaping

When material is mechanically formed on rolls
or similar equipment, deformation results. This causes stresses
that will, in turn, cause distortion when stresses are relieved
by the heat of welding
or cutting, removalof portions of the
material and any heat treatments. Other than forming parts
by line heating, thereis little that canbe done to eliminate
or reduce stresses setin by mechanical forming. All operations must be closely watched to ensure accuracy.
Current Problems in Fabrication
Fitting and Welding
The problem of inaccuracy is many-faceted and begins before the materialenters the plant.
Stresses induced by fitting restraints, large gaps, and

welding are well known.These stresses result in distortion
and deviation from design. These problems can
be reduced
by obtaining precise fitting, reducing the amount
of welding and sequencing welding to minimize distortion.
Foundry and Mill

Problems start with the way many materialsare made.
Stresses from rolling mills and heat treatments cancause
110

SECTION 15-FIlTING AIDS
Fitting AidCategories
The fitting aid devices documented herein are classified by their primary method of mechanical advantagein
their design. Some of the aids shown use a combination
of methods for force application.
Wedge devices (see Figures 15.1-15.4).
Threaded devices (see Figures 15.5-15.8).
Hydraulic devices (see Figures 15.9-15.10).
Pneumatic devices (see Figure 15.11).
Gear-pulley devices (see Figures 15.12-15.13).
Magnetic devices (see Figures 15.14-15.15).
Strongbacks (see Figure15.16).
Padeyes, stays, and cables (see Figures 15.17-15.19).
Jigs, mocks, and fixtures (see Figures 15.20-15.22).
Figure 15.2-Weld-On Saddle
Wedge Devices (Figures 15.1-15.4)

Wedge, a piece of hard material, as wood or metal, tapering from a thick board to a thin edge that can be
driven or forced into a narrow opening. Configurations
are usually made from one-inch-thick steel plate and are
typically 12 in. and 17 in. in length.
Figure 15.3-Yoke and Pin
Step-Cut Dog, alsoknown as dog,a metaldevice

used for holding or backing the force applied by a wedge
or other tool. This device is attached by welding.
Weld-On Saddle, also known as U dog yoke and
hairpin, a U- or L-shaped metal device used in conjunction with a wedge to straddle and hold one part to
another.
Yoke and Pin, also known as clip and wedge, a flat
metal plate with an oblong hole, usedin conjunction with
wedges or bull pins to align edges of plate.
Pulldown, a metaldeviceweldedormechanically
fastened to the part at one end and slotted at the other,
used in conjunction with a wedge and anchor clip to pull
one part toward another.
Figure 15.4-Pulldown
Threaded Devices(Figures 15.5-15.8)

Push-Pull Jack, also known as steamboat jack and
ratchet jack, a device having a ratcheting sleeve with opposite internal threads at each end or with an internal
thread at one end and a swivel at the other. The effective
length of the device can be changedby rotating the sleeve
or swivel.
Figure 15.1-Wedge and Step-Cut Dog

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111
Figure 15.5-Push-Pull Jack
Thrnbuckle, a device having a metal loop or sleeve

with opposite internal threads at each end or with an
internal thread at one end and aswivel at the other. The
effective length of the device can be changed by the
sleeve or swivel.
JackingClamp, any number of deviceswhich are
booked or welded having a screw at one end to apply
force for aligning.
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Clip and Bolt, a deviceconsisting of an angle support

and a headless bolt, and used to pull parts toward each
other. The angle support andbolt can be weldedor mechanically fastened.
Figure 15.6-firnbuckle
PortableHydraulicRam,
also known as Portapower and Enerpack, a hydraulic device having an oil
reservoir and a single- or double-acting cylindrical piston, used for lifting, pushing and holding parts together.
Used where short reach or stroke is required and in conjunction with other devices for fitting.
Hydraulic Devices(Figures 15.9-15.10)

Hydraulic Jack, also known as buda jack and bottle
jack, a hydraulic and geared device having a singleor double-acting cylindrical piston used for hoisting or
lifting.
Figure 15.7-Jacking Clamp

112

SECTION 15-FITTING
Figure 15.8-Clip and Bolt
AIDS
Figure 15.11-Vacuum Saddle
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Figure 15.10-Portable Hydraulic Ram
Gear-Pulley Devices(Figures 15.12- 15.13)

Chainfall, also known as chain hoist, a device having
gears and pulley(s) and operated by chain to obtain
mechanical
advantage
in
lifting or pulling.
Figure
15.9-Hydraulic
Jack
Come-Along, a devicehavingaratchetinggearpulley arrangement to change the effective length of a

chain for lifting or pulling.
-
Pneumatic Devices(Figure 15.11)
~~
Vacuum Saddle, also known as vacuum jacking

clamp, an air-operated devicehavingsuctionpadsfor
Magnetic Devices (
~15.14-15.15)
i
~
~
gripping relatively smooth surfaces and a U- or Lshaped metal structureforstraddlingand
holding parts
MagneticSaddle, also known as magnetic jacking
together. This device is used in conjunction with a screw
clamp, a device employing an electrically induced or perand thread or hydraulic ram for applying pushing force. rnanent magnetic field(s) and a
U- or L-shaped metal
113

STD-AUS DPW-ENGL 1999
0784265 0519bOb 715 W
SECTION 15"FIlTING AIDS
Figure 15.12-Chainfall
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Figure 15.14"agnetic
Saddle
U
Figure 15.13-Come-Along
Figure 15.15-Fitting Magnet
Strongbacks (Figure 15.16)
structure for straddling andholding ferrous metal parts

together. This device is used in conjunction with a screw
and thread or hydraulic ram for applying pushing force.
Strongback, any number of devices used to restrain

applied forces and/or hold alignment. Thesedevices may
FittingMagnet, a deviceemploying an electricallyinbe welded or mechanically fastened and are used with
duced magnetic field(s) for drawing ferrous metals together. many other
tools for applying forces to parts.
114

SECTION 15"FITTING AIDS
,
II
II
II
II
II
II
m
af i ,
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
1
el
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Figure 15.16Strongback
Padeyes, Stays, and Cables(Figures 15.17-15.19)

Padeye, also known as a doughnut, ametal device for
use as an anchor, support andor connector for lifting and
applying force. This device can be welded, clamped or
mechanically fastened.
Stay, a strip of stiffening material used to hold, prop,
and/or support parts. This device can be welded or mechanically fastened.
Cable, a wire bundle or rope with means for attaching

ends, used for lifting, pulling and holding parts. This device is normally attached by mechanical means to other
fitting aids.
Mocks, Fixtures, and Jigs (Figures 15.20-15.22)

Mock, a device which imitates the shape of an object
for reference or support.
Fixture, a device used tohold, position, and/or align a

workpiece for an operation or process.
Jig, a device used to guide a tool; a template. Jigs are
often incorporated into fixtures.
Figure 15.17-Padeye
11.5


SECTION 15-FITTING AIDS
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Figure 15.1s"stay
Figure 15.19-Cable
Figure 15.21-Fixture
Figure 15.20-Mock
Figure 15.22-Jig
116


STD-AWS DPW-ENGL
1999
07842b5 0519b09 424
SECTION I5-FIlTtNG
Specialized Devices
One-Side Welding System, a system that consists of
a heavy structural frame hydraulic magnetic or pneumatic clamping rams, plate positioning and/or feeding
conveyors, weld backing bar and welding
equipment.
Stiffener Positioning System, a system that consists
of a heavy structural beak and/or gantry, hydraulic, magnetic and/or pneumatic stiffener clamping and positioning equipment and tack weldingequipment.
Web Positioning System, a system that consists of a

heavy structural beam and/or gantry, hydraulic magnetic,
pneumatic, and/or gear-pulley equipment and tack welding equipment.
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AIDS
PanelLinewithOne-SideButtWelding
Station,
stiffener attachment and welding station, web frame attachment and welding station, and bulkhead attachment
and final welding station.
PanelLinewithTacking
Station, two-side butt
welding station, stiffener attachment and weldingstation,
web frame attachmentand welding station, and bulkhead
attachment and final welding station.
List
American Welding Society. Welding Handbook, 8th ed.,
vol. 1, Welding Processes (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.:
117
SECTION
16
Welding Metallurgy:
Practical Aspects
Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................
120
Primary Base MetalGroups .........................................................................................................................................
120
Bibliography/Recommended Reading List .................................................................................................................
127
119
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STD.AWS DPW-ENGL 1999 m 07842b5 05%9blil 082 m

SECTION 16-WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
Section 1 6 - Weldng Metallurgy: Practical Aspects
(4)Low-alloy steel hardened by quenching and tempering (heat treatment after welding) (i.e., AISI-4130,
4140,8620,8630,4340).
( 5 ) 300 Series austenitic stainless steel (304, 316,
32 1,347).
(6) Copper-nickel(90Cu:lONi,70Cu:30Ni).
(7) Nickel-copper (70Ni:30Cu).
(8) Inconel@(NiCrFe, 600 and 625).
(9) Aluminum.
(10) Metals strengthened by cold work (mild steel and
Monel@).
(1 1) Metals strengthened by age hardening (K-Monel*,
HSLA, 17-4 ph stainless steel,aluminum 6061-T-6,356T6).
Introduction
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Designers should have an understanding of the primary concepts of welding metallurgy as it relates to the
service of a weldment. This should includehow metals
obtain and maintain their mechanical and corrosionresistant properties. There should also be an awareness of
the effectthat welding and filler metal composition have
on the metallurgy and service life of the weldment.
The designer should be aware of
(1) The specification requirements that are invoked.

(2) How metals obtain their strength and other mechanical properties.
(3) How metals obtain and maintain their corrosion
resistance.
(4) The effect welding has on base metal mechanical
properties.
(5) The effect welding has on base metal corrosion
resistance.
(6) How filler metals obtain their strength and corrosion resistance.
(7) Special treatments which are necessary to maintain base and weld metalproperties.
(8) Detrimental elements that reduce weldability.
From this list the first seven groups will be reviewed

as to:
How these metals develop their mechanical and
corrosion-resistant properties.
How welding affects these properties.
What special processes are required tomaintain desired properties.
What metallurgical effects put the weldability of the
metal at risk.
Mild Steel and High-Strength Low-Alloy

Structural Steel (OS, HS,
ASTM A 36, A 242,
A 441, A 588, A 572, and Grade50)
Primary Base Metal Groups

The following list covers the majority of base metals
and their strengthening mechanisms used by designers in
their day-to-day work.
1.
(1) Mild steel (ferrous alloys not strengthened by heat

treatment) [i.e., ordinary steel (OS),ASTM A 361.
(2) High-strength, low-alloy, structural steel (normalized) (i.e., HSof MIL-S-22698, ASTM A 242, A 441,
A 572, and A 588Grade 50).
(3) Low-alloy steel with quench hardening and tempering heat treatment before welding (i.e., T-1, HY-80,
HY-100, HY-130, ASTM A 514).
Mild steel, with typically well less than 0.29%carbon,

has a relatively low hardenability and is not typically
strengthened by heat treatment. Its primary yield and tensile strength properties are primarily developed from its
microstructure of pearlite and ferrite. Mild steels chemistry is basically carbon up to approximately 0.30%, manganese up to approximately 1.5%, and a small amount of
silicon, with residuals ofphosphorous and sulfur.
~ StRn@hening
b
l
Mechanism
120
,,f
Mild
Steel

D 07842b5 0519blZ T 1 9 9
SECTION 16-WELDING METALLURGY:
High-strengthlow-alloy steels have similar microstructures and chemistries as mild steel and they are
strengthened by a fine-grained (small) crystal structure
created from small additions of elements such as vanadium, nickel, chromium, or molybdenum and frequently
receive normalizing heattreatment. This process consists
of heating the steel to approximately 1550F and air
cooling.
Mild steels such A-36 or OS typically will have yield
strengths below 50 ksi, and the high-strength steels such
as HS, those steels that contain a grain-refining element
such as vanadium will have yield strengths of 50 ksi or
more. Typical applications are ships, bridges, buildings,
towers, automobiles, tanks, boilers, pressure vessels,
home utensils, appliances, etc.
2. Corrosion Resistance of Mild Steel

All of these steels have relatively poor resistance to
corrosion unless theyare thermal sprayed with aluminum
or zinc, or are painted or galvanized. Sometimes these
steels are alloyed with a small amountof copper which
causes atightly adhering oxide scale that retards the normal rate of corrosion. Steels alloyed with copper may be
used without painting.
3. Welding Effects on
Mild
Mechanical Properties
Steels Base
Metal
PRACTICAL ASPECTS
6. What Special Treatmentsor Actions are Necessary

to Maintain Base andWeld Metal Properties
There are no special routine treatments of these steels
other than when heavy sections are cut and welded. Due
to the rapid cooling rate of heavy sections, preheating in
the range of 150F to 200F is sometimes advisable.
These steels are typically only stress relieved for machining dimensional stability or when required by fabrication
codes for pressure vessels or other designs where cyclic
fatigue is a major concern.
7. Detrimental Elements that Reduce Weldability
Some mild steels have lead or sulfur additions to improve machining operations. These steels are frequently
called free machining steels. These additions may cause
porosity and/or develop low meltingtemperature constituents that cause hot short cracking. Welding is not recommended andshould be avoidedif at all practical, butif
welding must be accomplished, use of low-hydrogen
shielded metal arc filler metals may reduce cracking and
porosity.
Low-Alloy Steel with Quench Hardening

and Tempering Heat Treatment before
Welding (High-Strength Steels T-I, HY-80,
HY-100, HY-130, and ASTMA 514)
1. Base
Metal
Strengthening
Mechanisms
Quenched and TemperedSteel
Welding has very little effect on the mechanical properties of OS and HS base metals.There is increased hardness in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) but the depth of
hardening is not found to theextent that is present in the
quenched and tempered low-alloy steels. The HAZS
maximum hardness is limited by its carbon content. Mild
steel is the most readily weldedof all the steels.
of
QuenchedandtemperedsteelssuchasHY-80have
moderately high hardenability. They are alloyed to produce weldments with high yield strengths with good ductility and high toughness at low temperatures without
post-weld heat treatment. Postheat treatment is rarely
accomplished after welding. When postheat is accom4. Welding Effects on Base Metal Corrosion Resistance plished, it is usually for dimensional stability and requires special procedures. These steels receive their
primary yield and tensile strength from the microThere is no loss of corrosion resistance of the base
structure of tempered bainite and/or martensite, which
metal due to welding.
are typically created by quenching the material from approximately 1550F and tempering (reheating) at 1100F
5. How Filler MetalsObtainMetalStrengthening
or higher. The carbon content is kept low to improve
and Corrosion Resistance
weldability and eliminate the need for post-weld heat
treatment. Depending on the alloy, maximum carbon
conRecommendedweldmetalshavehigher
tensile and
tents are usually in the range of 0.12 to 0.23%. Alloying
yield strengths than mild steel or high-strength structural
elements are typically less than 6 percent and may be
base metals.This is primarilydue to the presenceof mancomprised of elements such as manganese, nickel, chroganese, silicon and other deoxidizers in the filler metals
mium, molybdenum, silicon, vanadium and boron. The
which are used to improve the welding Characteristics
function of these elements is to increase strength, hardenand weld quality. These weld metals do not have signifiability, and toughness at low levels of carbon content
(imcantly better corrosion resistance compared to base metproved weldability). Each base metalspecification has
als. They require similar protection as the base metal
well defined mechanical properties. Typical applications
(usually galvanizing, thermal spraying,or painting).
121


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STD. AWS DPW-ENL 1999
SECTION IGWELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
are pressure vessels, bridges, ballistic protection, ships,

mining, penstocks, and buildings.
The designershould keep in mind that if mild steel
or
grain-refined mild steel will meet the service requirements, they should be used since they are easier and
more economical to fabricate.
similar to those of the base metal. Filler metal carbon

contents are typically less than 0.12%.
6. What Special Treatments or Actions are Necessary
2. Base Metal Corrosion Resistanceof Quenched and

Tempered Steels before Welding
The quenched and tempered steels have only slightly
better corrosion resistance than mild steel. They are routinely painted for corrosion protection. Improved corrosion resistance of these steels comes from the small
amount of alloyingelements present. They are rarely galvanized probably due to their susceptibility to hydrogen
embrittlement.
3. Welding Effects on the Base Metal Properties of

Steels that are Quenched and Tempered before
Welding
Weldingcanhave drastic effectsonthemechanical
properties of the base metal and their heat-affected zone
(HAZ). The heat-affected zone is the unmelted base
metal area next to the weld having any noticeable effects
from the heat of welding. These effects may include
changes in mechanical properties.These steels are somewhat difficult to weld and special precautions must be
observed if the yieldstrength, impact resistance and ductility are to be maintained. Improper welding techniques
can result in hidden cracks and cracking that may not
occur until many hoursafter welding is complete (hydrogen embrittlement cracking). Welding heavy sections
without preheat and/or low interpass temperatures can
result in extensive HAZ/fusion line cracking. Welding
with excessive preheat andinterpass temperatures can result in a loss of impact toughness.
4. What Effects Does Welding have on the Base Metal

Corrosion Resistance?
Welding has little effect on the corrosion resistance of
the base metal.
5. How Welds Develop their Mechanical Properties

Filler metalstypicallyhavechemical
compositions
similar to base metals except they are not micro alloy
hardened by elements such as boron. They are frequently
alloyed with elements such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum and manganese. The carbon content is kept much
lower thanthe base metal carboncontent. This is because
the weld metal goes through an extremely rapid quench
and would be susceptible to cracking at carbon contents
Strict adherence to the manufacturers recommendations or code requirements is essential if the desired
properties of these base metals are to be preserved. Preheat and interpass temperatures that are too low during
the welding process can result in base metal and weld
metal cracking. Probably the most frequent cause of
cracking of these metals while welding is lack of adequate preheat. When preheats are required they should be
soaking preheats. Preheat is frequently required to prevent restraint cracking on heavier sections. Soaking preheats can be verified by measuring the preheat on the
opposite (back side) of the weld joint.
Preheats that are too highwill produce undesirable
nonuniform microstructure. Preheat and interpass temperatures that are too high will result in low impact properties. This can cause adrastic loss in the ability toarrest
crack propagation during impact loadingparticularly at
low temperatures.
Heat input that is too high is detrimental for good impact resistance. Excessively high preheats, high interpass
temperatures, high amperage, and slow travel speeds can
cause a retarded cooling rate. All in-process welding
conditions causingexcessive heatinput result in the same
outcome: aretarded cooling rate from peak welding temperatures. Retarded coolingrates cause a heterogeneous
microstructure that is more susceptible to fracture on impact loading.
Heat Input (J/in.) = Volts x Amps x60
Travel Speed (ipm)
The maximumheat inputs shouldbe in accordance
with the applicable code, standard or qualified welding
procedure. Aserious loss of the metals ability to absorb
energy without cracking canresult if excessive heat inputs are permitted. Stringer beads (straight-line progression) having higher travel speeds than weaving beads
(oscillating progression) are preferred, since this reduces
the heat input into the base metal and previously deposited weld metal. It is importantto protect the weld metal
properties. One of the most limiting factors in welding
these quenched and tempered steels is the marginal ability of weld metal to match base metal
toughness.
Stress relief as previously mentioned is generally not
recommended. However, it is sometimes accomplished
for dimensional stability of weldments thatare to receive
close tolerance machining. Stress relief should only be
accomplished if permitted by the manufacturer or the
governing code or standard. The manufacturers or code
122

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to Maintain Base and Weld Metal Properties?
SECTION 1GWELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
requirements should be strictly followed. Usuallythis involves stress relieving the part 50F below the tempering
temperature, if known, and sometimes it requires forced
cooling to minimize the loss of fabrication impact properties. Also, it is essential that the weld metal contain less
that 0.05% vanadium or the weld will be subject to serious temper embrittlement. Since these alloys are subject
to serious embrittlement by improper heat treatment,
post-weld stress relief should be under the direction of a
welding engineer or a metallurgist.

The most common element on earth, hydrogen, isalso
the most hazardous to welding quenched and tempered
steels. Hydrogen is commonly produced when water, oil
and rust are broken down in the arc. Procedures and techniques to avoid hydrogen embrittlement cracking are discussed in Section 12 of this manual. Other hazardous
elements are those such as lead, tin, zinc, phosphorous,
sulfur, etc., that will form low melting temperature
constituents.
Low-Alloy Steel with Quench Hardening

and Tempering Heat Treatment after Welding (Post Weld Heat Treatable) (AISI-1040,
-8620,-8630,-4130,
-4140, -4340,
etc.)
1. BaseMetalStrengtheningMechanismsof
Quenched and Temperedafter Welding
improve hardenability (the depth of hardening). These

metals often do not have mechanical property requirements in their applicable base metal specification. Varying mechanical properties canbe selected by the user and
are achieved by varying the heat treatment. These alloys
are used for machinery applications suchas gears, shafts,
and fasteners for increased wear, tensile strength, or
sometimes for improved fatigue resistance.
The designer should keep in mind that if mild
steel, or
even the steels that are quenched and tempered before
welding (Le., HY-X0/100) will meet the service requirements, they should always be used in lieu of these postweld heat treatable steels.
2. Base Metal Corrosion Resistance of Quenched and

Tempered Steels after Welding
The quenched and tempered steels have only slightly
better corrosion resistance than mild steel. Theyare routinely painted for corrosion protection. Improved corrosion
resistance of these steels comes from the small amountof
alloying elements. They are not typically galvanized.
3. WeldingEffects on theBaseMetalProperties
of
Steels that are Quenched and Tempered after
Welding
Welding
can
drastically
affect
the
mechanical
properties of the base metal in the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
The heat-affected zone is the unmelted base metal area
next to the weld having any noticeable affects from the
heat of welding. These effects may include changes in
tensile and yield strength, increased hardness, loss of
ductility, mechanical and/or corrosion-resistant properties. These steels aretypically very difficult to weld and
special precautions must be observed or serious cracking
may result. Improper welding techniques can result in
immediate gross cracking, hidden cracks and cracking
that may not occur until many hours after welding is
complete (hydrogen embrittlement cracking).Welding
heavy sections withno preheat and low interpass temperatures can result in extensive HAZ/fusion line and weld
metal cracking.
Steel
Steels that are quenched and tempered after welding,

such as AISI-8620,4130, or 4340, have high hardenability. They are alloyed to produce high tensile and yield
strengths and may have limited ductility and toughness
even at room temperatures. These steels are usually selected for their high strengths or hardness for wear resistance. Commonly these metals are welded in a soft
condition called annealed. Postheat treatment is accomplished after welding to obtain desired mechanical properties. These steels primarily receive their yield and
tensile strength from the microstructure of tempered
high-carbon bainite and/or martensite which are created
by quenching the material from approximately 1550F
and tempering (reheating) at 1 100F or higher. Desired
mechanical properties can be selected by varying the
tempering temperature. The carbon contents are typically
high which lowers the weldability and requires special
procedure requirements. Depending on the alloy, maximum carbon contents are usually in the range of 0.23 to
0.43%. Alloying elements are typically less than 6 percent and may be comprised of elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, silicon, and
vanadium. The primary function of these elements is to
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4. What Effects Does Welding have on the Base Metal

Corrosion Resistance?
Welding typically has no noticeable effect on the corrosion resistance of the base metal.
5. How Welds Develop their Mechanical

Properties
Filler metals may or may not have similar chemical
compositions as their base metals. They are frequently
alloyed with elements such as nickel, chrome, molybdenum, and manganese, with the exception that the carbon
123
content is usually kept much lower than the base metal.

This is because the weld metal goes through an extremely rapid quench and is very susceptible tocracking
at carbon contents approaching the base metal. Under
special circumstances base metal or filler metals that
nearly match the base metal are used for welding.It is
common to use undermatching filler metal and rarely do
welds match the base metal mechanical properties, unless unique and specialized procedures are developed.
However, post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) can be selected so that the resultant basemetal properties nearly
approximate those attainable by the weld. In most cases,
designers must take into account that the welds will typically undermatch the base metal properties.
frequently cause unacceptable distortionand scaling of

close-tolerance machined components.
One of the most common elements on earth, hydrogen, is also the most hazardous to welding these
quenched hardenable steels. Proceduresand techniques
to avoid hydrogen embrittlement cracking are discussed
in Section 12 of this manual. Other hazardous elements
are those such as lead, tin, zinc, phosphorous, sulfur, etc.,
that will form low melting temperature constituents.
6. What Special Treatments or Actions are Necessary

to Maintain Base and Weld Metal Properties?
Strict adherence to manufacturers recommendations,
special developed procedures, or code requirements is
absolutely essential if the desirable properties of these
metals are to be achieved. Preheat and interpass temperatures that are too low during the welding process can result in base metal and weld metal cracks. Preheats as
high as 600F may be required. Qpically, these metals
may require soaking times after welding at preheat temperatures to minimize cracking or they may require to be
immediately stress relieved, if post heat treatment for
mechanical properties will not occur until later in the
fabrication process. Probably the most frequent causeof
cracks while welding these metals is lack of adequate
preheat. When preheats are required, they should be
soaking preheats. Soaking preheats can be verified by
measuring the preheat on the opposite (back side) of the
weld joint.
Generally, there are no welding heat input restrictions
on these metals like those required on metals that are
quenched and tempered metals before welding. The reason for this is the mechanical properties are achieved
through heat treatment after welding and the weld and
HAZ are recrystallized during heat treatment.
Since these metals are heat treated after welding, they
are not usually stress relieved unless they are welded in
the heat-treated condition or following manufacturing
processes makes it necessary to dimensionally stabilize
the metal or to reduce the hardness of the material (as
might be neededfor machining). The manufacturers recommendations or code requirements should be strictly
followed. When components are welded in the heattreated condition, stress relieving is usually accomplished 50F below the tempering temperature. It should
always be kept in mind that the temperatures reached
during the heat treatment and the quenching process will
300 Series Austenitic Stainless Steel (Annealed) [304,310,316,321, 347 CorrosionResistant Steel (CRES)]
1. Strengthening Mechanisms of Austenitic Stainless
Steel Base Metal
Typical austenitic stainless steels usedin industry
have 18% or more chromium and 8% or more nickel,
with the remaining balance of approximately 50 to 60%
iron, and are sometimes calledthe 18-8 stainless steels.
Depending on the alloy type and application, the carbon
content will be 0.20% and less. Typically carbon is less
than 0.08% for corrosion resistance. Higher carbon content metals (309, 310) are commonly used where hightemperature strength is required. Austenitic stainless
steels are not strengthened by quench hardening, since
their primary phase and structure do not change with
temperature as with the quenched and tempered steel alloys. Theirprimary yield and tensile strength properties
are developed from what is called substitutionaland interstitial alloy strengthening. The microstructure is austenitic at all temperatures with small amounts of carbides.
Austenitic stainless steels containing nickel, chrome, and
manganese with small amounts of silicon are sometimes
alloyed with molybdenum, titanium, niobium, or copper
with residuals of unwanted sulfur and phosphorous. Austenitic 300 Series stainless steels typically have yield
strengths of 35 ksi at room temperature, with very little
loss of strength even atrelatively high temperatures. Tensile strengths of 75-80 ksi are common with ductility of
30-35%. These steels are typicallyused for their hightemperature yield strength, oxidation resistance forboth
high- and low-temperature applications, and excellent
toughness. These steels are nonmagnetic.
Galvanic Series. When any of these 300 series stainless

steels are used in combination with a dissimilar metal for
sea-water service the galvanic series should be examined.
This will help determine if accelerated corrosion can be
expected due to the different metal being brought used in
the same system.The surface areas of the dissimilar met124
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STD-AWS DPW-ENCL 1999 m 0784265 0519bLb 664
als can also greatly affect the amount and extent of corro- carbides, leaving the chrome available to form its protecsion. In general austenitic stainless steels are not
tive oxide film. Stressed stainless alloys that have extenrecommended for sea-water service environments.
sive depletion of chrome by sensitization and are in a
corrosive halogen product environment, such as salt water, may be subject to stress corrosion cracking. Stress
2. Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Stainless Steel
corrosion cracking can be extensive, penetrating comAustenitic stainless steels have excellent atmospheric
pletely through the base material thickness in a short pecorrosion resistance and resist corrosion very well at
riod of time.
high temperatures. When alloyed with copper (320) it
has good corrosion and erosion resistance in sea water.
5. How Welds Develop their Mechanical Properties
The iron in these austenitic stainless steels is protected
and Corrosion Resistance
from corrosion oroxidation by the formation ofa protective stable refractory chrome-oxide film. This tenacious
Stainless steel filler metals havechemistries similar to
film develops whenthe surface of the metal is exposed to
the base metals they are intended to weld. They develop
an oxidizing atmosphereand once formed prevents contheir mechanical properties and corrosion resistance due
tinuing corrosion or oxidation. The continued presence
to their similar base metal chemistryand metallurgy.
of this oxide film is imperative to maintain corrosion
There is no significant improved corrosion resistance of
resistance. If service conditions cause the loss of this
the stainless steel weld metals over the base metal.
film, the material will be susceptible to corrosion. Also,
Some stainless steel filler metals haveslight chemistry
the effects of welding heat cancause aloss of the metal's
modifications to permit the development of delta femte
ability to form these protective oxides. These metals are
in the weld deposit. Fully austenitic welds have atenfrequently used without painting.
dency to fissure (develop smallcracks). When delta ferrite is present in the weld deposit the tendency for
3. WeldingEffectsonStainlessSteelBaseMetal
fissuring is reduced. Stainless steel filler metals such as
Mechanical Properties
308, 309, 316, all may contain small amounts (usually
Welding has very little effect on the mechanical propless than 10%)of delta femte when deposited. The stainerties of austenitic stainless steel base metals. Since
less filler metal 312 typically has 40% ferrite and is very
austenitic stainless steels are not quench hardenable, the
crack resistant. However, it should not be used for highHAZ does not exhibit increased hardness as a result
temperature applications, as the soft and
ductile delta ferof welding. These steels are readily weldable but do rerite will change to a hard and brittle phase called sigma
quire some special controls to maintain their corrosion
ferrire that is extremely crack sensitive.
resistance.
If the stainless steel has
been cold worked prior to weld6. What Special "keatmentsor Actions are Necessary
ing to increase its yield strength, the effects of welding
to Maintain Base and Weld Metal Properties
may cause a drastic loss of the base metal's yield strength
in the HAZ to approximately its annealed condition.
Austenitic stainless steel welds are somewhat subject
4. Welding
Effects
Resistance
on Base Metal
to high-temperature fissuring. They are also subject to reduced corrosion resistance with increased potential of
stress corrosion cracking when sensitized. Sensitization
by chromium carbide precipitation takes place at 900F
to 1500F and is time dependent. Themore time spent in
the sensitizing temperature range the greater the degree
of chromium carbide precipitation. To minimize fissuring
and sensitization, minimum preheats are used and interpass temperatures are kept low (350F maximum). By
keeping the preheat and interpass temperature low, less
time is spent at sensitizing temperatures and the amount
of the base metal and degree of sensitization will be reduced. Avoiding high heat input welding processes will
also lower the amount of time at sensitizing temperatures
and the amountof base metal subjectto sensitization. The
use of stringer beads is recommendedinstead of weave
beads, which minimizes heat input and
sensitization.
Corrosion
The effects of welding cancause aserious loss of corrosion resistance of the base metal adjacent to the weld.
For some service applications, the presence of carbon
and the heat of welding can result in reduced corrosion
resistance of some stainless steel alloys by the preferential formation of chromium carbidesin lieu of the protective chrome-oxide films. This depletion of available
chromium for oxidation resistance by the formation of
chromium carbides is called sensitization. Therefore, for
special applications the carbon content may be held to
0.04% or less (extra low carbon 308L or 316L) or additions of titanium (321) orniobium (347) may be made to
the base metal. The stabilizing elements of titanium and
niobium will form carbides, preferentially chromium
125

--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
07842b5 0519b17 5T0
70:30 CuNi (70% copper-30%nickel) wrought metals

typically have yield strengths of 18,000-20,000 psi, and
Some stainless steels have selenium, phosphorous, or
tensile strength of 45,000-50,000 psi with elongation of
sulfur additions to improve machining operations. These
20-35%. It is considered a hot short material having resteels are frequentlycalledfree machining steels (303-Se,
duced ductility at temperatures above 1100-1400F and
316F, 347F). These additions may cause porosity and/or
is subject to high-temperature cracking while under
develop low melting temperature constituents that result
stress.
in hot short cracking during welding. Welding
of these alNiCu (70% nickel-30% copper alloy), commonly
loys is not recommended. The contamination of weld
called Monel@,has the highest tensile and yield strength
joints by low melting constituents cancause serious weldof any ratio of nickel-to-copper contents. Its minimum
associated cracking. Lead contaminationfi-om radioactive
tensile strength is 70-85 ksi and its yield strength is 23shielding or from machinists' hammers, sulfur from sulfu- 25 ksi with 35% minimum ductility.
rized cutting fluids, lead and tin from soft solder contamination, and cadmium from silver brazing alloys, etc., are
2. Corrosion Resistanceof Copper and Nickel Alloys
examples of potential sourcesof contamination.
These alloys haveexcellent atmospheric and corroCarbon contamination can havea serious effect on the
sion resistance. These metals are frequently used without
corrosion resistance of stainless steels; therefore, it must
painting.
be considered a detrimental contaminate. Its potential
sources are shop dirt, grease, oil, paint, shellac, antispatter
CuNi-90:lO
compounds, and carbon arcing slag.
It is typically used for water corrosion resistance with
good
antifouling resistance. This alloy has a higher iron
Copper-Nickel and Nickel-Copper Base
content
than the 70:30CuNi alloys, which improves its
Metals [90:10 CuNi, 70:30 CuNi, and
strength and corrosion protection. This alloy performs
70Ni:30Cu (Monel@)]
better in stagnant water (pittingkrevice corrosion)than
either 70:30 CuNi or Monel@(70%Ni-30%Cu). It is also
1. Strengthening Mechanisms of Copper-Nickel and
superior in its antifouling resistance.
Nickel-Copper Base Metal
CuNi-70:30
These alloys are not strengthened by quench hardening, since their primary phase or crystal structure does
not change with temperatureas it does with quenched
and tempered steel alloys. The primary yield and tensile
strength properties are developed from what is called
substitutional alloy strengthening (the mixing of copper
and nickel atoms in a geometric pattern). Its structure is
austenitic at all temperatures. These austenitic copper
and nickel alloys have copper and nickel as their major
alloying elements, with small additions ofelements such
iron for yield strength and erosionresistance, manganese
to minimize hot cracking, silicon for strength and manufacturing fluidity (high percentagessilicon 4% for hardness), and niobium for increased weldability with
residuals of unwanted sulfur and phosphorous.
90:lO CuNi (90% copper-10% nickel) wrought metals
typically have minimum yield strengths of 15,00018,000 psi, and minimum tensile strengths of 38,000 psi
with minimum elongations of 25-35%. It is considered a
hot short material having reduced ductility at temperatures above 500F to 1400F and subject to cracking
while under stress.This metal is also less expensive than
the higher nickel content copper-nickel alloys. Itis more
difficult to weld than 70:30 CuNi and Monel@ (70%Ni30%Cu) metals.
It is used primarily for water corrosion and erosion resistance where increased strength and hardness is required with less antifouling resistance than the higher
copper content90: 10 CuNi alloy. It has
better erosion resistance in flowing water but has less pitting resistance
(crevice corrosion) than 90: 10 CuNi.
Monel@"70NI:30Cu
It is used primarily for water corrosion and erosion resistance where increased strength and hardness is required (with less antifouling resistance) than the higher
copper contentcopper-nickel alloys. It has better performance for erosion resistance than either of the coppernickel alloys, but has inferior performance for crevice
corrosion and antifouling resistance.
Galvanic Series
When any of these copper and nickel alloys are used
in combination with a dissimilar metal, for water service,
the galvanic series should be examined. This will help
determine if accelerated corrosioncan be expected, due
to the different metal being usedin the same system. The
surface areas of the dissimilar metals can also greatly
126

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STDOAWS
DPW-ENGL
1999
07842b5 05L9b18 437
SECTION 1GWELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
affect the amount and extent of corrosion. These alloys

are frequently recommended and used for water-service
environments.
3. Welding
Effects
on
Base
Metal
Mechanical
Properties
Welding has very little effect on the mechanical properties of nickel alloys and copper base metals. Since
these alloys are not quench hardenable the HAZ
does not
exhibit increased hardness as a result of welding. These
alloys are readily weldable but do require some special
controls to minimize cracking and weld porosity. If any
of these alloys have been cold worked prior
to welding to
increase its yield strength, the effects of welding may
cause a drastic loss of the base metal's yield strength in
the HAZ, approximating its annealed condition.
ations. These are frequently calledfree machining alloys.

These additions may cause porosity and/or develop low
melting temperature constituents thatjeopardize welding
due to hot short cracking. Welding of these alloys is not
recommended.
The contamination of aweld joint bylowmelting
constituents can cause seriousweld-associated cracking.
Lead contamination from radioactive shielding or from
machinists' hammers, sulfur from sulfurized cutting fluids, lead, tin or zinc from soft solder contamination, and
cadmium from silver solder,etc., are all potential sources
of contamination.
Castings
Copper and nickel alloy components that are castings
and are not made by weld fabrication should always have
suspected poor weldability. Because of the ironcontents
permitted in these castings and the higher silicon contents to facilitate pouring operations, some of these castings have extremely limited weldability. Unless properly
alloyed for weldability, they may experience extensive
fusion line cracking.
For Monel@ castings, iron and silicon contents must
be held low, preferably at 1.7%. Niobium is also required
to minimize the harmful effects that silicon hason the
weldability of Monel@". Niobium-to-siliconratios of 1.S
to 1.8 are believed to be adequate to minimize weld
cracking caused by silicon. A Nb/Si ratio of 1.7 is considered optimum. Iron content above 2% is a major contributor to both weld metal and heat-affected zone
cracking. Also, shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) has
slight advantages overgas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
for casting repairs.
4. Welding Effects on
Base
Metal
Corrosion
Resistance
The effects of welding have little effect on the corrosion resistance of the adjacent base metal.
5. How Welds
Obtain
Metal
Strengthening
and
Corrosion Resistance
Filler metals for welding alloys of nickel and copper
have chemistries/compositions similar to the base metals
they are intended to weld. They develop their mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance due to their similar
base metal metallurgy. There is no significant improved
corrosion resistance of weld metals over the base metal.
In the case of Monel*filler metal (70% Ni/30% Cu), it is
found that under some wet conditions, thesefiller metals
will preferentially corrode over similar composition base
metals. Monel* welds on wetted surfaces of Monel@
castings will often preferentially corrode in lieu of the
base metal.
BibliographyLRecommendedReading
List
6. What Special Treatmentsor Actions are Necessary

to Maintain Base andWeld Metal Properties
Since copper and nickel alloys are somewhat hot short
and subject to high-temperature fissuring, welding interpass temperatures are maintained relatively low. Typically, welding preheat and interpass temperatures are
350F maximum.
American Welding Society.Practical Reference Guide for

Welding Metallurgy: Fabrication and Repair(PRGM).
Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
. Proceedings of the U.S.-Japan Symposium on

Advances in Welding Metallurgy.Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
Some copper and nickel alloys have selenium, phosphorous, or sulfur additions to improve Machining oper-
. Welding Metallurgy, 4th ed., vol. 1, Fundamentals (WM1.4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
127
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STDmAWS DPW-ENGL L999 W 0784565 05L9bL9 373 9
17
^^TION
Arc Stud
Welding
Contents
Introduction .............................................................................................................................
............................-.-........130
How a Stud is Welded .....................................................................................................................................
............... 130
.._................,........_........_..........._................................................................................ .. ......... 130

Elements of a Stud Weld
.............................-.-..131
Operating Instructions
....._...
..._._.
..._._.
..._._.
....................,................._...
.......................................................................
Setting Up to Weld ............................................................................................
..................................
...13 1
.......................... 132
How to Handle the Stud Welding

Gun ......................._.
....._.
..._._.
........,..... ........................................................ ........... 132
129

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..........................................................................................................
Testing and Judging Welds
STD-AWS DPW-ENGL L999 m 07842b5 05Lqb20 095

SECTION 17- ARC STUD WELDING
Section 17- Arc Stud Welding
(1) Welding heat is developed by drawing an electric

arc between the stud and the base metal.
( 2 ) The two pieces are fused together by the weld.
Introduction
Arcstudwelding is an arc welding process that is
used to weld threaded connectors,insulation pins, small
brackets, pipe hangers, and concrete shearpins, etc., to
other compatible basemetals. The process accomplishes
fusion at the stud/base metal interface using only the
melted electrode as filler metal. It is very fast, economical, is essentially automatically controlled, and requires
less operator skill than other welding processes. During
stud welding, an arc is drawn between the stud and the
base material forming a molten puddle. The stud is then
plunged into the puddle and as the molten metal cools a
weld is formed. The stud welding equipmentis adjusted
to control the arc initiation, arc time and the distance the
electrode is plunged into the molten metal.
Stud welding differs from manual arc welding, in that

the welding cycle is controlledby equipment adjustments.
Elements of a Stud Weld (See Figure 17.1)

The stud, inserted in the welding end (chuck) of the
gun, is positioned against the work plate (A). The operator then presses the gun to the work plate until the ferrule, which is around the stud, is flat against the plate
Stud welded fasteners are attached with a full penetration weld. They are available in a variety of shapes and
sizes. Stud welding may be performed in tight space restrictions and with minimal clearance. Studs can be
welded in most positions to carbon and alloy steels,
stainless steel, and aluminum alloys. Additional special
purpose applications are available for some copper, magnesium, titanium, zirconium, and zinc alloys. Stud welding produces only localized heating and has low heat
input.
The stud attachment surface must be clean and prepared for arc welding. The stud welding process is limited by the stud size and the stud shape. Only one end of
the stud can be welded with this process, and preproduction mock-up testing is usually accomplished for process
control. The welded studs may be torque or load tested
for production quality assurance.
How a Stud is Welded

The process of stud welding has some similarities to
the manual arc welding processes. The process consists
of two steps:
Figure 17.1Ctud Welding Cycle

130
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SECTION 17- ARC STUD WELDING
Thetriggerswitchisdepressed,startingthewelding
cycle (B). The stud is drawn away from the work plate,
creating an electric arc betweenthe stud and the-plate
(C). A molten weld pool is created when a portion of the
stud
and
the
plate
are melted by the
arc (D).
After the arcing period, the main spring in the gun is
automaticallyreleased,plungingthestudintothemolten
a weldwithin the ferrule
weldpool of theplatetoform
hollow (E). The gun is removed from the completed stud
weld and the ferrule is broken away (F).
Testing
and
Judging
Welds
It is recommended that a few sample welds are made,
inspected, and tested whenever new operations start, and
at the beginning of each days work. Weld a few studs to
a piece of metal that is the same compositionand thickness as the actual workpiece.
Inspect the sample stud weldsfor:
(1) Positioning-Perpendicular to the base plate.
(2) Weld Quality-Adequate fusion and
fillet, weld
quality acceptable.
(3) Length-Approximately
1/8 in. of the
stud
length is consumed by weld.
Operating Instructions
Gun Accessories (see Figure 17.2)
(1) Chuck-The
chuck
holds
or
grips the
stud in the
gun for welding. A different chuck must be used for each
dimeter of stud.
(2)Ferrule Grip-The ferrule gripfitsintothe
foot
and holds the ferrule in position for welding.
(3) Foot-Thefootisusedtosecureandalignthe
ferrule grip.
(4) Legs-The legs are used to hold and provide positioning of the foot and ferrule grip assembly. The leg
length
must
adjusted
be
for different lengths of studs.
Setting up the Gun

(1) Insert a chuck that is of proper size for the stud,
and tap lightly witha hammer until it is held firmly in the
taper.
(2) Put the legs in place and tighten.
(3) Fasten the foot to the legs with screws and washers provided.
(4) Insert the ferrule grip into the foot and secure by
tightening set screws in foot.
(5) Insert the stud in the chuck and the ferrule in the
ferrule grip.
Test the sample stud welds to the production requirements. Production studs that require proof testing should
beloadortorquetestedto
the designrequirements.Adjustthe
Adjustment of Plunge
legs so thestud extends from1/8 in. to
3/16 in. beyond the end of the ferrule. When the stud
stickout is correct, tighten leg screws so that the assembly is stationary.
N O T E . T h p lift hpipht. whirh dptPrminPs the urc leneth.
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
make sure that the stud moves freely through the ferrule.
If there is any binding, readjust foot assembly until free
action is obtained.
Figure 17.2-Gun Accessories

131

STDoAWS DPW-ENGL L999 b 07842bS 05L9b22 Y b 8 I

SECTION 17-
ARC STUD WELDING
proximate and will vary with the type of application.

Note that the power supply may not be
calibrated to indicate actual welding current.
Setting u p to Weld (See Figure 17.3)

Turn power OFF when making connections.
(1) Position the control unit and the power supply as
near the work area as possible. Excessive cable lengths
adversely affect stud welding.
(2) Connect the ground cable to the terminal of the
power supply (positive or negative ground orientation
must be determined by the weld procedure test data).
Secure the c-clamp to the work plate. Make sure both
connections are tight and eradicate any paint or rust at
the connection points.
(3) Connect the timer input cable to the other terminal of the power supply and to the connector marked
power supply on thecontrol unit.
(4)Connect the control unit ground clamp tothe
work plate. This completesthe electrical path needed to
supply power to the control unit.
( 5 ) Connect the combination cable(control and welding cable) to the control unit and the gun.
(6) Make sure the power supply is set for required polarity, and that the input cable and the ground cable is
properly connected. The power supply is typically a constant voltage (CV) type and should have a minimum
open circuit voltage of 65 volts dc.
(7) Turn on the power supply and the control unit.
The
light onthe control unit should lightindicating that power
is available andis connected for the required polarity.
(8) Adjust the time on the control unit and current
setting of the power supply.The settings provided are ap-
How to Handle the Stud Welding Gun

(1) Hold the gun firmly with your hand placedso that
you can readily press the trigger.
(2) Keep your handoff the side cable.
(3) Hold the gun square/perpendicularto the work.
(4) Be sure the ferrule is seated firmly against the
workpiece.
( 5 ) Presstheguns
trigger onlyonce andrelease.
Pressing the trigger a second time will damage the chuck
or stud threads.
(6) Do not move the gun duringthe welding action.
(7) After welding the stud, draw the gun straight back
away from the workpiece. Avoid pressing the trigger
again.
List
American Welding Society. Recommended Practicesfor
Stud Welding ((25.4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
Society.

Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
Figure 17.3Stud Welding Setup

132
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SECTION
18
Thermal Spray
Fundamentals
Contents
Why Use the Thermal Spray Process?........................................................................................................................ 134
Corrosion Control Applications...................................................................................................................................
134
Machinery Component Applications...........................................................................................................................
134
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Fundamentals................................................................................................................................................................. 134
Thermal Spray Processes..............................................................................................................................................
134
..........................................................................................................................
Finishing Thermal Sprayed Coatings
135
Quality Assurance .........................................................................................................................................................
137
Future Applications.......................................................................................................................................................
137
Advantages .....................................................................................................................................................................
137
Limitations .....................................................................................................................................................................
137
Bibliography/RecommendedReading List .................................................................................................................
137
133

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Section 18-Thermal Spray Fundamentals
WhyUsetheThermalSprayProcess?Fundamentals
Before a machinerycomponent is repaired (.e., to
build up worn areas) using a thermal spray process,the
repair area is undercut. Standardpractice is first to clean
the component to be thermal sprayed, and then use an
aluminum oxide grit blast to create an anchor tooth pattem for the coating to lock into. When repairing machinery components, thermal spray materials are used as
bond coats to create a mechanical interaction between
the substrate and the coating.
The thermal spray process is used primarily for two

reasons:
(1) Corrosion control.
(2) Machinery component refurbishment.
Corrosion Control Applications

More than 20 years of corrosion protection of steel
and iron can be obtained by applying thermal sprayed
aluminum or zinc coatings. In a wet environment, these
coatings can serve as anexpendable anode,preventing or
minimizing corrosion of steel and ironsubstrates.
Because of the portability of arc and flame spraysystems, many components can receivea corrosion-preventing
coating either in the shop or in the field. Examples of
some of the items that have received this corrosion control
method are valves and piping.
Thermal Spray Processes

By definition, thermal spray is heating a metallic or a
nonmetallic material, in a heating zone to a molten or
semi-molten state, and then propelling that material onto
a substrate to form a coating. There are four primary
spray processes used by fabricators at this time: plasma
powder process, arc wire process, flame powder process,
and flame wire process.
Plasma Powder
Machinery Component Applications
With the plasma powder process, the heating zone is

produced by an arc that is created inside the plasma powder gun between a tungstenelectrode and the nozzle. A
gas or gasmixture is passed throughthe arc. This excites
the gas into a plasma state, creating temperatures higher
than can be obtained with just oxygen fuel flame mixtures. The gas or gas
mixture exits the nozzle, forcing the
plasma flame outside the gun. A powder is fed intothe
flame, melted, and propelledto the substrate by the force
of the gas or gas mixture(see Figure 18.1). The plasma
powder process is used primarily forthe refurbishment
of machinery components.
The thermalsprayprocesscanbe
a cost-effective
method for dimensional restoration. The processis an excellent repair method and should be considered, when
appropriate, in lieu of other processes, suchas weld repair, chrome plating, or instead of manufacturing of a
new component.
Thermal spray is also used to enhance the service life
of many machinery components. Ceramics can be
sprayed on packing areas of valve stems andpump shafts
to give those areas a smoother, longer-lasting surface
than the substrate material. This will also cause less damage to the packing msterial and provide better operation
of the component. Thermal sprayed metallic coatings
that will resist wear, erosion, corrosion, heat, and chemical attack better than the substrate material can be applied to machinery components.
Arc Wire
The heating zone of the arc wire process is produced
by creating an arc between two continuously fed metallic
134


~~
~~
STD*AWS DPW-ENGL 1999 m 07842b50519625b77
SECTION 18-THERMAL SPRAY FUNDAMENTALS
NOZZLE
(COPPER
TUNGSTEN
CATHODE
NODE)
f PLASMA
b U l Y 1 V L bIIWIV
AND
WATER
OUT
AND
-'I
SPRAY DEPOSIT
"
2
4TER IN'
Figure 18.1-Plasma Powder Process
wires. The heating zone meltsthe wires and the molten

material is atomized and propelled to the substrate by
compressed air or an inert gas (see Figure 18.2). The arc
wire process can be used for corrosion control and machinery refurbishment applications.
Flame Wire
Flame Powder
The flame powder process uses an oxygen fuel flame
to create the heating zone. Powder is fed into the heating
zone and melted, The molten material is then atomized
and propelled to the substrate by the force of the burning
gasses and compressed air (see Figure 18.4). The flame
powder process is used primarily for machinery refurbishment applications.
The flame wire process uses an oxygen fuel flame to

create the heating zone. A wire is then continuously fed
into the heating zone where it is melted and then propelled onto the substrate by the force of the burning gasses and compressed air (see Figure 18.3). The flamewire
process can be used for corrosion control and machinery
refurbishment applications.
SPARK PLUG
POWDER
Finishing Thermal Sprayed Coatings

The structure of a thermalsprayedcoatingmaybe
different than the structure of that same material in
wrought form, Sometimesthis different structure creates
SPRAYEDMATERIAL
SPRAY
INERT P U R G E GAS
SUBSTRATE
U
FUEL GAS
Figure 18.2-Arc Wire Process

135
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STD*AWS DPW-ENGL 1999 m 07842b5 0519b2b 503 9

GAS
SPRAY DEPOSIT
BURNING GASES
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SPRAY STREAM
ATOMIZINGAIR J
PREPARED~
SUBSTRATE
Figure 18.3-Flame Wire Process
Figure 18.4-Flame Powder Process

136

STDmAWS DPW-ENGL 1999 9 07842b5 05Lqb27 4 4 T

problems in finishing. If personnel are unfamiliar with

the finishing of coatings, they should follow the thermal
spray equipment and material manufacturer's recommendations. If thermal sprayed coatings are properly finished
and they still separate or flake off during finishing the
spraying operation should be reviewed.
with the mating part. This makes it possible to form a

precise seal.
While the substrate is frequently preheated, the thermal spray process is generally considered a metallurgically cold process. This means in most applications no
warpage or heat-affected zone is created.
Quality Assurance
Limitations
To help ensure the quality of thermal sprayed

coatings, operators must receive thorough training and be
tested to determine whether they have the ability to use
all the thermal spray processes required. Tested andor
certified procedures and personnel should be used to
spray production components. Facilities must have the
personnel and the methods to determine whether their
thermal spray equipment and consumables will produce
quality coatings. Thermal spray facilities must also have
personnel capable of making sound application and coating selection decisions or have an organization that can
help them do so.
Future Applications
BibliographyLRecommendedReading
List
--```,`,`,`,`,`,,`,,,``````,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
There are processes thatcan accomplish the mostcritical applications. Vacuum spray systems perform spraying on highly critical components for the airline industry.
Then there are the high-velocity oxyfuel system and the
high-velocity plasma systems.
Throughout the world, industry uses the thermal spray
process for numerous applications. These applications
include electromagnetic shielding, clearance control
(abradable coatings), thermal barrier coatings, and the
thermal spraying of babbitt bearings. New processes and
equipment that will provide superior coatingsfor many
future applications are also being developed by equipment and thermal spray materialmanufacturers.
It should be remembered that when refurbishing machinery components with the thermal spray process, no
strength is added to that component. If the undercut
depth will reduce the strength of the component enough
to make it unusable for service, then thermal spray must
not be considered as a repair option.
Thermal spraying a highly corrosion-resistant material (Monel@)over a carbon steel will not make that material perform equal to Monel@.
Thermal spray coatings are ideally applied with the
spray gun perpendicular to the substrate surface; however, most processes can apply high-quality coatingsat
angles up to 45 degrees from perpendicular.
Thermal sprayed coatings should not be used when
the area to be repaired would see a point load or line
load, such as ball bearingsor roller bearings without laboratory service-proven results.
American Welding Society. Guide for the Protection of

Steel with Thermal Sprayed Coatings of Aluminum
and Zinc and Their Alloysand Composites (C2.18).
Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
. Guide forThermal Spray Operator Qualijcation (C2.16). Miami, Ha.: American Welding Society.
Advantages
. Thermal Spraying: Practice, Theory, and Application (TSS). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
Thermal sprayed coating properties can be tailored to

suit the application. Coatings (metallic and ceramic) can
be applied torestore or attain desired dimensions, to provide electrical or thermal shielding (or conduction), or to
improve the resistance to abrasion, corrosion, or high
temperatures.
Thermal spray coatings can also be used for clearance
control. Abradable coatings wear when contact is made
. Thermal Spray Manual (TSM). Miami, Fla.:
"

Ingham, H., and Shepard, A. Plasma Flame Process.
Flame Spray Handbook, vol. III, Metco Inc., Westbury, N.Y.
137


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American Welding Society

American Welding Society

Copyright American Welding Society

Licensee=Shell Services International B.V./5924979112

STD*AWS DPW-ENGL L999

07842b5 0519498 938 I

International Standard Book Number: 0-8717 1-605-4

Printed in the UnitedStates of America

Licensee=Shell Services International B.V./5924979112

Accepting Metal Fabrication Projects..........................................................................................................

Production Welding Cost Analysis

Welding Process Selection

Primary Conceptsof Welding Design .........................................................................................................

Welding Safety Considerations ................................................................................................................... 51

Weld Joint Design Considerations .............................................................................................................. 57

Weld Distortion and Control.......................................................................................................................

11 Checklist for Sound

Defects and Discontinuities of Welding ...................................................................................................... 75

Fitting Aids ..................................................................................................................................................

Welding Metallurgy: Practical Aspects....................................................................................................

Arc StudWelding ........................................................................................................................................

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STDaAWS DPW-ENGL L777 m 038433h5 0527502 252 E

Fundamentals of Welding Decisions................................................................................................................................

Personnel Concerns about Fabrication Projects

The 100% Quality Weld and Weld-Associated Failures................................................................................................

Weldability Can Be Determined by the Manufacturer

Licensee=Shell Services International B.V./5924979112

STD-AWS DPW-ENCL 1999

From the customer:

Does the fabrication perform the intended service

Does the weld and its heat-affected zone meet the

How much money does it cost to make the weld (i.e.,

Do I have the proper equipment to accomplish the

Personnel Concerns about

Am I trained and qualified to per$orm the welding

Licensee=Shell Services International B.V./5924979112

The Welder, Technician, and

Oneindividual in a metals fabrication firmwith a

The 100% Quality Weld and WeldAssociated Failures

Licensee=Shell Services International B.V./5924979112

The resolution ofmany weldingproblemsrequires

Fundamentals of Welding Decisions

Copyright American Welding Society

STD-AWS DPW-ENGL 3999 M 0384265 0539504 Tb3

failures are more likely caused by poor decisionson the

Weldability Can Be Determined by

Recognize the cause of existing and potential production problems.

Copyright American Welding Society

Licensee=Shell Services International B.V./5924979112

STD.AWS DPW-ENCL 3999

07642b5 0539505 'IT6 9

Defining Special Projects..................................................................................................................................................

Establish a Prebid Review Group (Before Accepting Special Projects)

Establish a Detail Planning Group(Prior to Issuing Job Orders)

Summary ................ ........_._.

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Section 2-Accepting Metal Fabrication Projects

Special project should be defined as follows:

The critical question asked by a metals fabricator for a