PART 1

1.What is temperature?
Temperature is the degree or intensity of heat present in a substance or
object, especially as expressed according to a comparative scale and
shown by a thermometer or perceived by touch.

2. Identify Physical properties which vary with temperature and

which therefore maybe used as the basis for measuring temperature.
Length- as a substance is heated the length will increase for
example. a copper rod
Volume- as temperature is increased the volume increases for
example. gases, metals
Resistance- as temperature increases particles in a solid move more
vigorously and restrict the flow of electrons.
Pressure- as temperature increases pressure increases because there
is more collisions between the particles and container, increasing
the force within the same area.

3. Define fixed points on the Celsius scale (upper and lower fixed
points)
A fixed point is a melting or boiling point of a pure substance
therefore it will always have the same value on a scale foe example.
The upper and lower fixed point of the Celsius scale.
The upper fixed point is the boiling point of pure water (100
degrees Celsius)
The lower fixed point of water is the freezing point of pure
water (0 degrees Celsius)

 Fixed points are used as reference points to determine

temperature of other substances

4. Use of a thermometer to its design

Highlight design features which make a thermometer suitable

for its particular task:

Sensitivity
Range
Portability
Durability
Response time
Ease of Reading

Draw and explain design of:

Laboratory Thermometer
Sensitivity- a laboratory thermometer is deigned to be sensitive
to changes in temperature by being made of very thin glass
which reduces the time taken for heat to pass through the glass
Range- it is made using either mercury or alcohol(coloured)
because alcohol has a range of -114 to 78 degrees Celsius and
mercury has a range of -38.9 to 356.7 degrees Celsius
Portability- small and compact therefore easy to move around.
Durability- made with glass which is firm and not damaged by
the heat.
Response Time- made with a thin central bore sometimes called
a thread because of its thinness, therefore not a lot of the liquid
needs to be heated to get a rise in temperature.

 Ease of Reading- this is ensured by using mercury which is

bright silver or coloured alcohol

Clinical Thermometer
Sensitivity- same as laboratory thermometer except it has an
indentation in the bore to prevent mercury from going back
into the bulb
Range- 25 to 45 degrees Celsius
Portability- same as laboratory thermometer
Durability- same as laboratory thermometer
Response time- same as laboratory thermometer
Ease of reading- same as laboratory thermometer

Thermocouple Thermometer
This is two different very thin conduction wires joined at the ends
to create two junctions, this instrument works off the concept of
resistance or voltage change resulting in temperature change
Sensitivity- it can detect extremely small temperatures
Range- it has an infinite rang, because it is a comparison
and it can detect very high temperatures of hundreds of
Kelvin
Portability- not very portable, bulky, however it allows
remote temperature taking.
Durability- very durable, the wire is very strong (metals)
and the meter isnt in direct contact with whatever is being
measured

 Response Time- very fast response time because the metals

are good conductors of heat.
Ease of Reading- the meters are easy to read because it is
easy to read the analog and digital meters. However it is
difficult to convert the voltage or resistance to temperature

PART 2
(1.1) Thermal energy is what we call energy that comes from heat.
When heat is given to a substance, its size usually increases. In other
words the substance expands on heating. Thermal expansion is the
tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in
temperature, through heat transfer.
For example, a cup of hot tea has thermal energy in the form of kinetic
energy from its particles. When you pour some milk into your tea, some
of this energy is transferred to the particles in cold milk. The cup of tea
is cooler because it lost thermal energy to the milk.
When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving more and thus
usually maintain a greater average separation. Materials which contract
with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and
only occurs within limited temperature ranges. Thermal expansion can
be used in bimetallic strips in thermostats it can also be used in
loosening nuts and bolts. A thermometer works by using the thermal
expansion of a liquid to measure temperature. A hot-air balloon uses the
thermal expansion of air to generate lift. When a solid is heated, its
molecules gain kinetic energy and vibrate more vigorously. As the
vibration become larger, the molecules are pushed further apart and the
solid expands slightly in all directions.

On a hot day concrete runway

sections in airport expands and
this cause cracking. To solve this
problem we leave small gabs
between sections.
On a hot day concrete bridges
expand. To solve this problem,
we leave small gab at one end
and support the other end with
rollers.
Telephone wire contract on cold
days. To solve this problem, we
leave wires slack so that they are
free to change length.
On a hot day railway lines
expand. To solve this problem,
gaps are left between sections of
railway lines to avoid damage of
the rails as they expand in hot
weather.
Some applications that uses the expansion of liquids
A physical change is an example of thermal expansion of a fluid.
The molecules move further apart when heated or closer when
cooled.

1. Thermometers

2. The valve shown below operates based on the expansion of the

oil. As the room warms of the oil in the valve expands and pushes
the piston down. This shuts off the flow of hot water. When the
temperature drops the valve opens again.

In physics, thermal conductivity (often denoted k, , or ) is the

property of a material to conduct heat. Substances that allow thermal
energy to move easily through them are called conductors. Metals are
good conductors of thermal energy.
In crystalline materials, the phase and crystallite size are important.
In porous solids, the thermal conductivity heavily relies on void
fraction, pore size and the fluid contained in the pores.

Water is a poor conductor of heat. Even though when you heat water in a
pan it gets hot quickly....... it still is a poor conductor of heat, because the
force of attraction between the particles is not as strong as those in solids
and the particles move freely about the liquid. Hence, when heat is
passed through the liquid, it takes a longer time for the particles to
collide with one another and passing the heat energy to the other
particle.

PART 4
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES
There are three states of matter:
Solids
Liquids
Gases
Solids have particles that are held together firmly and uniformly and are
tightly packed. Solids are also incompressible and have high density.
This is due to strong intermolecular forces. Solids are non-fluid because
the molecules are in a rigid, closely bonded state. These molecules with
vibrate in place. Solids also have a definite shape and volume.
Liquids have particles that are held together but less tightly, strongly
and uniformly than solids. In liquids, the intermolecular forces are
strong enough to keep the particles together, but not in fixed positions.
Because of the loose bond, liquid molecules are able to flow. Liquids
have a definite volume but not a definite shape. They take the shapes of
their containers.

Gases have particles that move freely. This is because the

intermolecular forces of gases are very weak. Because of this, gases are
the most fluid. Gases have no definite shape or volume and therefore
will fill and take the shape of its' containers.

Kinetic Particle Theory

This theory explains the properties of the different states of matter. The
particles in solids, liquids and gases have different amounts of energy.
They are arranged and moved in different ways.
Solids1. Solids have fixed shapes and are non-fluid: This is because the
particles cannot move from place to place.
2. Solids are incompressible: The particles are close together and have
no space to move into.
Liquids1. Liquids are fluid and take the shape of their containers: The
particles can move around each other.
2. Liquids are incompressible: Despite fluidity, the particles are still
to close and have no space to move into.
Gases1. Gases are fluid and fill their containers: The particles can move
quickly and in all directions.
2. They are compressible: The particles are far apart and have space
to move into.

PART 5
(4.1) Conduction
In physics, thermal conductivity (often denoted k, , or ) is the
property of a material to conduct heat. Substances that allow thermal
energy to move easily through them are called conductors. Metals are
good conductors of thermal energy.
In crystalline materials, the phase and crystallite size are important.
In porous solids, the thermal conductivity heavily relies on void
fraction, pore size and the fluid contained in the pores.
Water is a poor conductor of heat. Even though when you heat water in a
pan it gets hot quickly....... it still is a poor conductor of heat, because the
force of attraction between the particles is not as strong as those in solids
and the particles move freely about the liquid. Hence, when heat is
passed through the liquid, it takes a longer time for the particles to
collide with one another and passing the heat energy to the other
particle.

(4.2) Convection
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from one place to another
by the movement of fluids (e.g. air or water).
Land and Sea Breeze:
During the day, the sun heats up both the ocean surface and the land.
However, water heats up much more slowly than land and so the air

above the land will be warmer compared to the air over the ocean. The
warm air over the land will rise throughout the day, causing low pressure
at the surface. Over the water, high surface pressure will form because of
the colder air. To compensate, the air will sink over the ocean. The wind
will blow from the higher pressure over the water to lower pressure over
the land causing the sea breeze.
At night, the roles reverse. The air over the ocean is now warmer than
the air over the land. The land loses heat quickly after the sun goes down
and the air above it cools too. The ocean, however, is able to hold onto
this heat after the sun sets. This causes the low surface pressure to shift
to over the ocean during the night and the high surface pressure to move
over the land. This causes a small temperature gradient between the
ocean surface and the nearby land at night and the wind will blow from
the land to the ocean creating the land breeze.

Radiation
(4.4) Describe experiments to investigate the factors on which
absorption and emission of radiation depend
Texture of surface (rough, smooth) -

Nature of surface (shiny, dull) - Obtain a hot piece of metal with two
different surfaces. One shiny, one dull. Place a thermometer at each end
at equal distances from both surfaces. Measure the temperature at each
end.
Result: the end with the dull surface has a higher temperature.
Conclusion: the dull surface emits radiation at a faster rate; heat leaves
the metal more quickly through the dull surface.
Colour of Surface (black, white) - Obtain two drinking glasses and place
a piece of white paper around one and a piece of black paper around the
other. Half fill each glasses with tap water of the same temperature.
Place each glass beside each glass under the hot sun and leave them for
exactly two hours. It is recommended to do this at noon when the sun is
high and hot. After two hours, place a thermometer in each glass and
measure the temperature of the water.
Result: The glass covered in white has a lower temperature than the one
covered in black.

Conclusion: The white paper reflects the light and hence the lower
temperature of water. The dark paper absorbs the light and traps it and
hence the higher temperature. Dark colours are good conductors of heat
and will quickly transfer the heat to the water.
Area of Surface - Obtain two table mats. One should be a few
centimetres thicker than the other. Place identical bowls of hot water on
each mat. Measure the temperature of the water at intervals in order to
identify which bowl is losing water faster.
Result: The bowl with on the thinner mat loses heat faster because the
matter has a smaller surface area.
Conclusion: Heat flow through the thicker mat is slower because the
surface area is larger due to increased thickness.

(4.6) Relate the principals of thermal energy transfer (conduction,

convection, radiation) to the design of device.
The green house effect facilitates the growth of plants that need a warm
environment. This is especially the case in cold countries. Radiation
from the sun passes easily through the glass panels of a green house and
is absorbed by the plants and the soil inside. The plants also radiate
energy. This radiation is reflected by the glass panels and traps the
energy inside since it cannot pass through the glass roof. Thus the
temperature inside the green house increases until it reaches a thermal
equilibrium suitable for plant growth.