CHAPTER 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Milling is one of the common high-production machining methods. It is

accomplished with a cutting tool called a milling cutter. A milling cutter is a multipleedge tool, which is a body of revolution with cutting elements called teeth arranged on
the circumferential surface or on the end faces or both. The primary cutting motion in
milling is rotation, which is imparted to the cutter. The feed motion is usually in a
straight line imparted to either the cutter or the work piece. Milling is used for
machining external surfaces, slots and even contoured surfaces. Milling could be
broadly divided into two categories (viz. up-milling and down-milling) depending
upon the relative movement of the cutter and the work-piece.

Conventional milling or Up milling:

During up-cut milling the table feeds the work piece in the opposite direction to
the cutter rotation, this result in three distinct phases of chip formationi)

The cutting edge slides over the surface,

ii)

It starts to crush the surface material and

iii)

The chip thickness increases from zero to a maximum as the tooth

leaves the work piece.

The initial sliding and crushing action of the tooth can lead to work-hardening
of the material and dulling of the cutting edge, resulting in premature failure of the

Chapter 2

Literature Review

cutting tool; also as the chip thickness is at a maximum as the tool exits the work piece
there is a sudden release of energy that can lead to bounce, chatter and increased
fatigue in the machine bearings and transmission. There is also a tendency to lift the
work piece of the table. There is however, a significant advantage to up-cut milling in
that the cutter opposes the feed therefore eliminating the possibility of snatching the
work piece and taking too large a cut if any backlash is present in the table feed lead
screw (Machine-tools; 27th April, 2004).

Climb milling or down milling:

During down-cut milling the table feeds the work piece in the same direction as
the cutter rotation. As the cutter contacts the work piece, chip thickness gradually
reduces from maximum and to zero as the cutter exits the material. The gradual
decrease in cutting force and absence of sliding and crushing usually results in a much
better finish in down cut milling; also tool life is improved. Power required for the
table feed is reduced, and the cutter tends to push the work piece more firmly to the
table, however there must be no backlash in the table feed mechanism or the cutter will
snatch the work piece leaving at best an uneven surface; at worst a broken tool. A
further disadvantage of down cut milling is that any scale or surface hardening of cast
or forged blanks can rapidly dull or chip-off the cutting edge (Machine-tools; 27th
April, 2004).

2.2 Types of milling operations

The different types of milling operations include face milling, peripheral

milling, end milling etc. End milling is a vertical milling process where in one end of

Chapter 2

Literature Review

the tool is held in the spindle perpendicular to the surface of the work piece to be
machined while face milling and peripheral milling are both horizontal milling
operations. In this study the author focus on the down end milling process at micro
scale.
End Milling is an intermittent metal removal process in which the material
from the work piece is removed by a rotating tool comprising of multiple numbers of
cutting edges mounted vertically in a spindle. During the cutting process each cutting
edge engages itself into and disengages itself from the work piece thereby making the
process intermittent. It is a typical metal cutting operation with a complicated chip
form. In many aspects micro milling exhibits similar characteristics of conventional
milling. Therefore it is necessary to understand the mechanics of milling to clearly
understand micro milling.
Machining literature can be divided into subgroups to investigate the
machining problem from different perspectives: investigation of chip form, tool
life/wear studies, temperature effect in machining, modeling of machining forces, tool
wear, dynamics of machining, experimental analysis of the effect of speed, feed, depth
of cut and other parameters, analysis of material properties on machining surface
integrity, residual stresses on the machined surfaces, tool condition monitoring and
detection studies, analysis of intermittent metal cutting, analysis of the effect of tool
geometry, machining of the composite materials, effects of coolants on metal cutting
and so on. The research on machining covers a wide spectrum, as there are many
independent variables affecting the machining process. These variables range from the
operator controlled cutting parameters, such as cutting speed, feed and depth of cut, to
material properties and the machine tool dynamics characteristics as well as the cutting
tool material and geometry. In addition to the high number of variables, the problem is

Chapter 2

Literature Review

complicated by the non-stationary nature of cutting action. The cutting tool

deteriorating over time adversely affects machining action, the overall dynamics of the
process and the related input output relationships.
It is desirable to develop general analysis and modeling techniques that can be
applied to a wide spectrum of machining operations. However, the complicated nature
of the problem often limits the range of applicability of the methods developed.
Therefore, often the analytical techniques developed would be valid for too limited a
range of cutting conditions. For this reason selecting more general models proper for
different processes is essential for most machining operations.
In the succeeding sections, the previous research in the modeling of machining
operations will be discussed, where a discussion of different approaches that have been
developed for the analysis of forces for orthogonal and oblique cutting operations
together with the different milling operations. Moreover, the advantages and
disadvantages of different strategies are argued in this section. After a brief discussion
of different cutting force modeling principles, a review for tool wear mechanism for
milling operations has been described. This section is followed by the literature
review on the effects of different coolants in the milling process.

2.3 Cutting Force Models in Metal Cutting

It is important to study the various approaches for simulating cutting forces in

orthogonal and oblique cutting operations since they give a clear overview of the
modeling of forces in any machining operation and eventually in milling as well. Many
researchers have investigated forces in metal cutting operations in the past. Earlier
cutting force models have been developed and simulated for orthogonal cutting

Chapter 2

Literature Review

operations by Merchant (Merchant, 1945) who assumed the chip to be a rigid body
held in equilibrium by the action of forces across the chip tool interface and shear
plane. He also assumed that the shear plane angle would minimize the work done in
cutting. Lee and Shaffer (Lee and Shaffer, 1951) have applied slip line field theory to
orthogonal metal cutting by assuming super plastic material behavior. Their solution
required the construction of a slip-line field pattern and the shearing in the primary
deformation zone is assumed to be concentrated on a narrow shear plane. However
neither of these models could incorporate the actual work piece behavior into the
model structure in a realistic way. Therefore the predicted results were not quite in
agreement with the experimental results obtained using different work piece material
combinations. It is believed by Boothroyd (Boothroyd, 1988) that unique relationship
of the form suggested by Merchant (Merchant, 1945) or Shaffer (Lee and Shaffer,
1951) for the prediction of shear and friction angle can never hold true for all
materials. This is mainly due to the difference in the material properties, which have to
be included into the relationship of shear plane and friction angle. Wright (Wright,
1982) has attempted to include the work material strain hardening properties obtained
through tension tests in calculating the shear plane and friction angle. However Bagci
(Bagci, 1973) has shown that unless the secondary shear zone effects are included,
Wrights (Wright, 1982) model also would not hold for different combinations of tool
geometries and work materials. Accordingly Bagci (Bagci, 1973) has proposed an
experimental correction factor to take into account different cutting conditions. Similar
concepts have been applied by other researchers (Baily and Bhavandia, 1973; Black,
1979; Yellowly, 1985). However no model has yet been developed that can
incorporate the work piece material properties into the machining models without
requiring additional experimental cutting force data.

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Work material properties can be appropriately incorporated into machining

models by applying the more complicated plasticity theory. This requires that no
specific form of deformation pattern be assumed prior to solution and work piece
material properties should be known as to the ranges of strains, strain rates and
temperatures generated during the cutting action. Several researchers have attempted to
apply principles of plasticity theory in metal cutting. But there are several numerical
and technical problems involved in plasticity applications to metal cutting operations.
As a result of very high strains and strain rates, high temperatures are generated during
the deformation and the material properties apparently change from isotropic to
anisotropic. However it is very difficult to represent material properties at high ranges
of strains, strain rates and temperatures that are involved in metal cutting, since the
material testing methods at these ranges of operating conditions can only give
qualitative results (Baily and Bhavandia, 1973; Campbell, 1973). Therefore the results
obtained from the plasticity analysis would also be qualitative. Thus, to improve the
accuracy of the solutions obtained using plasticity theory, material property
relationships and material testing methods at high strains, strain rates and temperatures
must be improved.
When quantitative knowledge about metal cutting operations is required,
experimental techniques should be employed to improve the accuracy of the force
predictions. If the results of the experimental methods are expressed in the equation,
these methods are called empirical methods. Since any metal cutting process involves
many variables, empirical techniques require large number of experiments to arrive at
a credible model. Empirical models cannot be extrapolated outside the experimentally
tested domain. Therefore it is not practical to apply these models for prediction of
cutting forces in a complicated machining operation like milling. However forces can

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be related to the mechanics of the milling process through a set of experimentally

obtained model parameters (Shaw et al., 1952; Nigm et al., 1977; Ueda and Mastsuo,
1986, Rosenberg and Rosenberg, 1987). These model parameters would be functions
of a smaller number of variables than forces, and thus require a smaller number of
experiments to obtain the parametric relationships. For example, the cutting forces are
a function of the radial and axial engagements whereas the model parameters may not
be affected by these geometric cutting conditions. These types of models are
commonly called mechanistic force models. These mechanistic model parameters can
be selected in multiple ways. For instance, shear plane angle, shear strength, friction,
pressure, chip flow angle, direction of friction force, radial, tangential and axial force
components are some of the commonly used model parameters in the mechanistic
force models. The accuracy of mechanistic force models depends upon the accuracy of
the empirical parametric relationships obtained through experiments.
Analytical modeling of the End milling operations started with Tulstys work
in 1975. In this work analytical expressions for tangential and radial cutting forces are
framed and later these force components are resolved into the feed and normal
direction cutting forces at the center of the cutter. In this model the cutting forces are
expressed as a function of the tool rotation angle or the cutting angle, which gives the
position of the cutting edge. The cutting force acting on the cutting edge through out
one single rotation of the tool (cutter) is analyzed which was observed to vary with the
variation in the angular position of the cutting edge. The action of one tooth is
considered on a plan, which shows the unfolded or unrolled surface of the cut. The
cutting edge is then a straight line inclined at the helix angle and it moves from left to
right. The whole cutting action is described in three phases. In the first phase the length
of the cutting edge involved in the cutting process increases from zero to maximum

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width or radial engagement and then in the second phase the cutting edge moves
through varying chip thickness at constant length and in the final stage the length of
the cutting edge gradually decreases. In any position of the cutting edge during the cut
the cutting force is distributed non-uniformly along the edge because its individual
points have different angular positions and consequently they cut different chip
thicknesses. The effect of a small element of the cutting edge on the total cutting force
at the center of the cutter is decomposed into the three components in the rectangular
coordinate system and then the expressions are integrated within limits, which are
determined by virtue of the angular position of the cutting edge. The analytical
expressions thus obtained are evaluated and plotted for various combinations of the
cutting parameters and were found to produce satisfactory results. But eventually this
model when tried for Micro end milling operations didnt produce accurate simulated
cutting forces in coincidence with experimental cutting forces.
Following

this

exemplary

work,

many

researchers

have

developed

mathematical and analytical models for the cutting forces in end milling operation and
selected few have even incorporated effects of different machine tool aberrations like
tool run out etc. on the cutting forces and on the surface quality and dimensional
accuracy of the product (Kline and DeVor, 1983; and Kline et al., 1982). These are
mechanistic models based on the chip load, cut geometry and the relationship between
cutting forces and chip load. The cutting edge is considered as an aggregation of disk
like elements and the total cutting force is the summation of the force acting on each of
these elements (Shaw et al., 1952; Usui et al., 1984). Later on Li Zheng (Li Zheng et
al., 1996) carried out three-dimensional cutting force analysis in End milling. This
work is almost similar to the mechanistic model mentioned above except that the total
cutting force model is established via the angle domain convolution integration of local

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forces in the feed, normal and axial directions. This integration is taken along the
cutter axis and summarized across the cutting flutes. The convolution integral leads to
a periodic function of the cutting forces in the angle domain and explicit expression of
the dynamic cutting force in the frequency domain. In the recent past, analytical
cutting force model for end milling operation has been developed by Wang (Wang
Junz, J. -J. and Zheng, 2002) considering the shearing and ploughing mechanisms. The
elemental forces are defined as a linear combination of shearing ad ploughing forces in
six constants. The analytical model for the total milling forces in the angular and
frequency domain are derived by convolution approach and Fourier transforms
respectively just in a way similar to that in the Li Zheng (Li Zheng et al., 1996) model
mentioned above. The expressions thus derived are expressed as superposition of the
shearing force component and ploughing force component. The predicting accuracy of
a milling force model depends greatly on the selection of a local cutting force model
and its cutting coefficients. These cutting coefficients relate the varying uncut chip
thickness to the three-dimensional cutting forces along the helical cutting edge through
the combined effect of shearing mechanism at the rake face and ploughing mechanism
at the nose and flank. An expression is derived for identifying the cutting constants of
the dual-mechanism model form the average milling forces. In this model the cutting
constants for the dual-mechanism model are fairly independent of chip thickness. A
predictive Force model for milling has later been developed by H. Z .Li (Li and Li,
2001) by estimating the dynamic shear length. In this model the cutting forces are
determined by applying the predictive machining theory originally developed for
orthogonal cutting operations by Oxley (Oxley, 1989) and it has been applied to
milling operations, with a dynamic shear length model developed and incorporated.
This dynamic shear length model is developed based on the analysis for the true tooth

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trajectories of a milling cutter, considering the characteristic wavy surface effects in

milling. In this model the cutting forces are predicted as a function of the angular
increment of the cutter rotation. Once the shear angle, shear length, shear plane area
and the shear flow stress conditions are determined, the cutting forces at the tooth of
the cutter can be determined. This model assumes a thin shear zone, chip equilibrium
and a uniform shear stress in the secondary deformation zone at the tool chip interface.
The continuum mechanics and the minimum energy principles are applied to the
analysis of chip formation process, taking into account as much as possible of
plasticity theory. This again makes this model too complicated and at micro scales
even this model too proved to be inaccurate.
Nobody really attempted to analyze the Micro end milling process in depth
until the remarkable work of Bao in the late nineties (Bao and Tansel, 2000). In this
study a new analytical cutting force model is proposed for micro end milling
operations. This model estimates the chip thickness by considering the trajectory of the
tool tip while the tool rotates and traverses ahead continuously in the feed direction.
This was more or less the first detailed study on micro end milling process and this
study was further extended to incorporate the effects of tool run out on the cutting
forces and the estimation of the tool wear and detection of tool breakage in micro end
milling process. In this cutting force model it was assumed that typically in micro end
milling operations, the feed per tooth to the tool radius ratio is selected to be much
higher than that in conventional end milling operations. But this cannot be generalized
as it depends on the job in hand and the geometric dimensions of the product needed
and the permissible feed and speed of the machine tool. However this condition may
be necessary to keep the productivity a little high. This model is merely based on the
Tulsty and Macneils model (Tlusty and Macneil, 1975) for conventional end milling

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operations, except the expression for the chip thickness, which is separately derived
considering the path of the tool tip. Experimental results have shown that this model
was effective only at higher ratios of feed per tooth to tool diameter (in the order of 0.4
and above).
In this study a new approach has been followed in order to geometrically
compute the theoretical chip area so as to estimate the cutting force directly as a
product of the specific cutting energy and the theoretical chip area. This model also is
based on the Tulsty and Macneils cutting force model (Tlusty and Macneil, 1975) in
which it was proposed that the cutting force is proportional to the theoretical chip area.
In the previous analytical models, the cutting area has been calculated by considering it
as a product of the width of cut and the chip thickness. However, in this model this
area has been geometrically calculated as a function of the cutting angle (tool rotation
angle) and the exact tool engagement is defined for any cutting conditions. This model
defines the difference between micro and conventional end milling operation from the
viewpoint of tool engagement and axial depth of cut to tool diameter ratio, which is
generally higher for micro end milling operations. The higher axial depth of cut to tool
diameter ratio enables the model to give an analytical expression for the axial
component of the cutting force. These concepts have been vividly explained in the
following chapters.

2.4 Tool Wear Mechanism in Micro End milling

Wear in cutting tools is a very complex phenomenon with many variables and
different mechanisms. Tool wear can include one or more of several mechanisms (Lim
and Ashby, 1987) such as abrasion, adhesion, melting or delamination depending upon

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a specific tool and work piece combination, cutting experience and cutting velocity.
Tool wear rates are a few orders of magnitude higher than those in sliding wear. The
very high temperature and pressure on the tool surfaces and cutting edge may lead to
the developments of different wear patterns under different cutting conditions. These
tool wear modes are usually known as flank wear on the flank face of the tool, crater
wear on the face of the tool and rounding at the nose. The locations and configuration
of these tool wear modes are generally influenced by the distribution of the heat
generated during cutting, friction and stress distribution at the tool work piece interface
(Bhattacharyya and Ham, 1969; Usui et al., 1984).
With the increase in the machining time, the tool wear increases and that causes
an increase of cutting forces. The increases in the measured force with increase in tool
wear in turning operations are studied for the purpose of developing indirect
monitoring of tool wear (Koren, 1984; Danai and Ulsoy, 1987). The dependence of
tool wear on cutting forces has been represented by empirical models with parameter
estimator algorithms estimating tool wear from the measured forces. The stresses at the
cutting tool wear land during orthogonal cutting operations have been studied by Chen
(Chen et al., 1988) whose work shows that the forces introduced by the flank wear
does not change the rake force significantly. They conclude that the friction coefficient
at the tool flank work piece contact almost remains constant, independent of the
cutting conditions such as federate and the cutting speed. A constant friction
coefficient is interpreted as indicating sliding frictional conditions at the tool flank.
However, the behavior of tool wear characteristic in micro end milling is little
different from that in conventional end milling. The cutting edges of conventional
mills wear out when they lose material and as a result craters are formed and generally
the cutting edges break one by one. While in micro end milling the tiny shafts break

17

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when either the cutting edge becomes dull because of material loss or the tool is
covered with particles of work piece material or clogged chips. The variation in the
cutting force pattern with the machining time is very vital in determining the tool wear
in micro end milling operations. Tool life in conventional end milling decreases with
increase in axial depth of cut but contradictorily it was observed to increase with
increase in axial depth of cut upto a certain extent (Rahman et al., 2001;
Tauhiduzzaman et al., 2004). In this study the behavior of tool wear and tool life
characteristics with varying cutting conditions has been investigated and the findings
are experimentally justified.

2.5 Size effect in metal cutting

The concept of size effect for metal cutting is existing for a long time based on
the observation that, when metal is removed by machining, there is substantial increase
in the specific energy required with decrease in chip size. A number of attempts have
been made to explain why the specific cutting energy should increase with decrease in
un-deformed chip thickness. It is generally believed that, this is due to the fact that all
commercially available metals contain defects such as, grain boundaries, missing and
impurity in atoms, voids, micro-cracks, dislocations etc., and when size of the material
to be removed is decreased, the probability of having a stress-reducing defect in the
cutting zone decreases, causing an increase in flow stress and hence specific cutting
pressure (Backer et al., 1952). A relatively new explanation of size effect has been
given by Larson-Basse and Oxley (Larson-Basse and Oxley, 1973), where they
considered it to be dependent on the strain-rate effect by stating that, a reduction in
chip thickness increases shear-strain that results an increase in shear flow stress and

18

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specific cutting pressure. When a relatively larger volume of material is deformed in a

cutting process in a particular time, the density of the imperfections or defects may be
assumed to be uniform and thus the strain and strain hardening. However, when the
volume of the material is small, the material shows obvious signs of the basic
inhomogeneous character of strain, which results in a rise in the mean flow stress i.e.
size effect (Shaw, 2003). Another less sophisticated explanation for size effect has
given by Armarego and Brown (Armarego, and Brown, 1962) and is supported by
Geoffrey Boothroyd (Geoffrey Boothroyd, 1988) who suggested that the profile of tool
cutting edge might be an important factor. Thus the radius on the cutting edge of even
a sharp tool and the scar that occurs on the clearance surface of the tool as a result of
wear might both be expected to increase the specific cutting pressure with decrease in
chip thickness by making a proportionally greater contribution to the measured cutting
forces by increase in the plowing force. Kopalinsky and Oxley (Kopalinsky and Oxley,
1984) concluded from their experiments that the size effect could mainly be accounted
because of the decrease in shear angle with decrease in chip thickness. Another
explanation is while the analysis assumes all the plastic deformation is ahead of the
cutting edge, plastic deformation work hardened the newly generated work piece
surface and for most practical machining processes, this work hardened region forms
the free surface of the chip that is to cut on a subsequent pass, hence energy
dependency in the chip thickness, in other words, size effect (DeVries, 1992). The
specific cutting energy is an empirically determined characteristic of machining which
is defined as the energy to cut a unit volume of material.

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2.6 Coolants in metal cutting

The traditional cutting fluids pose serious health and environment hazards.
People exposed to cutting fluids may have skin contact with these fluids, inhale mists
or vapor, or even swallow mists particles of these fluids. Due to their toxicity, they
may cause health problems like dermatitis, problems in the respiratory and digestive
systems and even cancer. Improper disposal of these cutting fluids may even cause
serious environmental problems such as water pollution and soil contamination. Strict
regulations and their enforcement against using cutting fluids has therefore, been
tightened. Thus, the waste disposal and post handling of the cutting fluids and other
related costs have increased substantially with tougher environmental laws. Companies
and organizations are being forced to implement strategies to reduce the usage of
cutting fluids in their machining operation (Klocke and Eisenliatter, 1997).
Therefore, it is in need to look for new coolant application techniques.
Application of mist coolant and chilled air for effective cooling without polluting the
environment is becoming more and more popular. Besides pollution control, the
industries also reasonably insist economic viability through technological benefits in
terms of product quality, tool life and saving power consumption by using of mist
coolant and chilled air-cooling.

2.6.1 Dry Machining

Dry machining is the machining without the use of any cutting fluid. It is
ecologically desirable. The advantages of dry machining include: non-pollution of the
atmosphere (or water); no residue on the swarf which will be reflected in reduced
disposal and cleaning costs; no danger to health; non-injuries to skin and it is allergy

20

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free. Moreover, it offers cost reduction in machining (Sreejith and Ngoi, 2000).
Elimination on the use of the cutting fluids, if possible, can be a significant incentive.
The costs connected with the use of cutting fluids are estimated to be many more times
than the labor and overhead costs (Sreejith and Ngoi, 2000). Hence, the
implementation of dry machining will reduce manufacturing costs.
Many metal-cutting processes have been developed and improved based on the
availability of coolants. It is well known that coolants improve the tool life and tool
performance to a great extent. In dry machining, there will be more friction and
adhesion between the tool and the work piece, since they will be subjected to higher
temperatures. This will result in increased tool wear and hence reduction in tool life.
Higher machining temperatures will produce ribbon-like chips and this will affect the
form and dimensional accuracy of the machined surface (Paul et al., 2001). However,
dry cutting also has some positive effects, such as reduction in thermal shock and
hence improved tool life in an interrupted-cutting environment. In the following
sections the features of mist coolant and chilled air are described briefly.

2.6.2 Application of mist coolant as cutting fluid

Application of mist coolant as a coolant is found to significantly improve the
tool life and surface finish during conventional milling, compared to the conventional
flood coolant or dry machining. A study was conducted by Machado and Wallbank
(Machado and Wallbank, 1997) to evaluate the effect of extremely low lubricant
volumes in machining. Small quantities of lubricant (200-300ml/hr) in a fast flowing
air stream with a pressure of 2 bars were used in turning of medium carbon steel (AISI
1040). Results were compared to the traditional flood cooling method as a benchmark
with 5.2 l/min. The findings reveal that surface finish, chip thickness and force

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variation are all affected beneficially by the equivalent. Cutting force and feed force
were found reduced when the lubricant was applied under low cutting speed and high
feed rate.
In another study by Varadarajan (Varadarajan, 2002), a hard turning with
minimal fluid application has been carried out to compare the machining performance
with dry and wet turning. A specially formulated cutting fluid was applied with a high
velocity, thin-pulsed jet at the immediate cutting zones at an extremely low rate of 2
ml/min. It was observed that cutting force was lower during minimal application when
compared to dry and conventional wet turning. Penetration of the cutting fluid with
Epoxy additives into the interface can reduce the frictional contribution to cutting
force, which in turn lower the cutting temperature, shortening of tool-chip contact
length and increase of shear angle during minimal application bring forth better surface
integrity and improved tool life. The overall performance during minimal cutting fluid
application was found to be superior to that during dry turning and conventional wet
turning on the basis of cutting force, tool life, surface finish, cutting temperature and
tool-chip contact length. As the minimal rate of application is as low as 2 ml/min a
major portion of the fluid is evaporated. The remnants carried away by the work and
chips are too low to cause contamination of the shop environment.

2.6.3 Application of chilled air as cutting fluid

Cryogenic processing refers to the treatment of a material at a very low
temperature. Shane Y. Hong (Shane and Broomer, 2000) reported cryogenic
machining, which uses liquid nitrogen (LN2) as a coolant, is considered a viable option
to conventional machining. With temperature as low as 196o C at 1 atm, super cold
LN2 is a good coolant. After absorbing the heat from the cutting process, it evaporates

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into nitrogen gas and becomes a part of the air (79% of the air is nitrogen). It leaves no
harmful residue to the environment. Therefore, it is considered naturally recycling and
environmentally friendly.
S.W. Kim (Kim, 2001) conducted an experiment in measuring the cutting
temperature of ball-end milling of hardened steel, for different cooling condition by
using a K-type thermocouple, implanted in a hole of the work piece. It was directly cut
in order to measure the temperatures of the shear zone during the cutting process. The
cutting temperatures were about 790, 350 540, and 450oC in dry, wet and compressed
chilled air at 9 and 35oC respectively. The cutting environment for compressed
chilled air at 9oC provided the best tool life among the all the cooling conditions.
Although the wet condition had the most effective cooling, it provided the worst tool
life. It was also reported that at the cooling temperature of 35oC, the cutting length
obtained was about 2m shorter than for the dry condition due to excessive cooling. In
the case of dry condition and compressed chilled air of 9oC, the tool wear pattern
shows normal wear caused by abrasion. However, under the wet condition and
compressed chilled air of (-35oC), the wear pattern showed abnormal wear (chipping,
fracture etc.) by the thermal shock transferred to the tool.

2.7 Conclusion
The effects of the coolants on the tool life, cutting forces and surface roughness
as mentioned in the previous sections is illustrated in details in chapter 7 for micro end
milling operations. However, the following chapter starts with the description of the
cutting force dynamics in micro end milling operations and the developed cutting force
model will be explained.

23