Data Collection

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Collecting Data
(Source: Mertler, C.A. (2009). Action research: Teachers as researchers in the classroom. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.)
Qualitative
Qualitative data are narrative, appearing primarily as words.

Qualitative data are usually collected through observations, interviews, or journals or by obtaining
existing documents or records.
Observations involve carefully and systematically watching and recording what you see and
hear in a given setting.

Classroom observations may be structured, semistructured, or unstructured

Unstructured or semistructured observations allow for the flexibility to attend to other events
occurring in the classroom.

Classrooms observations are usually recorded in the form of field notes, which may include
observers comments.

Interviews are typically formal conversations between individuals.

Interview typically follows an interview guide, which may be structured, semistructured, or openended.

Interview can also be conducted with groups of individuals in an interview knows as a focus
group.

Interview may also be conducted informally or via email.

Journals may also be kept by both teachers and students in order to provide valuable insights
into the workings of classroom.

Existing documents and records, originally gathered for reasons other than action research, are
abundantly available in schools and may be used as additional sources of information. These include
classroom artifacts, such as student work.

It is important for teachers- researchers to establish the trustworthiness of their data. This
includes the accuracy, creditability and dependability of ones qualitative data.

Quantitative
Quantitative data are numerical and include just about anything that can be counted, tallied or rated.

Surveys are lists of statements or questions to which participants responds.

Questionnaires are one specific type of survey involving the administration of questions or
statements in written form.

Items on survey can consist of one-ended questions or closed- response rating scales.

A closed response question or statement provides the respondent with a number of choices from
which to select. Analysis of the resulting data involves counting the number of responses for each option.

Open-ended times allow for seemingly limitless number of possible responses. Analysis of
these data involves categorizing responses into similar groups and then counting them.

Surveys and rating scales are effective at gathering data from simultaneously from numerous
individuals but can sometimes be time consuming to analyze.

Checklists are simple form of rating scale where only a dichotomy of response options (e.g
present / not present) exists.

Tests and other formal instruments can be used as quantitative data, provided they are
supplemented with other forms of data.

Validity of quantitative data has to do with the extent to which the data or what they are believed
to be.

Reliability refers to the consistency of quantitative data and is determined statistically.

Remember the following: A valid test is always reliable, but a reliable test is not necessary valid.

Maxwells Criteria for Validity of Qualitative Research

(In Mills, G.E. (2007). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Adapted from Maxwell, J.A. (1992).Understanding and validity in qualitative
research. Harvard Educational Review, 62 (3), pp. 279-300.)
CRITERIA

DEFINITION

Descriptive validity Factual accuracy

Interpretive validity Concern for the participants perspective
Theoretical validity The ability for the research report to explain the phenomenon that has been studied and
described.
Generalizability

Internal Generalizability: Generalizability within the community that has been studied
External Generalizability: Generalizability to settings that were not studied by the researcher.

Evaluative validity Whether the researcher was able to present the data without being evaluative or judgemental.

Andersons Criteria for Validity of Action Research

CRITERIA

TEST QUESTION

Democratic validity Have the multiple perspectives of all of the individuals in the study been accurately
represented?
Outcome validity

Did the action emerging from the study lead to the successful resolution of the problem?

Process validity

Was the study conducted in a dependable and competent manner?

Catalytic validity

Were the results of the study a catalyst for action?

Dialogic validity

Was the study reviewed by peers?

Resources
Guidelines for Data Collection - This is a bulleted list of suggestions, or simply things to consider, when
planning for your data collection.
Techniques for Gathering Data - Fourteen different techniques for collecting data are briefly described.
Data Collection: The Five Ws and an H - The questions we should ask ourselves prior to collecting data.
These questions fall under the following broader questions:
Why are we collecting this data?
What exactly are we collecting?
Where are we going to collect data and for how long?
When are we going to collect data and for how long?
Who is going to collect the data?
How will the data be collected and displayed?

Data Collection Tools

Case Studies
A case study is usually an in-depth description of a process, experience, or structure at a single
institution. In order to answer a combination of what and why questions, case studies generally
involve a mix of quantitative (i.e., surveys, usage statistics, etc.) and qualitative (i.e., interviews,
focus groups, extant document analysis, etc.) data collection techniques. Most often, the researcher
will analyze quantitative data first and then use qualitative strategies to look deeper into the meaning
of the trends identified in the numerical data.
Checklists
Checklists structure a persons observation or evaluation of a performance or artifact. They can be
simple lists of criteria that can be marked as present or absent, or can provide space for observer
comments. These tools can provide consistency over time or between observers. Checklists can be

used for evaluating databases, virtual IM service, the use of library space, or for structuring peer
observations of instruction sessions.
Interviews
In-Depth Interviews include both individual interviews (e.g., one-on-one) as well as group interviews
(including focus groups). The data can be recorded in a wide variety of ways including stenography,
audio recording, video recording or written notes. In depth interviews differ from direct observation
primarily in the nature of the interaction. In interviews it is assumed that there is a questioner and
one or more interviewees. The purpose of the interview is to probe the ideas of the interviewees about
the phenomenon of interest.
Observation

Sometimes, the

best way to collect data through observation. This can be done directly or indirectly with the subject
knowing or unaware that you are observing them. You may choose to collect data through continuous
observation or via set time periods depending on your project. You may interpret data you gather
using the following mechanisms:

1.
2.

Descriptive observations: you simply write down what you observe

Inferential observations: you may write down an observation that is inferred by the
subjects body language and behavior.

3.

Evaluative observation:
You may make an inference and therefore a judgment from the behavior. Make sure you can
replicate these findings.

Surveys or Questionnaires
Surveys or questionnaires are instruments used for collecting data in survey research. They usually
include a set of standardized questions that explore a specific topic and collect information about
demographics, opinions, attitudes, or behaviors.

Three popular programs that allow you to create

online surveys are Google Forms, Survey Monkey, and Poll Everywhere. A great (low-cost) tool for
reference statistics is Gimlet.

Guiding School Improvement with Action Research

by Richard Sagor
Table of Contents

Chapter 9. Data Collection: Building a Valid and Reliable

Data Collection Plan
Chapters 7 and 8 introduced a variety of viable data collection techniques. However, employing proven techniques
doesn't guarantee the quality of the findings that emerge. The reality is, action research simply isn't worth doing
unless it is done well. Although that may sound like just an old refrain, it is far more. The imperative for maintaining
high standards of quality is a truth learned and sometimes painfully relearned by teacher researchers. There are

three fundamental reasons why you as a teacher researcher should hold yourself to the highest quality standards
possible:
1.
Your obligation to students
2.
The need for personal and collective efficacy
3.
The need to add to the professional knowledge base
The first reason, your obligation to students, rests on the premise that the education of the community's young is a
sacred trust placed upon you as a educator. Therefore, the decisions you make on behalf of students are actions of
no small consequence. No one, least of all teachers, would wish to see students victimized by malpractice. When you
make teaching decisions on the basis of sloppy research, you place your students at risk.
A second reason to hold your action research to the highest standards of quality is that understanding your influence
on educational outcomes can significantly enhance your personal and collective feelings of efficacy. However, before
you can take credit for the success reflected in your data, the quality of that data must withstand the scrutiny of the
world's most critical juryyour own skeptical mind. Ultimately, if you doubt your own conclusions regarding the
contribution you have made to your students, those findings won't have much impact on your feelings of self-worth.
The third factor, adding to the knowledge base, may not seem important if you are a teacher researcher practicing in
a one-room school or you find yourself in a school culture that emphasizes individualism. However, it should be
extremely relevant to the vast majority of teachersthose of you who tend to share what you've learned with your
colleagues. Not infrequently, one of the unspoken reasons for conducting action research is to persuade or entice
your skeptical colleagues to consider your perspective on an issue. When you present your research to peers who
are skeptical about the theory you are following, you should expect a similar skepticism about the research findings
you produce concerning those theories. If your pedagogical opponents can find fatal flaws in your action research
data, all future efforts at persuasion become that much more difficult.

Quality Criteria
The criteria used to establish the quality of action research should be no different from those used with other forms of
research. Topping any researcher's list of quality criteria are the twin pillars of science:validity and reliability, first
introduced in Chapter 1. These concepts are so critical to the quality of action research that it is worth taking some
time to discuss and explore each of them.

Validity
As you no doubt recall from Education Psychology 101, validityrefers to the essential truthfulness of a piece of data.
By asserting validity, the researcher is asserting that the data actually measure or reflect the specific phenomenon
claimed. Scientific history is full of examples of research findings that were discredited because they were shown to
lack validity.
A mercury thermometer is an example of a valid instrument yielding valid data. The height reached by the fluid in an
accurate thermometer is a valid and appropriate measurement of air temperature. Similarly, the movement of a
membrane in a barometer is an appropriate and valid way to determine barometric pressure. A ruler can be a valid
way to measure length, and unfortunately (for those of us who are weight conscious) a bathroom scale can be a valid
measure of weight.
Nothing has helped me understand the importance of attending to validity as much as my experience with
performance assessment. One of the great accomplishments of the modern assessment movement has been
drawing teacher attention to the value of authentic work products. Although bubble-sheet tests can, in many cases,
produce valid data, teachers' preference for authentic work products is understandable. It is analogous to historians'
preference for primary source material over secondary source material. Intuitively, we all know that words from the
horse's mouth are more believable than words related by the horse's trainer. Similarly, a piece of actual student
writing has more validity than a score obtained on the language section of a standardized multiple-choice exam. A

performance by the school band is a better indicator of students' ability to execute a musical piece than are the
students' grades in band.
However, even given the deserved popularity of performance and portfolio assessments, these types of data are not
exempt from concerns regarding validity. For example, how should we react to the use of a written lab report as a
means to assess student understanding of the scientific method? Should a lab report written in standard English be
accepted as a valid indicator of a student's understanding of science?
Suppose you answered yes. Would you still accept that lab report as a valid indicator if you learned that the student
lacked fluency in English? Probably not. This is because the English-language proficiency needed to complete the
report introduced what scientists call an intervening and confounding variable. In the case of assessing the
proficiency in science of a student with limited English proficiency, the written aspect of the report intervenes and
thereby confounds the accuracy of the assessment. Intervening and confounding variables are factors that get in the
way of valid assessment. This is why when conducting assessments on student learning and collecting data for
action research, it is important to ask:
Are there any factors or intervening variables that should cause me to distrust these data?

Reliability
Reliability is a different but no less important concept. Reliability relates to researchers' claims regarding the accuracy
of their data. A few years ago, when a police officer issued me a ticket for speeding, I didn't question the validity of his
using an expensive, city-issued speedometer. I was willing to concede to the officer the validity of measuring
vehicular speed with a speedometer. However, I urged him to consider my thesis regarding the reliability of his
speedometer. I respectfully suggested that although I knew he sincerely believed that his speedometer was accurate,
he ought to consider the possibility that it could be damaged. I argued that if it were broken it wouldn't produce an
accurate, credible, and reliable measure of my speed. What I was suggesting was that although speedometers are
valid measures of speed, they aren't always reliable.
Unfortunately, I lost that argument. I fared no better when I presented the same reasonable doubt plea to the judge.
Unbeknownst to me, the state police regularly establish the reliability (accuracy) of their speedometers by testing the
speedometer on each patrol car every morning. In the end, I had to pay the fine. But in return I learned a memorable
lesson on the value of establishing reliability.
Reliability problems in education often arise when researchers overstate the importance of data drawn from too small
or too restricted a sample. For example, imagine if when I was a high school principal I claimed to the school board
that I had evidence that the parents love our school's programs. When the board chair asked me how I could make
such a claim, I responded by defensively asserting it was a conclusion based on hard dataspecifically, a survey
taken at the last winter band banquet. The board chair might respond that because that event was attended by only 5
percent of the school's parents and all the parents who attended had one thing in commonthey had children in
bandmy conclusions were unreliable. He would be right. Claiming that such a small and select sample accurately
represented the views of a total population (all the school's parents) stretches the credibility of my assertion well
beyond reasonableness.
To enhance the reliability of your action research data, you need to continually ask yourself these questions when
planning data collection:

Is this information an accurate representation of reality?

Can I think of any reasons to be suspicious of its accuracy?

Establishing Validity and Reliability

To appreciate the concepts of validity and reliability and how you might establish them, consider how you would
behave as a juror deliberating in a criminal trial. Lawyers for both sides would argue their cases as persuasively as
possible. Your task as a juror is to determine which of the arguments to believe. In deciding if a lawyer had proved
the case, you would probably ask these questions regarding validity: Are these claims credible? Can I truly believe

that this evidence means what these witnesses and lawyers say it does? To determine the reliability of the evidence,
you would ask questions such as these about the accuracy of the witnesses' recollections and testimony: Can I trust
the accuracy of their eyes and ears? Could time or emotions have played a trick on their memories?
So how do legal researchersdefense lawyers and prosecutorsconvince a jury of the essential truth and
accuracy (validity and reliability) of their cases? They do it through the twin processes
of corroborationand impeachment. When they want the jury to believe what one of their witnesses said, they bring in
other independent witnesses. If an additional witness corroborates everything the first witness said, it increases the
confidence a juror will have in the initial testimony. The more independent pieces of evidence a lawyer can place
before a jury, the more the jurors will trust the truthfulness and accuracy of the claims. Conversely, if lawyers want the
jury to doubt the truth and accuracy (validity and reliability) of the other side, they try to impeach (challenge the
credibility of) the testimony of the other side, by, for example, entering into evidence alternative or irreconcilable
reports on the same phenomenon from several independent sources.

Triangulation
Action researchers use a similar process to that used by lawyers. It is called triangulation, and, as was discussed in
Chapters 1 and 2, it involves the use of multiple independent sources of data to establish the truth and accuracy of a
claim.
There are ways to develop valid and reliable instruments without triangulation, but these methods are often
problematic. First, they are time-consuming and frequently prohibitive in terms of cost. This is because significant
field-testing is required to establish the validity and reliability of a measuring instrument. Just consider the many
millions of dollars invested by publishers to support the validity and reliability of their standardized tests. But even if
teachers were willing to invest the time, money, and energy required to establish technical validity (construct and
content) for their home-grown instruments, they probably wouldn't be happy with what they produced.
For good reason, educators are intuitively unimpressed with single instrument measures. They tend to question
whether any single tool could ever capture the full reality of any meaningful educational outcome. Occasionally I will
meet a layperson who believes that SAT scores alone (or another piece of seemingly compelling data, such as
college admissions data or discipline referrals) provide an accurate picture of a school's quality. But I have never met
a knowledgeable educator who is willing to make a judgment based upon any of those same valid and reliable
instruments. This is because educators know that what these valid and reliable instruments reveal is simply too
narrow to justify conclusions regarding educational quality.
This is not to say that these instruments (SAT scores, college admissions, discipline referrals, and so forth) aren't
valuable windows into the larger phenomenon (the quality of a school), but before conclusions can be drawn about
the big picture, those findings need to be corroborated by looking at the phenomenon through a variety of other
windows.
Figure 9.1 illustrates what a plan for triangulated data collection might look like to answer a question on the quality of
a high school.

Figure 9.1. A Plan for Triangulated Data Collection

Although we might be skeptical about drawing conclusions regarding a school's quality from any one of the success
indicators in Figure 9.1, if all of these instruments painted a similar picture, we would, no doubt, feel confident in
declaring the school good.

Finishing the Research Proposal

Chapter 6 presented guidelines for producing a written problem statement/research proposal (Implementation
Strategy #6). The sample proposal written by Richard and Georgia, although short, contained all the items expected
from a formal research proposal except the data collection plan. Chapter 2 described the triangulation matrix as a
helpful planning tool (Figure 2.3, p. 21). Figure 9.2 shows the triangulated data collection plan, in the form of a matrix,
that Richard and Georgia used to answer their research questions. Implementation Strategy #10 can help you
complete a triangulation matrix.

Figure 9.2. Triangulation Matrix for Real World Advocacy Project Research Questions

Research Question

Data Source #1

Data Source #2

Data Source #3

1. Could we motivate our 8th graders to

conduct and complete Real World
Advocacy Projects?

Teacher journals

Student surveys

Grade book records

2. What would be the quality of the

projects produced by our students?

Teacher assessments
using a project rubric

Student selfassessments using the

same rubric

Assessment by
community members
using the rubric

3. Would the completion of Real World

Advocacy Projects result in enhanced
feelings of social efficacy for our

Surveys of students'
other teachers

Interviews with random

sample of students

Interviews with random

sample of parents

students?

Implementation Strategy #10Building a Triangulated Data Collection Plan

WHAT:Constructing a data collection plan with high probability of producing valid and reliable answers to your
research questions
HOW:
1.
Prepare a four-column data collection matrix with separate rows for each research question (see Figure 9.2).
2.
Write your research questions in column 1 of your matrix.
3.
For each research question, ask yourself the following: What is one source of data that could help answer
this question? Write your answer in column 2 next to the research question.
4.
Ask the question two more times to determine a second and third source of data, and write your answers in
columns 3 and 4, respectively.*
5.
Repeat this process for each research question.
6.
Review the completed matrix and ask yourself the following question: Are these the best sources of data
I/we could collect in answer to each of these questions? When you are satisfied with your answer to this
question, you have a completed data collection plan.

Last Important Step

Once you have developed a triangulated data collection plan, you have accomplished much of the hard work of
action research. Most doctoral students report that the hardest aspect of completing a doctorate is getting a
comprehensive research proposal through their dissertation committee. Once the rationale for their research has
been established and a methodology (the data collection plan) for answering their research questions has been put in
place, all that is left is to carry out the proposal. If you, alone or with colleagues, have followed the steps outlined in
this book thus far, you are ready to proceed. Now all you have to do is carry out your plan.
Unfortunately, many beginning action researchers stall at this point, usually because completing the next stage, data
collection, requires budgeting time from an already packed schedule. To get over this hurdle, it is helpful to commit to
a time line and a process for completing the work of data collection. The rationale for formalizing this commitment is
to keep the demands of a hectic work life from getting in the way of completing what should prove to be a most
satisfying piece of work. Implementation Strategy #11 takes only a few minutes to complete, but doing so will help
ensure that you get over the time hurdle and maintain your momentum for completing your research.

Implementation Strategy #11Data Collection Time Line/To-Do List

WHAT:Making a commitment to a plan for completing the data collection portion of your action research
HOW:
1.
Make a four-column list on a sheet of chart paper.
2.
Brainstorm (either individually or, if your research is a team effort, with your colleagues) a list of each thing
that needs to be accomplished in order to complete your triangulated data collection plan. List these items
(roughly in chronological order) in the left-hand column on the chart paper.
3.
In the second column, write the date that each should be accomplished. Then ask yourself if it is realistic to
complete this item by that date. If the answer is yes, go to the next item. If the answer is no, determine the

4.

5.

6.

earliest realistic date.

If working individually, go on to the next step. If working as a team, go through each item on the list and
determine who is willing to be responsible to see that this item is accomplished by the agreed upon date. Write
that person's name in column 3.
Ask yourself (or ask the team) the following question: What types of support or help might I/we need to
complete each of these items? Perhaps you will need some support from your principal or some help from a
professor at a local university. Write the name of the person or organization whose help you anticipate needing
in the last column and commit to a time for making contact with these critical friends.
One last time, ask yourself or your team if this plan is realistic. If you answer yes, you are ready to proceed.
If you answer no, repeat this strategy.

Chapters 10 and 11 explore the three remaining steps in the action research process: data analysis, reporting, and
action planning. Chapter 12 discusses a number of important ethical and methodological issues that will be
particularly helpful for beginning researchers. If you intend to conduct your data collection before reading the rest of
this book, I strongly recommend that you read Chapter 12 first.

Endnote
*

Although this strategy suggests collecting three types of data to answer a research question, it is perfectly permissible to
collect more than three types.
Copyright 2000 by Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
including the drawings, graphs, illustrations, or chapters, except for brief quotations in critical reviews or articlesmay be
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information storage and retrieval system, without permission from ASCD.

Requesting Permission

For photocopy, electronic and online access, and republication requests, go to the Copyright
Clearance Center. Enter the book title within the "Get Permission" search field.
To translate this book, contact permissions@ascd.org

3. Methods of collecting qualitative data

Data collection approaches for qualitative research usually involves:
1.

Direct interaction with individuals on a one to one basis

2.

Or direct interaction with individuals in a group setting

Qualitative research data collection methods are time consuming, therefore data is usually collected from a
smaller sample than would be the case for quantitative approaches - therefore this makes qualitative research
more expensive.
The benefits of the qualitative approach is that the information is richer and has a deeper insight into the
phenomenon under study
The main methods for collecting qualitative data are:
1.

Individual interviews

2.

Focus groups

3.

Observations

4.

Action Research

4. Interviews
Interviews can be
1. Unstructured
1. Can be referred to as 'depth' or 'in depth' interviews
2. They have very little structure at all
3. The interviewer may just go with the aim of discussing a limited number of topics, sometimes
as few as just one or two
4. The interviewer may frame the interview questions based on the interviewee and his/her
previous response
5. This allows the discussion to cover areas in great detail
6. They involve the researcher wanting to know or find out more about a specific topic without
there being a structure or a preconceived plan or expectation as to how they will deal with
the topic
2. Semi structured
1. Semi structured interviews are sometimes also called focused interviews
2. A series of open ended questions based on the topic areas the researcher wants to cover
3. A series of broad questions to ask and may have some prompts to help the interviewee
4. 'The open ended nature of the question defines the topic under investigation but provides
opportunities for both interviewer and interviewee to discuss some topics in more detail'
5. Semi structured interviews allow the researcher to promt or encourage the interviewee if they
are looking for more information or find what they are saying interesting
6. This method gives the researcher the freedom to probe the interviewee to elaborate or to
follow a new line of inquiry introduced by what the interviewee is saying
7. Work best when the interviewed has a number of areas he/she wants to be sure to be
addressing
1. Structured

1. The interviewed asks the respondent the same questions in the same way
2. A tightly structured schedule is used
3. The questions may be phrased in order that a limited range of responses may be given - i.e.
'Do you rate our services as very good, good or poor'
4. A researcher needs to consider whether a questionnaire or structured interview is more
appropriate
5. 'If the interview schedule is too tightly structured this may not enable the phenomena under
investigation to be explored in terms of either breadth or depth.'
Qualitative interviews should be fairly informal and participants feel they are taking part in a conversation or
discussion rather than in a formal question and answer situation.
There is skill required and involved in successful qualitative research approaches - which requires careful
consideration and planning
Good quality qualitative research involves:
1. Thought
2. Preparation
3. The development of the interview schedule
4. Conducting and analysing the interview data with care and consideration

5. Focus groups
The use of focus groups is sometimes used when it is better to obtain information from a group rather than
individuals.
Group interviews can be used when:
1.

Limited resources (time, manpower, finances)

2.

The phenomena being researched requires a collective discussion in order to understand the
circumstances, behaviour or opinions

3.

Greater insights may be developed of the group dynamic - or cause and consequence

Characteristics of a focus group:

1.

Recommended size of the sample group is 6 - 10 people as smaller groups may limit the potential on
the amount of information collected, and more may make it difficult for all participants to participate and
interact and for the interviewer to be able to make sense of the information given

2.

Several focus groups should be used in order to get a more objective and macro view of the
investigation. i.e. focussing on one group may give you idiosyncratic results. The use of several groups
will add to the breadth and depth of information. A minimum of three focus groups is recommended for
best practice approaches

3.

Members of the focus group should have something in common which is important to the investigation

4.

Groups can either be put together or existing groups - it is always useful to be mindful of the group
dynamics of both situations

The aim of the focus group is to make use of participants' feelings, perceptions and opinions
This method requires the researcher to use a range of skills:
1.

group skills

2.

facilitating

3.

moderating

4.

listening/observing

5.

analysis

6. Observation
Observation involves may take place in natural settings and involve the researcher taking lengthy and
descriptive notes of what is happening.
It is argued that there are limits to the situations that can be observed in their 'natural' settings and that the
presence of the research may lead to problems with validity.
Limitations with observation include:
1.

Change in people's behaviour when they know they are being observed

2.

A 'snap shot' view of a whole situation

3.

Think Big Brother...

4.

The researcher may miss something while they are watching and taking notes

5.

The researcher may make judgements of make value statements or misunderstand what has been
observed

Strengths of observation
1.

Can offer a flavour for what is happening

2.

Can give an insight into the bigger picture

3.

Can demonstrate sub-groups

4.

Can be used to assist in the design of the rest of the research

Sometimes, the researcher becomes or needs to become a participant observer, where they are taking part in
the situation in order to be accepted and further understand the workings of the social phenomenon.
Observation can sometimes obtain more reliable information about certain things - for example, how people
actually behave (although it may not find out the reasons for why they behave in a particular way).
Observation can also serve as a technique for verifying of nullifying information provided in face to face
encounters.'
People or environment can be observed.
When environment is researched, it can provide valuable background information that may inform other aspects
of the research.
Techniques for collecting data through observation
1.

2.

Written descriptions
1.

The researcher makes written descriptions of the people, situations or environment

2.

Limitations include
1.

Researcher might miss out on an observation as they are taking notes

2.

The researcher may be focussed on a particular event or situation

3.

There is room for subjective interpretation of what is happening

Video recording
1.

Allows the researcher to also record notes

2.

Limitations may include people acting unnaturally towards the camera or others avoiding the
camera

3.
1.

The camera may not always see everything

Photographs and artefacts

1.

Useful when there is a need to collect observable information or phenomena such as

buildings, neighbourhoods, dress and appearance

2.

Artefacts include objects of significance - memorabilia, instruments, tools etc

Documentation
1.

Any and all kinds of documentation may be used to provide information - a local paper, information on
a notice board, administrative policies and procedures...etc previous research, even