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THE LIBRARY OF

EMIL KUICHLING,
ROCHESTER.

NEW YORK

THE GIFT OF

SARAH

L.

KUICHLING

1919

C. E.

Cornell University Library

TK1191.S52
Power stations and power transmission.

3 1924 005 027 754

'M
H\

The

Cornell University
Library

original of

tiiis

book

is in

the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

restrictions in

the United States on the use of the

text.

http://www.archive.org/cletails/cu31924005027754

Power Stations
and

Power Transmission
A

Manual of

APPROVED AMERICAN PRACTICE IN THE CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT,

AND MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRICAL GENERATING STATIONS,
AND TRANSMISSION LINES, FOR
SUBSTATIONS,
POWER, LIGHTING, TRACTION, ELECTROCHEMICAL, AND DOMESTIC USES

PART I POWER STATIONS

PART II POWER TRANSMISSION
By George

C. Shaad,

E.E

Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering, Massachusetts

Institute of

Technology

ILLUSTRATED

CHICAGO
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE
1908

CoP-i-RIGHT 1907

BY

Amep-Ican School of Cokrespondence

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London
All Rights Reserved

Foreword
N

recent years, sueb marvelous advances have been

made

and

in the engineering

scientific fields,

and

so rapid has been the evolution of mechanical

and

constructive processes and methods, that a distinct

need has been created for a series of

worliiig

low

of convenient size and

(jn.idcs,

cost,

pi'"<-''^'"'"^

embodying the

accumulated results of experience and the most approved modern

practice along a great variety of lines.

need,
this

is

To

fill

this

acknowledged

the special purpose of the series of handbooks to which

volume belongs.
e

C In the preparation of this

series, it

has been the aim of the pub-

lishers to lay special stress on the prm-fiail side of each suljject,

as distinguished

Each volume

is

from mere theoretical

or

academic discussion.

written by a well-known expert of acknowledged

authority in his special

line,

and

of practical needs and up-to-date

is

based on a most careful study

methods

conditions of actual practice in the

as developed

field,

the shop, the mill, the

power house, the drafting room, the engine room,

C These

volumes are especially adapted

instruction and
brincj'

home

study.

The utmost

under the

for

etc.

purposes of

self-

care has been used to

the treatment of each subiect within the

ranjj-e

of tlie

com-

mon

understanding, so that the work will appeal not only to the

technically trained expert, but also to the beginner and the self-

taught practical

man who

The language

progress.

is

wishes

to

keep abreast of modern

simple and clear; heavy technical terms

and the formulae of the higher mathematics have been avoided,

yet

without

instruction;

sacrificing

any of

the

requirements

the arrangement of matter

is

of

practical

such as to carry the

reader along by easy steps to complete mastery of each subject;

frequent examples for practice are given, to enable the reader to

test his

knowledge and make

it

a permanent possession; and the

illustrations are selected with the greatest care to

make

supplement and

clear the references in the text.

C The method adopted in the preparation of these volumes

which the American School
employed

so successfully for

but has stood the severest of

has demonstrated

it

to

is

that

of Correspondence has developed

and

many

years.

all tests

that

It is not an experiment,

of practical use

which

be the best method yet devised for the

education of the busy working man,

C For

purposes of ready reference and timely information when

needed,

it is

believed that this series of handbooks will be found to

meet every requirement.

Table of Contents
PART I POWER STATIONS
Location of Station and Selection of System

Page 3

Choosing Site Provision for Future Extensions Cost of Real Estate

Location of Substation Factors Determining Choice of Generating
and Transmission Systems Advantages of Concentrating the Gener-

ating Plant

Size

of Plant.

Steam and Hydraulic Plants

Page

Iff

Boiler Requirements Types of Boilers Steam Piping Interchangeability of Units

Size, Location, etc., of Pipe.s
Loss of Pressure
Superheating Feed-Water and Feeding Appliances Scale and Otlier
Impurities Feed-Pumps and Injectors Furnaces Natural and Mechanical Draft Firing of Boilers Steam Engines Steam Turbines
Use of Water-Power Water Turbines (Reaction and Impulse Types)
Pelton Wheel Water-Pressure Hydraulic Pipe Data Head and
Horse-Power Governors Gas Engines as Prime Movers.

Electrical Equipment of Stations

Page 36

Generators (Direct-Current, Alternating-Current, Single-Phase, Polj;phase. Double- Current)

Exciters Transformers Storage Batteries
Switchboards and Connections Standard Wire and Cable Panels
Circuit-Breakers Bus-Bars
Ammeters Voltmeters Rheostats
Oil Switches
Tripping Magnets Lightning Arresters Reverse-Current Relays Speed-Limit Devices Substations.

Page 63
Station Buildings, Records, and Office Management
Layout of Structure and Appointments Station Records Operating
Expenses Fixed Charges Depreciation Methods of Charging.
.

PART II POWER TRANSMISSION

Page

Conductors

Temperature CoefBcient Weight Mechonical

.Strengtli Effects of Resistance Current-Carrying Capacity Insulating Co\'ering for Wires Annunciator Wire Underwriter's Wire
Weatherproof Wire Gutta-Percha and India Rubber.
Materials

Used

Page 11
Distribution Systems and Transmission Lines.
Series Systems Parallel or Multiple-Arc Systems Feeders and Mains
Parallel and Anti-Parallel Feeding Series-Multiple and MultipleSeries Systems Multiple-Wire Systems Voltage Regulation of ParSystems Alternating-Current Systems (Series, Parallel)
allel
Polyphase Systems (Two-Phase, Three-Phase) Calculation of A. C.
Lines Wiring Formulffi Transformers Losses EflScienry RegulaGuying Cross- Arms Insulators Pins
tion Overhead LinesrPoles
Temperature Effects Underground Construction Vitrified Conduit Fibre Conduit Manholes Cables I^rotection of Circuit.
.

Index

Page 75

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ia

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o
Z
o
u
Q
s
o
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K

POWER STATIONS.
With

the rapid increase of the use of electricity for power,

lighting, traction,, and electro -chemical processes, the

e(|iiipped for the generation of the electrical
in size

from plants containing a few low-capacity dynamos, belted

modimmense systems and over

prime movers and lighting a limited

to their

ern central station, furnishing power to

Examples of the

extended areas.
at

power houses

supply have increased

Niagara

Falls,

minating Company,

The subject

latter type of station are

City, the plants of the Boston Edison Illu-

etc.

of the design, operation,

and maintenance

forms an extended and attractive branch of

tral stations

The design

engineering.

of cen-

electrical

of a successful station requires scientific

training, extensive experience,

and teclmical

ability.

of electrical subjects alone will not suffice, as civil

e ngineering

found

such stations as the Metropolitan and Manhattan

New York

stations in

district, to the

ability is called

into play as well,

economy

and mechanical
while iiltimate

Thus, with un-

success depends largely on financial conditions.

limited capital, a station of high

Knowledge

of operation

may

be

designed and constructed, but the business uiay be such that the
fixed charges for

money

invested will

more than equal the

differ-

ence between the receipts of the company and the cost of the generation of
station

power

alone.

In such cases

it is

better to build a cheaper

and one not possessing such extremely high economy, but

on -which the fixed charges are so greatly reduced that

operated at a profit to

tlie

it

may

be

owners.

The designing engineer should l)e thoroughly familiar with

the natui'e and extent of the demand for power and with the probable increase in this demand.

Few

systems can be completed for

their ultimate capacity at first and, at the

economically.

Only such generating

cajjacity, as are necessary to

at first,

bnt

tliat futTire

all

same time, operated

units, with suitable reserve

supply the demand should be installed

apparatus should

Ije

arranged

extensions can be re;idily nuule.

in

such a manner

POWER STATIONS
The subjects

of

power

the following general topics

stations, as here treated, will consider

:

Location of station and substation, with choice of system to be employed.

Bteam

plants, boilers, piping, prime movers, etc.

Hydraulic plants.
The vise of other prime movers.
Theelectrical plant, generators, and exciters, switching apijaratus,

etc.

lUiildiugs.

Station records, methods of charging for power,

etc.

LOCATION OF THE QENERATINQ STATION.

The choice

of a site for the generating station

connected with the selection of the system to

teiii,

it is

in turn,

lie

is

very closely

used, which sys-

depends largely on the nature of the demand, so that

little difficult to treat

ble sites are often available,

ments of an ideal

Several possi-

these topics separately.

and we may either consider the require-

location, selecting the availalile

we may select

one which

is

the best system

nearest to this in

its <-]iaracteristics.

for a given area

and assume that the station may be located where

it

would

l)e liest

be, it is possible

or

adapted to this system.

to select

an

efficient

"Wherever the

site

may

system, though not always

an ideal one.

The following points should be considered

a station,

no matter what the system

1.

Accessibility.

2.

Water supply.

3.

Stability of foundation.
Surriiundinns.
Facility for extension.
Cost of real estate.

4.
5.

6.

The

irsed

in the location. of

station should be readily accessible on account of the

delivery of fuel and stores, and of the machinery, while

it

should

be so located that ashes and cindeis n:ay be easily removed.

If

possible, the station should be located so as to be reached Ijy both

rail

and

watei',

though the former

the coal can be delivered to

tlie

is

generally

more

very important item of the cost of handling fuel

may

If

cars, the

lie

greatly

Again, the station should, be in such a location that

be readily reached by the workmen.

reduced.

may

desirable.

bunkers directly from the

it

3
z

Z
H
U3 <
*
" s
w J;
1

fid

ce
as

POWER STATIONS
and abundant -water snp])ly for botli boilers and conutmost iniportaut'e in locating a steam station. The

Clieaj)

densers

of

is

quality of the water supply for the boiler

than the quantity.

ties

which are

It should

is

should be abundant, otherwise

which

is

it

this reason

other water

in the use of ivater

The supply

selection of proper condensers.

tensive cooling apparatus

when

often used, even

economize

available, as it is possible to

more importance

and for

liable to corrode the boilers,

water from the town mains

])oses

of

is

be as free as possible from impuri-

is

by the

for condensing pur-

necessary to install ex-

is

and

costly

occupies

much

space.

The machinery,
foundations, and

foundations

it

when

have stable

as well as the buildings, miist

is

well to investigate the availability of such

selecting the site.

In the operation of a power plant using coal or other fuels,

nuisances arise, such as smoke, noise, or vibration,

certain

For

this reason

it is

preferable to locate where there

complaint on account of

bility to

tliese

causes, as

etc.

little lia-

is

some

of these

nuisances are costly and ditticult or even imjjossible to prevent.

station should be located

for extension and, while

it

may

where there are ample

chase land sufficient for these extensions at

doubt in regard

slightest

to

being able

first, if

from

best point

involved

is

too high.

must be

selected.

it

is

the

later, it

as free as possi-

Ije

Often real estate

lisk of interruption of its plans.

for purchasing a site in the best location,

high

there

purchase

to

should be bought at once, as the station should

ble

facilities

not always be advisable to pur-

is

too

and then the next

consideration of

all

the factors

necessary in determining whether or not this cost

In densely populated districts

it

is

is

necessary to econo-

mize greatly with the space available, but it is generally desirable

that the machinery uiay all be placed on the ground floor and that
adequate provision

The

ditions than those

house.

may

be

made

location of substations

for the storage of fuel, etc.

is

site of

Since, in the simple rotary converter

fuel or water are necessary and there

may be located wherever the cost of

vided

usually fixed

which determine the

suitable foundation

may

is little

by other conmain power

the

substation, neither

noise or vibration,

it

real estate will permit, pro-

be constructed.

The

distance

POWER STATIONS
between substations depends entirely on the selection of the sys-

tem and the nature

Where low

of the service.

voltages are used

it

is

essential that the station

This cen-

be located as near the center of the system as possible.

ter

located as follows:

is

loads and their points of

Having determined the probable

application for the proposed system, these loads are indicated on a

drawing with the location of the same shown

The center

to scale.

of gravity of this system, considering each load as a weight,

then found and

its

location

is

the ideal location, as regards

is

amount

of copper necessary for the distributing system.

Consider
loads,

which

Combining

aI"

Fio-.

1,

B may

and

a load of

,<H9

'"^jls

and

giviiig us

~^s^

and

system.

/'

be considered as

A+ B

Similarly,
'^^

"-.,

/'

of amperes.

and B, we have Ai? = By. x -j- y = a. Solving these equations we find that

,.i,----^r6""^^
/

/'

by number

in this case are indicated

loads

five different

which shows the location of

amperes at F.

C and D, E and F,
H may be combined
I,

the center of the

The amount

of copper

necessary for a given regulation

yo9

runs up very rapidly as the dis-

from

tance of the station

D6

this

point increases.
Fig.

1.

Selection of System.

Gen-

eral rules only can be stated for the selection of a system to be

used in any given territory for a certain class of service.

For an area not over two miles square and a

site

reasonably

near the center, for lighting and ordinary power purposes, directcurrent, low-pressure, three- wire systems
or

440

volts

may be

used as a

maximum

may

be used.

Either 220

voltage, and motors should,

preferably, be connected across the outside wires of the circuits.

Five-wire systems with 440 volts

maximum

used, but they require very careful

service

is to

be satisfactory.

if

the

220-volt lamps are giving good satis-

faction; moderate -size, direct-current, motors

for this pressure

potential have been

balancing of the load

may

and constant-potential arc lamps

be readily built

may

be operated

POWER STATIONS
on thia voltage though not so economically as on 110 volts,

if

single lamps are used.

For direct-current railway work, the limit

of the distance to which power may be economically delivered with
an initial pi-essureof 600 volts is from live to seven miles, depending on the traffic.
If the area to be served

materially larger than the above,

is

or distances for direct-current railways greater, either of two dif-

ferent schemes

may

in the territory

and operated

be adopted.

Several stations

may

se])arately or in multiple

be located

on the va-

power house may be erected and the energy transmitted from this station at a high voltage to various
rious loads, or one large

transformers or transformer substations which, in turn, transform

Local conditions

the voltage to one suitable for the receivers.

usually determine which of these two shall be used.

The use of several low-tension stations operating in multiple

recommended only under certain conditions, namely, that the
demand is very heavy and fairly uniformly distributed throughout
the area, and suitable sites for the power house can be readily obis

tained.

Such conditions rarely exist and it is a question whether

would not be just as suitable for such
where the load is not so conu;ested.

or not the single station

cases as

One

reason

smaller stations

why
is

a large central station

nomically, owing to the fact that large units

can be run more nearly at full load.

of attendance,
stalled.

The

preferred to several

may

There

is

more

eco-

be used and they

a gain in the cost

and labor-saving devices can be more profitably inpower plant is not determined to such

location of the

a large extent

by the position

such as water supply, cheap real

factors.

is

that large stations can be operated

In several

cities,

of the load, but other conditions,

estate, etc., will

notably

Xew York

be the governing

and Boston, large

central stations are being installed to take the place of several separate stations, the old

power houses

Ijeing

stations

to rotary-converter

changed from generating

substations.

Both direct-cur-

rent low-tension machines, to supply the neighboring districts,

and high-tension alternating-current,

for

supplying the outlying

or residence districts, are often installed in the one station.

As examples

of the central station being located at

tance from the center of the load,

we have

nearly

all of

some

dis-

the large

POWER STATIONS
Here

hydraulic power developments.

the cheapness of the

is

it

The

water power which determines the power house location.

power is transmitted
the neighborhood of 200 miles.

greatest distance over which

present

is

in

If a high-tension alternating-current

system

is

electrically at

to be installed,

there remains the choice of a polyphase or single-phase

machine

pointed out in "

Power Transmission

",

polyphase generators are

cheaper than single-phase generators and,

80%

loaded to about

of their

as

As

well as the selection of voltage for transmission purposes.

necessary, they can be

if

normal capacity, single-phase, while

motors can be more readily operated from polyphase circuits.

If

synchronous motors or rotary converters are to be installed, a polyphase system

is

necessary.

The voltage

will be

determined by the

distance of transmission, care being taken to select a value consid-

ered as standard,

possible.

if

Generators are

wound giving a

age at the terminals as high as 15,000 volts, but in

it is

many

volt-

districts

desirable to use step-up transformers for voltages above 6,600

on account of liability to troubles from lightning.

With

the development of the single-phase railway motor, cen-

tral stations

generating single-phase current only, will be built in

larger sizes than previously, as their use heretofore has been limited to lighting stations.

Size of Plant.

few general notes

in regard to the design

of plants will be given here, the several points

more

being taken up

in detail later.

Direct driving of apparatus

gearing or belting as
flexible as shafting

always superior to methods of

is

it is efficient, safe,

and

belts,

and on

and

reliable,

but

it is

not as

this account its adoption is

not universal.

Speeds

to

be used will depend on the type and size of the

Small machines are always cheaper when run at

generating unit.

high speeds, but the saving

engines, slow speed

is

is less

and a

be a

demand

station should be constructed

for both

which

power and

will serve both

The use of power will create a day load for a lighting

which does much to increase its ultimate efficiency and, as

purposes.
station

For large

always preferable.

It is desirable that there

lighting,

on large generators.

a rule, its earning capacity.

POWER STATIONS
In addition to generator capacity necessary to su])p]y the load,
a,

amount

certain

of reserve, either in

or overload capacity,

must be

way of additional units

The probable load for say

tlie

installed.

three years can be closely estimated and this, together with the

proper reserve, will determine the size of the station.

The plant

as a whole, including all futui-e extensions, should be planned

sit

Usually

the start as extensions will then be greatly facilitated.

it

will not be desirable to begin extensions for at least three years

after the first part of the plant has been erected.

Enough

units

must

making

lie

this reserve in the

erators at least.

installed so that one or

more may be

and there are several arguments

laid off for repairs,

Some

way

in favor of

of overload capacity, for the gen-

arguments

of these

are: Iieserve

required at short notice, notably in railway plants.

often

is

With overload

capacity, rapid increase of load, such as occurs in lio-hting stations

when darkness comes on suddenly, may be more

There

of.

is

their fullest capacity.

than

if

Keserve capacity

is

full load,

efficiency,

due

to

With an

a disadvantao-e,

machines not usnally running

but in the case of genei-ators this

ovei'kiad capacity of >-3'7f

is

very

to

at least

be laid off at any time should not

units

should be made

as large as

is

at

fonr machines should be

being readily carried by

planning extensions, the fact that

we

sliirht.

the initial installment since one can be laid off for re[iairs
sary, the total load

to

cheaper in this form

As

installed as separate machines.

have a lower

readily taken care

always a factor of safety in machines not running

tiiree

one machine

Ije

if

neces-

machines.

may

lost sight of,

In

require

while the

conducive to the best operation.

TABLE

1.

Permissible Overload 3$ per cent.

POWER STATIONS

10

Table 1

is

worked out showing the

initial installment for a

2,000-K.W. plant with future extensions. It is seen from this

table that adding two machines at a time gives more uniformity in
the size of units

The

a very desirable feature.

boilers should

be of large units for stations of large

capacity, while for small stations they

one

least

may

must be

selected so that at

be laid off for repairs.

STEAM PLANT.
BOILERS.

The majority
by

of

power

stations

either steam or water power,

engines as prime movers.

one of the
steam.

first

If a

have their machinery driven

though there are many using gas

steam plant is being considered.

subjects to be taken

The subject

up

is

the generation of the

of boilers is one of vital importance to the

successful operation of steam-driven central stations.

olthe boiler with

ble

from the

fuel

its

furnace

and impart

is
it

much

heat as possi-

to the water.

The

various kinds

of boilers used for accomplishing this

described in books on boilers, and

of a

The object

to abstract as

we

more

or less sxiccessfully are

will consider here the merits

few of the types only as regards central-station operation.

The requirements

are: l^irst, that

steam be available through-

out the twenty-four hours; the amount required at different parts

day varying considerably. Thus, in a lighting station, the

demand from midnight to 6 a. m. is very light, but toward eveof the

ning,

when

the load on the station increases very rapidly, there

abrupt increase in the rate at which steam must be given

maximum demand

off.

is

an

The

can be readily anticipated under normal weather

conditions, but occasionally this

maximum

exceeded at unexpected moments.

For

will be equaled or even

this reason a certain

num-

ber of boilers must be kept under steam constantly, more or less

of them running with banked fir^s during light loads.
If the
boilers have a small amount of radiating surface, the loss durintr
idle

hours will be decreased.

Second, the boilers must be economical over a large range of

and must be capable of being forced without dgti1>^
ment. Boilers should be provided which work economically for the
hours just preceding and following the maximum load while they
rates of firing

POWER STATIONS
may be

forced,

11

though rnnuing at lower efficiency, during the peak.

Third, coining to the commercial side of the question, we have

first cost, cost of

The

maintenance, and space occupied.

first cost,

as does the cost of maintenance, varies with the type and pressure

The space occupied

of the boiler.

the situation of the station

amount

when
when the

enters as a factor only

such that space

becomes excessive.

of steam piping

may be

space

is

is

limited, or

In some city plants,

the determining feature in the selection of boilers.

The Cornish and Lancashire

numAs many

boilers differ only in the

ber of cylindrical tubes in which furnaces are placed.

as three tubes are placed in the largest sizes (seldom used) of the

Lancashire boilers.

They

are

made up

to

200 pounds steam

pres-

sure and possess the following features:

1.

High

2.

Low

3.

Large water space.

4.

Easily cleaned.
Large floor space required.
Cannot be readily forced.

6.
6.

efflciency at

moderate rates of combustion.

rate of depreciation.

The Galloway

boiler differs

from the Lancashire boiler

in that

there are cross tubes in the flues.

In the Multitubular boiler the number of tubes is greatly

Their heating surface is large
increased and their size diminished.

and they steam

rapidly.

They

are used extensively for power-

station work.

chief characteristics of the water=tube boilers, of

The
there are

many

types,

1.

Moderate

2.

Ability to steam rapidly.

3.

5.

Good water circulation.

Adapted to high pressure.
Easily transported and erected.

6.

Easily repaired.

7.

^"ot easily cleaned.

Kate of deterioration greater

4.

8.

9.

demands
10.

which

are":

floor space.

than for Lancashire boiler.

Small water space, hence variation in pressure with var.ying
for steam.

Expensive

setting.

Marine boilers require no setting.

and disadvantages may be mentioned:

Among

their advantages

POWEE STATIONS

12

'A.

Exceedingly small space necessary.

Kadiatiug surface reduced.
Good economy.

4.

Heavy and

1.

2.

5.
6.

difficult to repair.

Unsuitable for bad water.

Poor circulation of water.

Another type of

boiler,

known

as the

Economic,

nation of the Lancashire and multitubular boilers, as

boiler.

It is set in

is

is

a combi-

the marine

brickwork and arranged so that the gases pass

under the bottom and along the sides of the boiler as well aa
through the tubes. It may be compared with other boilers from
the following points:
1.

2.

Small floor space.

Less radiating surface than the Lancashire boiler,

3.

Not

4.

Repairs rather expensive.

Requires considerable draft.

5.

As

easily cleaned.

regards

first cost, boilers installed

for

150 pounds pressure

and the same rate of evaporation, will run in the following order:
Galloway and Marine, highest first cost, Economic, Lancashire, Babcock ife Wilcox. The increase of cost, with increase of steam pressure,

is

greatest for the

Deterioration

Economic and

is less

least for the water-tube type.

with the Lancashire boiler than with the

other types.

The floor space occupied by these various types built for 150
pounds pressure and 7,500 pounds of water, evaporated per hour,
is

given in Table

2.

TABLE
Kind

2.

^K^fT

of Boner.

Lancashire

408

Galloway
Babcock and Wilcox

371
200

^larine wet-back

1:20

Economic

210

.'

The percentage of the heat of the fuel

is

Oi.

great importance, but

gard to

this.

Table 3

8team Boilers", and

is

it is ditiicult to

iitilized

by the

boiler

get reliable data in

re-

taken from Donkin's "Heat Efliciency of

will give

some idea

of the efficiencies of the

Economizers -were not used in any of these tests,

but they should always be used with the Lancashire type of boilei'.-

different types.

POWER STATIONS
TABLE

Kind

of Boiler.

Lancashire haud-flred
Laucashire luachine-lired
Coruish hand-lired

Babcock and Wilcox haud-lired.

Marine wet-back haud-lired
Marine dry-back hand-lired

3.

13

POWEK STATIONS

14

inches for 100 feet, and at least 2 inches for 100 feet should always

be counted upon.

Arrangement.

Fig. 2 shows a simple diagram of the " ring"

system of piping. The steam passes from the boiler by two paths
to the engine and any section of the piping may be cut out by

the closing of two valves.

Simple ring systems have the following

characteristics:
1.

large

The

enough
'2.

3.
4.

range, as the

main pipe is called, must be of uniform size and

steam when generated at its maximum rate.

to carry all of the

damaged section may disable one boiler or one engine.

Several large valves are required.
Provision may be readily made to allow for expansion of pipes.

Cross connecting the ring system, as shown in

P^io-. 3,

changes

these characteiistics as follows:

2.

and cousequent radiating surface is reduced.

More valves needed but tbey are of smaller size.

8.

Tjess easy to arrange for

1.

Bize of pipes

expansion of the pipes.

o
us

u
o
a.

<
as
<

3
O

POWEK STATIONS
If the system

is to

be duplicated, that

15

two complete

is,

sets of

ipain pipes and feeders installed (seeFig. 4), two schemes are in use:
1.

Each system

Is

designed to operate the whole station at maxi-

mum load with normal velocity and loss of pressure In the pipes, and only
one system

is

in use at a time.

This has the disadvantage that the idle

ENG/NES

BO/LCHS
Fig.

section

is

liable

not

to

3.

be in good operating condition

when needed. Large

must be used for each set of mains.

The two systems may be made large enough to supply steam at
2.
normal loss of pressure when both are used at the same time, while either
is made large enough to keep the station running should the other section
need repairs. This has the advantages of less expense, and both sections
of pipe are normally in use; but it has the disadvantages of more radiating
surface to the pipes and consequent condensation for the same capacity
pipes

for

furnishing steam.

POWER STATIONS

16

Complete interchangeability of units cannot be arranged for

if

the separate engine units exceed 400 to 500 horse power.

engine units can be

made

larger than boiler units,

it

Since

becomes nec-

essary to treat several boiler units as a single unit, or battery, these

batteries being connected as the single boilers already shown.
still

larger plants the steam piping,

if

ari'anged to supply

engines from any batteries of boilers, would be of enormous

For
any
size.

do not occupy a greater length of floor space than

the engines, Fig. 5 shows a good arrangement of units.
Any

If the boilers

POWER STATIONS

ir

and is much more reliable. All

two grades or weights, one for low
The high-pressure
pressures, and the other for high pressures.
Gate valves
fittings should always be used for electrical stations.
costs

no more

for large pipes

Talves and fittings are

made

in

should always be selected and, in large

they should be pro-

sizes,

vided with a by-pass.

Asbestos, either alone or

with copper rings, vulcanized india rubber, asbestos

and india rubber,

etc.,

are

used for packing between

flanges

render them

to

Where

steam tight.
is

much

there

expansion, the ma-

terial selected

should be one

that possesses considerable

Joints for high-

elasticity.

pressure systems require

much more

care than those

where steam

is

used at a

low pressure, and the number of

"joints

should be

re-

duced to a minimi^m by
using long sections of pipe.

list

of the various

required

tings

for

fit-

steam

piping, together with their

descriptions,

is

books on boilers.

given

in

One pre-

caution to be taken

is

to

see that such fittings do not

become too numerous or

and it is well

com])licated,

not

on autcmalic

fittings.

to

depend too much

Steam separators should be large enough

to serve as a reservoir of steam for the engine

and thus equalize,

to a certain extent, the velocity of fiow of ^-team in the pijies.

POWEE STATIONS

18

In providing for the expansion of pipes due to change of

temperature, " U " bends made of steel pipe and having a radius
of curvature not less than six times,

diameter of the pipe, are preferred.

ommended

and preferably ten times the

Copper pipes cannot be rec-

for high pressures, while slip expansion joints are

most

undesirable on account of their liability to bind.

The size of steam pipes is determined by the velocity of flow.

Probably an average velocity of 60 feet per second would be better
than 100 feet per second, though in some cases where space is
limited a velocity as high as 150 feet per second has been used.
The

loss in pressure in

steam pipes

may

be obtained from the

following formula:

where

jp,

Values of

=
Q =
=
L =

p,

loss in pressure in

pounds per

quantity of steam in cu.

ft.

<1

diameter of pipe in inches.

)/)

weight per cu.

length in

sq. in.

per minute.

feet.

of steam at pressure ^j.

constant depending on size of pipe.
ft.

' are as follows:

3"
2"
Diameter of pipe., i.," 1"
Value of c
36.8 4o.3 52.7 56.1
12"
Diameter of pipe
Value of
62.1

In mounting the steam pipe,

4"

5"

6"

8"

7"

9"

10"

57.8 58.4 59.5 60.1 60.7 61.2 61.8

14"
16"
18"
20"
22"
24"
62.3
it

62.6

62.7

62.9

63.2

63.2

should be fastened rigidly at

one point, preferably near the center of a long section, and allowed
a slight motion longitudinally at all other supports.

ports

pipe

Such sup-

may be provided with rollers to allow for this motion,

may be suspended from wrought- iron rods which will

flexible support.

or ^he

give a

Practice differs in the location of the steam pip-

some engineers recommending that it be placed underneath

the engine room floor and others that it be located high above the
engine room floor.
In any case it should be made easily accessing,

ible,

fere

and the valves should be located so that nothing will interProper provision must be made for

with their operation.

draining the pipes.

POWER STATIONS

19

All piping as well as joints should be carefully covered with a

good quality
j)ipe,

of lagging as the

especially

of

if

amount

of steam condensed in a bare

any great length,

is

In select-

considerable.

ing a lagging the following points should be noticed.

Covering

for

steam pipes should be incombustible, should present a smooth surface,

should not be easily damaged

by vibration

or steam,

and

should have as large a resistance to the passage of heat as possible.

It

must not be

too thick, otherwise the increased, radiating surface

will counterbalance the resistance to the passage of heat.

The

loss of

power

in

steam pipes due

to radiation is

given as

follows
II

H=

.262/'L(7.
loss of

power

in heat units.

= diameter of pipe.
L = length of pipe in feet.
= constant depending on steam pressure and pipe
(J

')'

Steam pressure

lu

pounds

(absolute)

Values of r for uucoveied pipe

Value of r for pipe covered with 2
hair

covering.

40

(l")

90

4:!7

65.5

GliO

115
684

48

oS

GO

73

inelies of

felt

Keferring to table in books on boilers, the relative values of

may

different materials used for covering steam pipes

Superheated Steam reduces condensation

be found.

in the engines as

well as in the piping, and increases the efficiency of the system.

Its

use was abandoned for several years, due to difficulties in

lubricating and packing the engine cylinders, but by the use of

mineral

oils

away with

and metallic packing, these

to a large extent,

is

efficiency of the boilers.

have been done

while steam turbines are especially

adapted to the use of superheated steam.

directly to steam, as

difficulties

The

application of heat

done in the superheater, increases the

Table 4 shows the increase in boiler
the results being given in

efficiency for a certain

boiler

pounds of water changed

to dry, satirrated steam.

test,

ous engines show a gain in efficiency as high as

9%

Tests on vari-

with a super,

heat of 80" to 100 F, while special tests in some cases show even
a greater gain.

20

POWER STATIONS
TABLE

4.

POWER STATIONS

21

Large quantities of sulphate of lime must

in a separate vessel.

be precipitated chemically.
Sediment, small particles of matter

removed by allowing the water

sometimes present, which

in

suspension,

must

lie

Vegetable matters are

to settle.

cause a film to be deposited.

Certain gases, in solution

etc.

BO/CC/=IS

oxygen, nitrogen,

such as

cause

pitting of the

boiler.

This

tralized

by the addition of
Oil, from the

effect is neu-

chemicals.

engine cylinder,

particu-

is

larly destructive to

boilers

and when

in

present

steam

condensed

ECONOM/ZCRS

the

must

be

carefully removed*.

Both feed pumps and

injectors are used for feed-

ing the water to the boilers.

Feed pumps uiay be either

steam or motor-driven.

Steam-driven pumps are

very

inefficient,

simple and the s])eed

neater,

is

easily

Motor-driven

controlled.

pumps

fUMPS

but they are

more efficient and

but more expensive and more

Kig.

<;.

are

over a wide range of speed.

difficult to regulate efficiently

pumps

Direct-acting

niay have feed-

water heaters attached to them, thus increasing the efficiency of

the apparatus as a whole.

be constant

if

motor-driven

The supply

pumps

of electrical energy

must

are to be used.

Feed pipes must be arranged so as to reduce the risk of failure to a minimum, and for this reason they are almost always duplicated.
is

More than one water supply is

also

recommended

mon arrangement
pumps supplying

of feed-water apparatus

is to

either of two jnains from

install a

which the

if

there

One com-

the slightest danger of interruption on this account.

few large

boiler con-

22

POWER STATIONS
TABLE

5.

Giving Rate of Flow of Water, in Feet per Minute, through Pipes

of Various Sizes, for Varying Quantities of Flow.
Gallons
per Min.

PC^WER STATIONS
the manufacturers should
l)ased on conditions

23

be carefully followed out as they are

which give the hest

results in thu operation of

tlieir lioilers.

Natural Draft
satisfactory

formula

under ordinary circumstances.

chimney necessary
given by Kent:

size of the
is

commonly used and

the most

is

.06

to furnish

In

this

the most

is

determining the
following

draft, the

.OC.F.,

= area of chimney in sq.

= height of chimney in
F = pounds of coal per hour.

ft.

ft.

//

The height of chimney should be assumed and the area calculated, remembering that it is better to have tlie chimney too large
than too

small.'

The chimney may

a less

first cost b\it

of either brick or iron, the latter

having

requiring repairs at frequent intervals.

Gen-

l)e

chimney may be given

eral rules for the design of a

The

as follows:

external diameter of the base should not be less than

the height.

Foundations must be of the

be of uniform section and lined with

best.

fire brick.

Interioi-s

-ji,,

of

should

There must

lie

an

The exterioibetween the lining and chimney proper.

Flues
should have a taper of from J. to | i'nch to the foot.

air space

should be arranged symmetrically.

Ficr.

7 shows the construction of a l)rick chimney of gooil

chimney being used with Ixiilei's fnrnishing nigines

which develop 14,000 TT. P.
Mechanical Draft is a term which may lie used to embrace

design, this

The

both forced and induced draft.

ical

draft

are described in books

mechanical -draft

systems^

is

the operation and repair are

less

different systems of

oji

boilers.

than

much more

always the risk of break-down.

The

mechan-

first

cost of

that of a chimney, l)ut

expensive and there

Artificial draft has the

is

advan-

it can be varied witliin large limits and it can be increased

any desired extent, thus allowing the use of low grades of coal.
Coal is used for
Firing of Boilers and Handling of Fuel.

tage that
to

fuel to a greater extent than

any other material, though

oil,

gas.

POWER STATIONS

24

wood,

etc.,

are used in

some

Local conditions, such as

localities.

availability, cost, etc.,

should determine the material to be used

and no general rules

an be given.

Data regarding the

relative

heating values of different

show

fuels

following

the

One pound

general figures:

of petroleum, about

used

with

boilers,

of a

when

gallon, is equivalent,

1.8

to

pounds of coal and there

is

less deterioration of the fur-

nace with

oil.

7i

to

12 cubic

natural gas are re-

feet of

quired as the equivalent of

one pound of coal, depending

on the quality of the gas.

pounds of dry wood

sumed

as the equivalent of

one pound of

When
Space

coal.

coal

used,

is

requires stoking and

may

2i
as-

is

it

this

be accomplished either

by hand or by means of mechauical stokers,

of

which are

many forms
Me-

available.

chanical stoking has the ad-

vantage over hand stoking

that the fuel

the furnace
;

Ground Line

and the

may

be fed to

more uniformly

fires

and boilers are

not subjected to sudden

blasts of cold air as

case

when

opened
coal

essary,
to

smoke

is

much

reduced.

It

may

be

stokers are used almost universally iu the

may

is

the

the fire doors are

a poorer grade of

be burned,

if

nec-

and the trouble due

said that

mechanical

more important

elec-

POWER STATIONS
Economic use

trical plants.

especially

if it is

Where

gas

and the same

done

is

l)y

of fuel i-eqnires great care in firing,

hand.

used, the firing

true of

is

complicated burners, as

25

oil firincr

may

be

made

thonah the

necessary that the

it is

In large stations, operated continuously,

as far as possible, all coal

though the difference

nearly automatic,

latter requires

more

be vaporized.

oil
it is

desirable that,

and ashes be liandled by machinery,

in cost of operation should be cai-efuUy con-

sidered before installing extensive coal-handling machinery.

jMa-

chinery for automatically handling the coal will cost from $T.r)0 to

$10 per horse-power rating

of boilers for installation, while the ash-

handling machinery will cost from 31-50

The coal-handling devices usually

to S3. 00

per horse power.

consist of ehain-oj>e rated

conveyors which hoist the coal from railway cars, barges,

overhead bins from which

ashes

may

may

be fed

to

the

etc., to

stokers.

The

be handled in a similar manner, by means of scraper

conveyors, or small cars

may

it

may

be used.

Either steam or electricity

be used for driving this auxiliary apparatus.

It is

always desirable that there be generous provision for the

storage of fuel sufficient to maintain operations of the plant ovei'

a temporary failure of supply.

STEAM ENGINES AND TURBINES.

The choice of steam prime movers is one which is governed
by a number of conditions winch can be treated but briefly here.
The

first

of these conditions relates to the speed of

be used.

There

is

tlie

engine to

considerable difference of op)inion in regard to

high and low-speed plants are in operation, which are

Slow-speed engines have a higher first
giving good satisfaction.
Probably in sizes up to 250 K.W.
cost and a higher economy.
this as both

the generator should be driven

l)y

high-speed engines, above which

the selection of either type will give satisfaction until sizes of say

above 500 indicated horse power, when the slow-speed type is to

Drop valves cannot be used with satisfaction
be recommended.
above about 100 revolutions per minute, hence highspeed engines must use direct-driven valve gears, usually governed
by shaft governors. Corliss valves are used on nearly all slowfor speeds

ipeed engines.

POWER STATIONS

26

The steam pressure used should be at

square incli at the throttle and a pressure
pounds
(

is to

12."j

least

as

pounds per

high as 150 to 160

he preferred.

regulation and uniform angular velocity are required

'lose

for driving generators, especially alternators wliich are to operate

This means sensitive and active governors, carefully

in parallel.

designed fly-wheels and proper arrangement of cranks when more

than one

is

used.

For large plants or plants

moderate

of

compound conThe advantage

size,

densing engines are almost universally installed.

economy

of these engines in increased

by higher

pumps and added water supply

The approximate saving
which applies

are in part counterbalanced

cost and inci-eased complications, together with the

first

to a

necessary

amount

in

condensers.

for

the

is

shown

in table 0,

500 horse-power unit.

TABLE
_

of steam

6.

Pounds

Simple non-condensing
Simple coiideusing
( 'ompound non-condensing
Compound eondensinu

oi

Steam

30
-2
l'4
]

il

Triple expansion engines are seldom used for di'iving electrical

machinery

as their advantages

Compound

engines

may

horizontal or vertical.
to ])i'oduce uniforn^

The use

of

compound and

either

cross-compound engines tends

angular velocity, but the cylindei' should be so

])i'oporti(>ned that the

under variable loads are doubtful.

be tandeiu or cross

amount

of

work doiu^byeach

is

nearly i^iual.

cylinder ratio of about oh to 1 will approximate average condi-

tions.

Either vertical or horizontal engines

having

its

own

floor space,
])arts.

peculiar advantages.

may

be installed, each

Vertical engines re(|uire less

while horizontal engines have a better arrangement of

Either type should be constructed with heavy parts and

erected on solid foundations.

Recently steam turbines have come into use, and the number
under process of design or constrnction which

of stations at present
will use

steam turbines

is

very large.

are described in the books on engines.

Several types of turbines

In addition to these, a

POWER STATIONS

27

short review of the Curtis turbine will not be out of place since
this is one of the types

which

The Curtis turbine

is

is

coming

into extended use.

divided into sections, each section of

which may contain one, two, or more, revolving sets of buckets

and stationary v;ines supplied with steam from a set of expansion

By

nozzles.

this

arrangement of parts the work

stages, the nozzle velocity

steam

of the

is

rediiced in each stage,

effectively given

is

up

is

divided into

and the energy

This

to the rotating parts.

type admits of lower speeds than the other forms of turbines.

Fig.

shows the arrangement of nozzles, buckets, and stationary

i>.

blades

or guidiiiir vanes for two staws.

plislii'd

by shutting

the steam from

off

K.W.

5,000

the

three-phase alternating-current generator,

2.

High
High

;!.

Small

(.-(ist

4.

5.
(i.

accom-

is

shown

').

The advantages claimed

1.

is

of the nozzles.

type, direct connected to a

conijilete Curtis turbine of the vertical

in Fig.

Governinii;

some

for this turbine are;

steaiu ecouoniy at all loads

steaiu
floor

of real estate

economy with rapidly

space per

K.W.

fluctuating- loads.

capacity, red nfiiii; to a

minimum

and buildings.

Unilorin angular velocity.

Kimplicity in operation and low e.xpeuse lor attendance,

Kreedom from vibration.

economy not appreciably

imijaired by wear or lack of

adjustment in long service.
8.
^Vdaptability to high steam pressure and high superheat without
practical difficulty and with consequent improvement in economy.
9.
Condensed water is kept entirely free from oil and i/aii be
7.

Steaiu

returned to the boilers.

Many

of these advantages apply equally well to the other

types of turbines

now on

the market.

All turbines are especially

adapted to operation with superheated steam.

Engines should
stated,

but this

drives

must be

is

preferably be

direct-connected

aB

already

not always feasible, and gearing, belt, or rope

resorted

to.

Countershafts, belt or rope driven,

arranged with pulleys ^nd belts for the different generators, and

with suitable clutches, are largely used in small stations.

They

consume considerable power and the bearings require attention.

Careful attention must be given

uing parts, and extensive

oil

to the lubrication of all

run-

systems are necessary in large plants.

POWER STATIONS

28

In sucli systems a continuous circulation of

oil

over the bearings

and through the engine cylinders is maintained by means of oil

pumps. After passing through the bearings, the machine oil goes
to

a properly arranged oil-filter where

pumped

to the bearings again.

it

is

cleaned and then

similar process

is

used in cyl-

Stzisorrt CT/^ie-si

wm\
\miii<i<i<<iiim
A^Gt^/n^

^ /tZfC/GS

A/ozz/g y/esrja/-if~aigrn

omxnssnmssmi
A^G\^/r>cf G/ac^GS

XiiiiauiiUiHiiiiiiA
A^o >^/r7^3/'acfG s

TOD!))DDi))i)DDD)ni)l)>i)l)i)l))i)l
I

UIACIKAM OF NOZZLES AND BUCKETS IN C'UETIS STEAM TURBINE.

Fig.

inder lubrication, the

oil

and only enough new oil

lost.

The

latter

system

8.

being collected from the exhaust steam

is
is

added

to

make up for

the slight

amount

not installed as frequently as the con-

In the Curtis turbine, vertical type,

forced in between the t^vo plates, forming the step bear-

tinuous system for bearings.

the oil

is

ing, at such a pressure that a thin film of oil

taiiu'd

between these plates.

any reason,

It

may

this pressure fails, the

is

constantly main-

be arranged so that

steam will be cut

off

if,

for

from the

o
u

0.

X
Ph
kJ
Ed

H
<
Ol.

u
H
Z

u
z
u

z
o
en
<

o
o
X
o
z

o
PLC

o
u

POWER STATIONS
.

29

The bearings which support the shafts

generators at the Niagara Falls Power Companies'

turbino automatically.

used with the

plants are generously flooded with oil and the turbines are arranged
so as to

from

remove a great deal

of the-

weight of the rotating part

this bearing.

HYDRAULIC PLANTS.
IJecause oE the relative ease with which electrical energy

be transmitted long distances,

it

has become quite

Fig.

large

power stations where there

common

may

to locate

9.

is

abundant water power, and

transmit the energy thus generated to localities where

it is

to

needed.

This type of plant has been developed to the greatest e.xtent in the
western part of the United States, where in some cases the transmission lines are very extensive.

The power houses now completed,

or in the course of erection at Niagara Falls, are examples of the

enormous

size

such stations

may

assume.

POWER STATIONS

80

Before deciding to utilize water power for driving the macliinery in central stations, the following points should be noted:
]

The amount of water power available.

The possible demaud for power.
Cost of developing this power as compared with

'2.
':>.

cost of plants

using other sources of power.

4.
Cost of operation compareil with other plants and extent of
trausmission lines.

Hydraulic plants are often

much more

e.xpensive than steam

plants, but the first cost

is

more than made up by the

saving

operating ex-

in

penses.

LCethods for the devel-

opment

water powers

of

vary with the nature and

amount of the water supply,

Water

may

and they

be studied

by considering plants
which are in successful
operation, each one of
which has been a special

best

problem in

itself.

full

description of such plants

would be too extensive

Low Water

to

be incorporated here, but

they can be found in the

Fig. 10.

various technical journals.

Water Turbines used

classes, reaction turbines

two general
and impulse turbines. The former may be
for driving generators are of

subdivided into Parallel-flow, (.)utward-flow, and Inward-flow turbines.

30

Parallel-flow turbines are suited for low

feet.

Their efiicieney

is

from 70

to 72''/.

falls,

not exceeding

Outward-flow and

inward-flow turbines give an efficiency from 70 to

8H''/r.

Impulse

turbines are suitable for very high falls and should be used fronr

heads exceeding say 100

feet,

though

it

is diflicult

to say at

what

head the reaction turbine would give place to the impulse wheel,
as

reaction

turbines

are gi\'ing

good

satisfaction

on heads in

the neighborhood of 200 feet, while impulse wheels are operated

z
o
H
<

O
<!

'j^

o
z

POWER STATIONS
with

falls of

known

but 80

feet.

The Peltou wheel

types of impulse wheels.

An

31

is

efficiency as

one of the best

high as

86%

is

t^
4-6
<-

r's"
Fig. 11.

claimed for this type of wheel under favorable conditions.

Id shows a reaction wheel and

l'"i<i;.

TABLE

Fig.

11 illustrates a Pelton wheel.

7.

Pressure of Water.

82

POWER STATIONS
TABLE

8.

Riveted Hydraulic Pipe.

POWli]? STATIONS

POWER STATIONS

34

it

shoiild be free

The

race.

7 to 8 feet per second.

and

the heads do not

tail

steel

pipe

is iised

for the penstocks

from considerable distances under high

In some locations

placed on the ground.

when

applies to the

wooden flumes should not exceed

Riveted

for carrying water

heads.

The same

from abrupt turns.

velocity of water iu

it

is

buried,

in

others

it

is

simply

Wooden -stave pij)e is used to a large extent

much exceed 200 feet. Table 7 gives the

pressure of water at different heads, while Table 8 gives considerable data relating to riveted-steel hydraulic pipe.

Governors are

re(juired

to

keep the speed constant under

change of load and change of head.

Various governors are manu-

factured which give excellent satisfaction.

TABLE

9.

Horse Power per cubic foot of water per minute for different heads.
Heads

POWER STATIONS
5.

Simplilicatiou olequipineut
No heat lost due to radiation

fi.

Quick

4.

7.

H.

and small miniber of

when engines

auxiliaries.

are idle.

starting.

Kxlen.sions may be easily made.

High pressures are limited to the engine cylinders.

Fig. 12 shows the efficiency and

a

35

amount

of gas

consumed

liy

jO 11. P. engine, Pittsburg natural gas being used.

.i.ji

The only

auxiliaries needed are the igniter generators

air compressors,

These

may

with a

pump

for the jacket water in

be driven by a motor or by a separate

and the

some
ga'fe

Tiie jacket water tuay be utilized for heating purposes in

j)lants.

Cooling towers

50

may

be installed where water

300

100

is

cases.

engine.

many

scarce.

400

Load Horse Power.

Fig. 1-.

Parallel operation of alternators

when

direct-driven

by gas

engines has been successful, a spring coupling Ijeingused between

the engines and generators in

some

cases to absorb the variation in

angular velocity.

The fact that no losses occur, due to heat radiation when the
machines are not running, and the lack of losses in piping, add
If producer gas or blast furnace
greatly to the plant efficiency.
gas

is

])o\ver,

used, a larger engine

must be

installed,

than when natural or ordinary coal gas

to give
is

used

the

same

Electric

POWER STATIONS

36

combined

stations are often

with, gas

works, and gas engines can

be installed in such stations to particular advantage in

many

cases.

THE ELECTRICAL PLANT.

QENERATORS.
The

first

thing to be considered in the electrical plant

generators, after

the

M'hich

auxiliary apparatus in the

exciters, controlling switches, safety devices, etc., will

the

is

way

of

be taken up.

A general rule which, by the way, applies to almost all machinery for
power stations is to select apparatus which is considered as " standard" by the manufacturing companies. This rule should be followed for two reasons.

may

First, reliable

companies employ men who

be considered as experts in the design of their machines, and

their best designs are the ones

which are standardized.

Second,

from 15 to 25% cheaper than semi-standard

or special work, owing to larger production, and it can be furstandard apparatus

nished on

much

is

shorter

notice.

Again, repair parts are more

cheaply and readily obtained.

Specifications should call for performance,

be

left, to

are

some

and

details should

a very large extent, to the manufacturers.

of the matters

Following

which may be incorporated in the

specifi-

cations for generators:

.3.

Type and general characteristics.

Capacity and overload with heating limits.
Commercial eiftciency at various loads.

4.

Excitation.

1.

2.

5.

Speed and regulation.

6.

Floor space.

7.

Mechanical features.

As

to

the type of machine, this will be determined by the

They may be direct-current, alternating-current,

single or polyphase, or as in some plants now in operation, they
may be double-current generators. The voltage, compounding,
system selected.

frequency,

etc.,

should be stated.

Direct-current machines are

sel-

dom wound for a voltage above 600, but alternating-current generators may be purchased which will give as high as 15,000 volts at the
terminals.
As a rule it is well not to use an extremely high voltage for the generators themselves, but to use step-up transformers in case a very high line voltage is necessary.
Up to about

7,000 volts generators

may

be safely used directly on the

line.

POWEB STATIONS
Above

tliis

conditions will decide whether to connect the

local

machine directly

37

(jr to step np the voltage.

Machines
high potential are more expensive for the same capacity
and efficiency, but the cost of step-up transformers and the losses

wound
in the

slight

to the line

for

same are saved by xising such machines, so that there is a

gain in efficiency which may be utilized in better regulation

On

of the system, or in lighter construction of the line.

the other

hand, lightning troubles are liable to be aggravated when trans-

formers are not used, as the transformers act as additional protection to the machines,

may

and

if

the transformers

are injured

they

be more readily repaired or replaced.

The following
,

voltages are considered standard:

Direct-current generators 125, 250, 550-600.

Alternating-curreut systems, high pressure,

2,200,

6,000,

10,000,

15,000, 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 60,000.

The

generators, with transformers

ble of giving a no-load voltage

10%

when

used, should be capa-

in excess

of these

figures.

25 and 60 cycles are considered as standard frequencies, the

former being more desirable for railway work and the

latter for

lighting purposes.

The

size of

machines

been briefly considered.

to be chosen has

Alternators are rated for non-inductive load or a power factor of

Aside from the overload capacity

unity.

reserve, the Standardization

Electrical Engineers

to be counted upon as
Keport of the American Institute of

recommends the following

for the

heating

and overload capacity of generators:

limits

Maximum values of temperature elevation.

Field and armature, by resistance, 50 C.
Commutator and collector rings and brushes, by thermometer, 55 C.
Bearings and other parts of machine, by thermometer, 40 0.
Overload capacity should be
perature
to

rise not to

exceed

25%

above

for

two hours, with a

full load values, the

term.

machine

be at constant temperature reached under normal load, before

the overload

is

applied.

momentary overload

permissible without excessive

panies

when

of

50%

sparkjng or injury.

recommend an overload capacity

of

50%

should be

Some com-

for

the machines are to be used for railway purposes.

two hours

POWEE STATIONS

38

As

a rule, generators slioiild

have a high efficiency over a con-

siderable range of load, although the nature of the load will have

much

to

do with

this.

ciency be as high as

It

is

always desirable that

is

apparatus.

sidered the best

may be expected
may be con-

In order to arrive at what

maximum efficiency

to

be chosen, the cost of power

must be known, or estimated, and the

invested must also be a known quantity.

generation
carjital

effi-

compatible with economic investment.

Table 10 gives reasonable efficiencies which

for, generating

maximum

fixed charges on

From

the cost

of power, the saving on each jier cent increase in efficiency can be

determined, and this should be compared with the charges on the

additional investment necessary to secure this increased efficiency.

certain point will be found

where the sum of

the''

two

will be a

minimum.
If a generator is

loads,

to

be run for a considerable time at light

one with low "no-load"' losses should be chosen.

losses are not rigidly fixed

of load.
is

It is

the

same question

of "all-day efficiency" which

treated, in the case of transformers, in "

Under Ho-load

losses

Power Transmission ".

may be considered, in shunt-wound gener-

ators, friction losses, core losses,

in

These

but they vary slightly with change

and shunt-field losses. TE. losses

and in the brushes, vary as the

the series field, in the armature,

square of the load.

Table 10.

Average

Maximum

Efficiencies.

K.W.

Per Cent
85

10

88

25
50

90
.'
.

92

150

93

200
500

94

1000

96

95

Dynamos, if for direct current, may be self-excited, shunt- or

compound-wound, or separately excited. Separate excitation is not
recommended for these machines.
Alternators require separate
excitation, though they may be compounded by using a portion of
the armature current when rectified by a commutator. Automatic
regulation of voltage

is

always

desiral)le,

hence the general use of

POWER STATIONS
compound-wound machines
using

rectified currents

39

Many alternators

for direct currents.

in

for keeping the voltage

series fields

nearly constant are in service in small plants as well as several of

the so-called " compensated " alternators, arranged with special
devices which

same compounding with different

machine gives good satisfaction if
properly cared for, but an automatic; regulator, governed l)y the
generator \oltage and current, which acts directly on the exciter
power

maintain

The

factors.

field, is

taking

the

latter

The capacity

its place.

of the exciters

must

such that they will furnish sufficient excitation to maintain'

when running-

voltatje at the terminals of the trenerators

>e

noriruil

at 50'/,

Table 11 gives the proper capacity of exciter for the

overload.

geuerator listed.

TABLE

II.

Exciters for Single=Phase Alternating=Current Generators.

60 Cycles.
EXfilnr

Alterniitnr
L'!assirit-:itioii.

8 _

- !l(IO
ilO-iMJO'
8 - 1:^0 - (100
lii- isd - (;()(!
16 -800- 450

Classitication.

li

-1..T - 1900

1!

-1..")

(K)

8-

lillKI

-1900

:i- 1-5

J.--J..o-Mm

2-4.5-1800

If direct-connected,

speeds of

the

the generators will

determined by the ])rime mover selected.

machines

may

be run at a high

sjteed, as

be

If belt-driven, small

high-speed machines are

cheaper than slow- or moderate-s])eed generators.

In large

sizes,

this saving is not so great.

When shunt-wound dynamos

tion should not exceed 2 to ;i%
tors, this is

load.

much

fair

inductive load

Exciters

f*^'"

ai'e

used, the inherent regula-

large machines.

greater and de])ends

(in

value for the regulation

is

For alterna-

the ])()wer factor of the

of alternators

on

non-

10 per cent.

may

be either direct-connected or belted to the shaft

of the nuix'hiiie which

they

excite, or

they

may

be separately

POWER STATIONS

40

They

driven.
at

are usually

125 or 250

for

most plants

compound-wound and furnish current

Separately driven exciters are preferred

volts.

more

as they furnish a

flexible system,

drop in the speed of the generator does not

Ample

voltage.

and

some

in

exciters, are

affect the exciter

reserve capacity of exciters should be installed,

cases

storage

recommended

Motor-generator
rotating devices

and any

in

batteries,

used in conjunction with

order to insure reliability of service.

frequency changers, and other

sets, boosters,

come under

the head of special apparatus

and are governed by the same

general rules as generators.

Transformers for

step-

ping the voltage from that

generated by the machine up
to the desired line voltage, or

vim

versa, at the substation,

may be

of three general types,

according to the method of

Large transformers

cooling.

require
cooling,

too

means

artificial
if

of

they are not to be

bulky and

They may be

expensive.

air-cooled, oil-

Fig. 18.

cooled, or water-cooled.

Air-cooled tranxfonncrs are usually mounted over an

tight pit fitted with one or

into the pit.

of the

more motor-driven blowers which feed

The transformer

winding

is

coils are

at a great distance

vided with ducts.

air-

subdivided so that no part

from

air

and the iron

is

pro-

Separate dampers control the amount of air

which passes between the

coils or

through the

iron.

Such

trans-

formers give good satisfaction for voltages up to 20,000 or higher,

and can be built for any capacity,

there

is

no

liability of the air

transformers

is

(lare

must be taken

to see that

supply failing, as the capacity of the

greatly reduced

when not supplied with

13 shows a three-phase air-blast transformer.

air.

Fig.

POWER STATIONS

41

Oil-cooled tf(.nisf<jrinen< liave their cores and windings placed

in a large

tank

to the case,

filled

with

and the case

is

oil.

The

oil

serves to conduct the heat

usually either

made

of corrugated sheet

metal or of cast iron containing deep grooves, so as to increase the

radiating surface.

Fig.

These transformers do not require such heavy-

14.

150

K.W.

Self-Cuoled Oil Transformer.

insulation on the outside of the coils as air-blast machines because

the oil serves this purpose

Simjtle oil-cooled transformers are

seldom built for capacities exceeding 2.jU

too bulky, but they are ein|il(>y('d
use.

K.W.

as they

for the liigliest voltages

Fig. 14 shows a transformer of this type.

become

now

in

POWER STATIONS

42

W'lfei'-codled

ti'iniifo/'i/ie/'s.

When

large transformers for high

voltages are required, the water-cooled type

This type

is

rig.

15.

Imvf

<

okl water passes through

tubes iind aids in removing heat from

tlie

visually selected.

Wuler-CoolBd Translormer.

tubes arranged in coils in the top.

tiiese

is

similar to an oil-cooled transformer, but with water

low-tension windings

the wuter circulates.

mude

"up of

tlie oil.

Some

types

tubes througli whirli

AVater-cooled transformers

must not have

POWER STATIONS

43

the supply of cooling water shut off for any length of time

under normal load or they will overheat.

when

Fig. 15 shows a water-

cooled transformer.

For connections

Fig.

One

or

15.

of transformers, see

400

K.W. Water

CoDli-d Oil

"Power Transmission".

TransJormer.

more spare transformers should always be on hand and

they should be arranged so that they can be put into service on

very short notice.

Three-phase transformers allow a considerable saving

space, as can be seen

by

refei'riiig to

three separate transformers which

they are not as

flexilile

as

Fig.

l!!; tliey

make up

the

in iloor

are clieajjer than

same

ca|)acity,

a single-jihase tranKforuici-

but

and one

POWER STATIONS

44

complete unit must be held for a reserve or "spare" transformer.

The use

Storage Batteries.
stations

The

and substations

is

of storage batteries for central

clearly outlined in " Storage Batteries ".

chief points of advantage

may

be enumerated as follows:

mi^iilM^i^iihi^miM^\

Single-Pliase Air-Blast Translormers.

Total Capacity

3,000

K.W.

POWER STATIONS

45

under ground; furnish a support for the various measuring instruments connected in service, as well as the safety devices for the
protection of the generating apparatus; and control the pressure
of

the

Some

supply.

of the essential features of

switch-

all

boards are:

The apparatus and supports jiuist be flre-proof.

The conducting parts must uot overheat.
Parts must be easily accessible.
Live parts except for low potentials must not be placed ou the

1.
2.

3.
4.

front of the operating panels.

The arrangement of circuits must be symmetrical and

5.

as

it is

convenient to

6.
Apparatus must be arranged so that it is impossible
wrong connection that would lead to serious results.

It should be arranged so that extensions

7.

as simple

make them.

may

to

make

be readily made.

There are two general types in the iirst, all of tlie switching
and indicating apparatus is mounted directly on panels, and in the
second, the current-carrying parts are at

some distance from

the

panels, the switches being controlled by long connecting rods; op-

erated electrically or

by means

of

compressed

The

air.

first

may

again be divided into direct-current and alternating-current switchboards.

It is

from the

name and

gets its

first class of

the term

is

still

apparatus that the switchboard

applied, even

when

proper forms the smallest part of the equipment.

the board

Switchboards

have been standardized to the extent that standard generator, exciter, feeder,

and motor panels

may

of work, but the vast majority of

be purchased for certain classes

them

are

made up

as semi-stand-

ard or special.

The

leads

which carry the current from the machines

switches should be put in with very careful consideration.

size

to the

Their

should be such that they will not heat excessively when carry-

ing the rated overload of the machine, and they should preferably

be placed in fire-proof ducts, although low-potential leads do not

always require this construction.

Curves showing

covered cables for different currents are given in "

mission

"-

that

if

Power Trans-

Table 12 gives standard sizes of wires and cables

gether with the

voltages.

sizes for lead-

to-

thickness of insulation necessary for different

Cables should be kept separate as far as possible so

a fault does occur on one cable, neighboring conductors

POWER STATIONS

46

be injured.

will not

leads

to.

For lamp and instrument wiring, such

as

potential and current transformers, the following sizes of

wire are recommended

No. 16 or Xo. 14, wiring to lamp sockets.
No. 12 wire, /' rubber insulation, all other

wiring under COO

Sinall

volts potential.

No. 12, sV' rubber insulation for primaries of potential transformers

from 600 to 3,500 volts.
No. 8, aV' rubber insulation for primaries of potential trauslbnuers

up

to 6,600 volts.

up

to 10,000 volts.

up

to 15,000 volts.

up

to 20,000 volts.

up

to 25,000 volts.

No.

No.
No.
No.

8,

a',

4, li

4, li

4,

Where

rubber insulation for primaries of potential transformers

rubber insulation for primaries of potential transformers

rubber insulation

for primaries of potential transformers

rubber insulation for primaries of potential transformers

high-tension cables leave their metallic shields they

are liable to puncture, so that the sheath should be flared out at

this point

pound.

and the insulation increased by the addition of com-

Fig. 17 shows such cable bells, as they are

recommended by

the General Electric

called, as

Company.

Central -station switchboards are usually constructed of panels

about 90 inches high, from

inches to 2 inches thick.

1(3

inches to

B()

inches wide, and

8uch panels are made

of

1-|

Blue Vermont,

Pink Tennessee, or AVhite Italian marble, or of black enameled

slate.
Slate is not recommended for voltages exceeding 1,100. The
panels are in two parts, the sub-base being from 21 to 28 inches
high.
They are polished on the front and the edges are beveled.
Angle and tee bars, together with foot irons and tie rods, form the
supports for such panels, and on these panels are mounted the instruments, main switches, or controlling apparatus for the main
switches, as the case may be, together with relays and hand wheels
Small panels are sometimes mounted
for rheostats and regulators.
on pipe supports.

The usual arrangement

of the panels

is

to

have a separate

panel for each generator, exciter, and feeder, together with what

known

as a station or total-output panel.

is

In order to facilitate

extensions and simplify connections, the feeder panels are located

POWER STATIONS
at

one end of

tlie

board and

tlio

47

generator panels are placed at the

other end, and the total-outpnt panel between the two.

Tlie

main

bus bars extend throughout the length of the generator and feeder
panels, and the desired connections are readily made.

The

instru-

ments required are very numerous and a brief description only

a few of the more important can be given here.

TABLE

12.

Standard Wire and Cable.

VSrire (Solid).

Area.

Circular
Mils.

2,r>H-2

Diam.
Inches.

^a

of

POWER STATIONS

18

Wiped joint

alberene soctpstone
or wood

v^

Three-Conductor Cable Without Joints.

Wiped joint

alberene soapstone

^'^'

-^--^^ insulation

^;^

no

or

C--

wood

Jf-

6 7 connpoundl

i-r->'

_Jextra insulation

-B

X=3.15CL-h2.l5Y+4.3d

'

Three-Conductor Cable With Joints.

Wiped

alberene soapstone

joint

insulation

K-'^C - -

3|Z3T:IJ^

''
>,

DdEir
no-67

extra insulat'ion4__^^^^^^^
X=30 +2Y + 4d

>H--E->J

Two-Conductor Cable With

Wiped

f/^^^

33

compound

-- B

^"""^

J=3

Joints.

alberene soapstone

joint

ir.iLiT
no 67 compound
'

iGxtrcL insulation x=2a-t-Y-i-2d

'

Single-Conductor Cable With Joints.

Vdi/rs.

POWER STATIONS

49

For direct current generator panels there are usually

re-

quired:
1 iSIaiu

switch,

Field switch.

Amioeter.
Voltmeter.

Field rheostat with controlling ineclianism.

Circuit breaker
Bus bars and various connections.
1
1

These may be arranged in any suitable order, the circuit

breaker being preferably located at the top so that any arcing
which may occur will not injure other instruments. Fig. IS gives
a wiring diagram of such a panel.

The main switch may be single or double throw, depending

on whether one or two sets of bus
bars are used.
pole

which the

may

It

shown

as

in

middle

be

Fig.

tri]>le

IS,

in

bar serves

as

Equalizer

Shunt

the equalizing switch, or the equalizing switch

pedestal

may

near

^itch

be mounted on a

machine,

the

which case the generator

would be double-pole.

The held switch

in

Oischarqe
Resistance

Ammeter

switch

Rheostat

for large

maVoltmeter

chines should be double-pole fitted

with carbon breaks and arranged

with a

discharge

Generator

resistance conFisi;,

sisting of

resistance

which

thrown across the terminals of the

cuit

is

opened.

One voltmeter

IH.

is

field just

before the

main

cir-

located on a swinging bracket at

the end of the panel, and arranged so that

it

can be thrown across

any machine or across the bus bars by means of a dial switch, is

sometimes used, but it is preferable to have a separate meter for
each generator.

Small rheostats are mounted on the back of the panel, but

large ones are chain operated and preferably located below the
floor,

the controlling

The
netic

hand wheel being mounted on the panel.

may be of the carbon break or the mag-

circuit breaker

blow-out type.

Fig.

10 shows circuit breakers of both

POWEE STATIONS

50

Lighting panels for low potentials are often

types.

fuses instead of circuit breakers, in

fitted

with

which case they may be open

fuses on the back of the panel or enclosed fuses on either the

front, or

back of the panel.

Direct=Current feeder panels contain:

1

.Vmmeter.
Breaker.

1 C'ireuit

or jiiure

main

.switches, single-pole,

and

siiiule- or doiilile-tlirow.

recording wattmeter, not always used

.Vpparatus tor eoiitrolliug regulators when such are used.
1

One voltmeter usually serves for several feeder panels, such a

mounted al)Ove the panels or on a swinging bracket

UH-ter beintr
at

the eiul.

type.

Switches should

preferably

lie

of

the qniek-break

shows some standard railway feeder iianels.

Exciter Panels are nothing more than generator panels on a
Fig.

small scalp.

~()

POWER HOUSE OF
Showing Five

of the

Nine

12,000

NlTW YOnK' SUBWAY.

Horse-Power AUls-Chalmers Engines,

POWER STATIONS

51

Total Output Panels contain instruments recording the total

power delivered by the plant to the switchboard. Alternatingcurrent panels for potentials up to 1,100 volts follow the same
general construction.
Synchronizing devices are necessary on the
generator panels, and additional ammeters are used for polyphase
boards.
Sometimes the exciter and generatca* panels are combined

Fig. 19.

in one.
is

Fig. 21 shows such a combination.

sometimes used for voltages up

recommended.

The

agement of Dynamo
For the higher

to 2,500,

The same construction

though it is not usually

paralleling of alternators

is

treated in

"Man-

Electric Machinery".
voltages, the

measuring instruments are no

longer connected directly in the circuit, and the main switch

mounted

directly on

the panel.

is

not

Current and potential trans-

POWEK STATIONS

52

formers are iised for connecting to the indicating voltmeters and

ammeters, and the recording wattmeters and potential transformers
are used for the synchronizing device.

mounted

at

These transformers are

some distance from the panel, while the switches may

RAILWAY FEEDER PANELS
FDRM B

FOHM B

AN3LE IRONS

FORM E

llilii
ill

5BSE
Approved. J^i^kClci^^ TA.

Engineering Dept

No.i3559.^....

Chief En^i^ee^

General Electric Co.

May I900

Fig. 20.

be located near the panel and operated by a system of levers, or

they

may

be located at considerable distance and operated by elec-

by compressed air.
Switches are recommended

tricity or

Oil

for the following reasons:

cuits of higher poteatial

By

for all high potential

their use

it is

work

possible to open cir-

and carrying greater currents than with

POWER STATIONS

They may be made quite compact. They

made automatic and thas serve as circuit breakers
protection of machines and circuits when overloaded.

any other type

may

53

of switch.

readily be

for the

SWITCHBOARD PANEL FOR

ONE THREE-PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR
TO 2500 VOLTS

CLASSIFICATION

||

POWER STATIONS

54

no way

affect the other parts of the switch.

form of

oil

switch

used for the very highest potentials and currents met with in prac-

shown in Fig. 25. This particular switch is operated by

means of an electric motor, though it may be as readily arranged to
General
operate by means of a solenoid or by compressed air.
tice, is

practice

is

to place all high-tension

bus bars and circuits in separate

compartments formed by brick or cement, and duplicate bus bars

are quite

common.

FiK. 22

Oil switches are

nets,

made automatic by means

which are connected

in the secondary

of tripping

circuits

of

mag-

current

may be operated by means of relays fed

from the secondaries of cui-rent transformers in the main leads.
Such relays are made very compact and can be mounted on the

transformers, or they

POWEE STATIONS
front or back of the switchboard panels.

The wiring

55

of such trip-

ping devices

is shown in Fig. 26.

With remote control of switches, the switchboard becomes in
many instances more properly a switch house, a separate building

being devoted

to the bus bars, switches, and connections. In other

framework of angle bars or gas pipe is made for the support
the switches, bus bars, current and potential transformers, etc.

cases a
of

Fig. 23.

Additional types of panels which

may be mentioned

are trans-

former panels, usually containing switching apparatus only; rotary

converter panels for both the alternating current and direct-current
sides; induction -motor panels

and arc-board panels.

The

latter

AAA

AAA

Form K

Oil Switches Located Aljove

of Operating Panel.

and

Form K Oil Switches Located Below and Back

ot Operating Panel.

Back

AAA

AAA

_L

Form K

Oil Swilchps Tjocated

Abovu

FuriiL

Oil Switches

Located Back of Operating

Panel.

Operating Panel.
Fig. 24,

H
!S
a
S
M

z
3 I
H W

a
p
o
0.

a,

J 5
W
o!

u -a"
H
% -a
" I
M

POWER

STA'IiONS

57

are arranged to operate with plug switches.

single panel used

in the operation of series transformers on arc-lighting circuits

shown

is

in Fic. 27.

Safety Devices.

In addition to the ordinary overload trip-

ping devices which have already been considered, there are various
safety devices necessary in connection with the operation of cen-

One of the most important of these is the Jlglitiinuj

For direct-current work, the lightning arrester takes the
of a single gap connected in series with a high resistance and
with some device for destroying the arc formed Ijy discharge

tral stations.

(trrmter.

foi'm
fitted

Red Indicatinq Lamp

/(Oil

Switch Closed)

^''-^^i^ losinq Contact

>Openinq Contact
IIS

iQreen Ind icatinq Lamp

Switch Open)

flOil

fuse
125 Volt

Gear

Case

Buses

^Se^ies Motor

pOperatinq

Oil

Switch
~,Q utch Maq n et
1

3Coll

Automatic Contact

Flnqers

Cam Actuated
Oil

Switch

in

Closed Position

Fig. 25.

to the

One

ground.

of these

is

connected between either side of

the circuit and the ground, as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 28.

" kicking " coil is connected in circuit between the arresters and

be protected, to aid in forcing the lightning discharge across the gap. In railway feeder panels such kicking
coils are mounted on the backs of the panels.
the

machine

to

For alternating-current work, several gaps are arranged in

series, these gaps being formed l^etweeu cylinders of " non-arcmg"
metal.

High

resistances

and reactance

coils are

used with these,

POWEK STATIONS

58

Source

Load

POWER STATIONS
second.

Such devices

59

act on the steam- supply of engines

and on

the direct-current circuit breakers of rotary converters, respectively,

(lomplete wiring diagram for a railway switchboard

is

shown

in Fig. 31.

Substations.

Substations

ing the high potentials down

to

ai-e

for the purjjose of transform-

such potentials as can be used on

-gr-^
motors or lamps, and

in

many

cases to convert alternating current

Step-down transformers do not differ iu any

from step-up transformers. Either motor-generator sets

into direct current.

respect

or rotary converters
direct current.

may

be used to change from alternating

The fonner

to

consist of synchronous or induction

motors, direct connected to direct-current generators, mounted on

POWER STATIONS

60

the

same bedplate.

wound,
tors,

as desired.

The generator may be shunt

though specially designed; they are

is

compound

with collector rings

fitted

The alternating

attached to the winding at definite points.

rent

or

Rotary converters are direct-current generacur-

fed into these rings and the machine runs as a synchronous

Connections for series arc liaVitinq

oenerator
reactance coil

circurts

up to coco volts

-^i

Connections

forliqhtinq or power circuits/

uptoaso volts (metallic circuits)
qenercitor
reactance coil

motor

spark
^ap'
blov^-out
coil

Connections for railway circuits up to 650 volts

reactance coil
(one side q rounded)
qenercL^ tor

Reaction

coil

13

composed ofss' of
conductor wound

I more turnstwoas con

cnacoil of

or

venientFig. 28.

motor, while direct current

There

is

is

delivered at the

commutator end.

a fixed relation between the voltage applied to the alter-

nating-current side and the direct-current voltage, which depends

on the shape of the wave form, losses in the armature, pole pitch
of the machine,

method

values are as follows:

of connection, etc.

The generally accepted

MANHATTAN

74th

Showing Carey's Carbonate

of

ST.

POWER

STATION,

Magnesia Pipe Coverings.

NEW YORK.
Steam Connections.

POWER STATIONS
TABLE
Full

61

13.

Load Ratios.

Current.

Continuous
Two-phase
and Six-phase
(diametrical)

Potential.

100
(

<
(

550 volts
"
250
"
125
"
550

Three-phase
and Six-phase ^250
(

or delta)

The

............................'.'.'.'....

7;;

73.5

..........]....... 62
62

"

.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.

"

(125

'increase of capacity of six-pliaso iiuu'hiiu's

machines of the same size is given

This increase is due to
the fact that, with a p;reater

number

72.5

in

6:;

otl ler

Table 14.

Alternator

of phases, less of the

winding

is tra\-t'rsed

by the

current which passes through

the converter.
The saving
by increasing the number of

phases
slight

beyond

is

but

and the system

be-

six

comes too complex,

converters

liotaiy

may be over-com-

pounded by the addition

series fields,

provided

of

tlie re-

actance in the alternating

cii'-

cuits be of a proper value.

It is

customary

to insert re-

actance coils in the leads from

the low-tension side of the

step-down transformers

to

the collector rings to bring

the reactance to a value which will insure the desired compounding.

Again, the voltage

may

be controlled by means of induction regu-

TABLE

14.

Capacity Ratios.
Continuous-current generator
Single-phase converter
Two-phase converter
Three-phase converter
Six-phase converter

100

85
164
134
,,-,...

196

&1

POWER STATIONS

POWER STATIONS
lators placed in

are

tlie

63

Motor-o;eneratoiM

alteriiatiuir-cui'i-iuit leads.

more ccisthaiid occupy

iiKire

the regulation of the voltaire

is

s|)aee than rotary converters, bnt

and

inneli better

tliey are to

be

preferred for ligliting piirposes.

Buildings.

The power

station usually bas a building devoted

entirely to this work, while the sulistations,

made

a part of other buildings.

construction of the buildings for

to the architect, it is the

if

small, are often

While the detail oF design and

power plants belongs primarily

duty of the

electrical engineer to arrange

the macliinery to the best advantage, and he should always be con-

may

sulted in regard to the general plans at least, as this

much time and expense

The general arrangement

in

the

way

save

of necessary uiddifications.

up

of the machinery will be taken

later,

but a few points in connection with the construction of the buildings and foundations will be considered here.

Space must be ])rovided for the

building engine

rate

offices, store

boiler,

this

may

and dynamo room, general and

rooms and repair shops,

The

amount of steam piping to

in the same building a brick

minimum, and

if

room

boiler

should be parallel with the engine room, so as to reduce

sary

y)ri\ate

^'ery careful consideration

should be given to each of these departments.

are

be a sepa-

tlie

neces-

br)th

rooms

wall should sej)arate the two, no

b;)iie)' room ti)

room beino; allowed. The height of bnth boiler and
engine rooms should be such as to allow ample headway for lifting
machinery and space for placing and repairing boilvrs, while ]irovision should be made for extending these rooms in at least one
Both engine and boiler rooms should be fitted M'itli
direction.

openings which would allow dirt to conie from the

the engine

proper traveling cranes to facilitate the handling of the units.

some

cases the engines

this is not general practice.

The

in the engine rooms.

depend entirely on

the engine

joom

Ample

light

is

necessary, especially

size of the oflices, store

rooms,

etc., will

local conditions.

The foundations
be of the very best.

In

and dynamos occupy separate rooms, but

for both the walls

and the machinery must

It is well to excavate 'the entire space

to a

xmder

depth of eight to ten feet so as to form

a basement, while in most cases the excavations must be

greater depth for the walls.

made

to a

Foundation trenches are sometimes

a:_i
l-z">,

9^

POWEE STATIONS

with concrete to a depth sufficient to form a good under-

filled

footing.
to

65

The

area of the foundation footing should be great enough

keep the pressure within a safe limit for the quality of the

The

walls themselves

Wood

is

may

soil.

be of wood, brick, stone, or concrete.

used for very small stations only, while brick

may

bo

used alone or in conjunction with steel framing, tbe latter construction being used to a considerable extent.

If brick alone is

POWER STATIONS

66

used, the walls should never be less than twelve inches thick, and

eighteen to twenty inches

Lettei'

is

The

the most expensive stations.

Stone

is

used only for

interior of the walls is

of glazed brick, wlien the expense of such construction

In fireproof construction, which

ranted.

power

stations, the roofs are;

supported by

steel trusses

as standard construction for lighting stations,

and wood construction.

The

tioors of the

formed
is

war-

always desirable for

is

Fig. 32 shows what has been

great variety of forms.

They

for large buildings.

must be amply reinforced with pilasters.

and take a

recommended

showing both brick

engine room should be

Fig. 33.

made
tile,

of

some

mater-Jal whicii will not

l)attery I'ooms

should

l)e

their interior lined with

by the acid fumes.

The

separate from

all

best of ventilation

the machines are l)eing hea\ily loaded.

is

erected.

They should he

desirable.

Hard
StoraL'^e

others and should have

is

will uot

Ije

affected

desirable for all parts

importance in the dynamo room

Substation construction

does not differ from that of central stations

ing

grit or dust.
is

some material which

of the station, but is of particular

if

form

unglazed, set in cement or wood floors,

fireproof

if

when

a separate build-

possible.

The foundations for machinery should be entirely separate

from those of the building. Not only must tlie foundations be
stalile,

but

in

some

locations

it

is

jiarticularl v desirable

that no

POWEK STATIONS

67

vibrations be transmitted to adjoining rooms and buildings.

loose or sandy soil does not transmit such vibrations readily, but

them almost

tirm earth or rock transmits

tiair, felt,

mineral wool, and asphaltum concrete are some of the

The excavation

materials used to prevent this.

made from two

all sides
is

Sand, wool,

perfectly.

to three feet

for the foundation is

deeper and two to three feet wider on

than the foundation, and the sand, or whatever material

used, occupies this extra space.

K-3"

for bricK foundation al2"footinao^

snoijld be laid. Oept-h orfcunoLatio^ nn-J5t be Qpvernezi bythe character of tHe soil Qatter to 6.
Fouociation timbers and f loortn^ should
be independent of station floor.

concrete

Fig.

Brick, stone, or concrete

:jl.

used for building up the greater

is

machinery foundations, the machine's being held in place

by means of bolts fastened in masonry. A template, giving the
location of all bolts to be used in holding the machine in place,
part of

should be furnished, and the bolts

with an internal diameter a

bolt.
final

little

This allows some play

may

be rim inside of iron pipes

greater than the diameter of the

to the bolt

and

is

convenient for the

'Fig. 33 gives an idea of this con-

alignment of the machine.

The brickwork should consist of hard-lnirned brick of

struction.

the best quality, and should be laid in cement mortar.

It is well

brick or concrete foundations with a stone cap, forming a

to
level surface on which to set the machinery, though this is not
necessary. .Generators are sometimes mounted on wood bases to
lit

POWER STATIONS

68

Fig. 34 shows the foundation

150 K.W. generator, while Fig. 85 shows the foundation for

furnish insulation for the frame.

for a

a rotary converter.

BZ%

I*-

*,

For brick foundation a IS'Vooting of concrete sHould

be laid -DeptVi of founddtlon must be governed by the
character of the soi
Batter to 6
i

I-

Fig. 35.

Station Arrangement.

few points

have already been

noted in regard to station arrangement, but the importance of the

subject

demands a

little

Station arrange-

further consideration.

ment depends

upon two
facts
the location and the machinery to be installed.
Undoubtedly the best arrangement
is with all of the machinery on

chiefly

one floor with, perhaps, the operating switchboard mounted on a

gallery so that the attendants

may have

a clear view of

machines.

Fig.

3(3

all

the

shows the

simplest arrangement of a plant

using belted machines.

Fig. 37
shows an arrangement of units

where a jack shaft

is

used.

Direct-current machines should be

placed so that the brushes and commutators are easily accessible

and the switchboard should- be placed so as to not be

accidents, such as the breaking of a lielt or a, iiy-wheel.

liable to

POWEK STATIONS
"When tlve cost of
the machinery on one

pay be used when

to

real estate prohibits the placing of all of

floor,

the arrangements shown in Fig. 38

the machines are belted.

have the engines on the main

vibration

69

It is

always desirable

they caiise considerable

floor, as

when not mounted

on the best of foundations.

The

do

boilers, while heavy,

not cause such vibration and

they

may

be placed on the

second or third

floor.

Belts

CLUTCH!^

should not be run vertically,

as they

must be

stretched too

tightly to prevent slipping.

BOILEH HOUSE.

ENGINE HOOfA

Fig. 39 shows a large

Fig. 37.

station usino- direct-connected

40 shows the arrangement

units, while Fig.

of the

of the turbine plant

Boston Edison Electric Illuminating Company.

tion will contain twelve such 5,000

Note the arrangement of

prime mover.

K.W.

units

This

sta-

when completed.

when several units are required

The use of a separate room or building

boilers

for a single

and
becoming

for the cables, switches,

operating boards

W-

quite

common

is

for high-tension

generating plants.

The remark-

able saving in floor space brought

about by the turbine

seen from Fig. 41.

readily

The

total

occupied by the new

floor space

Boston

station is

feet per

K.W.

boilers

is

2.64 square

This includes

of which there are eight,

each 512 IT.F. for each unit

turbines, generators, switches,
BO/I.EH

HOUSE

ENOIf^E FKOOrA

and

all

auxiliary apparatus.

When

Fig. 39.

transformers are -used

for raising the voltage, they

be placed in a separate building, as

the transformers

may be

located in

is

may

the case at Niagara Falls, or

some part of the dynamo room,

preferably in a line parallel to the generators.

70

POWER STATIONS

POWER STATIONS

71

meter, together with voltmeter aiid ammeter readings at intervals

of about 15

power

factor

minutes

in

some

cases

to

check upon the average-

and determine the general form

of the load curve.

For direct-current lighting systems volt and ampere readings serve

to give the true
tions,

output of the

sta-

and curves are readily plotted

from these readings.

The

voltage

should be recorded for the bus bars

as well as for the centers of distri-

"bution.

Indicator diagran)s should be takcji from the cngiues at frequent intervals for the purpose of determining the operation of

Eno-ine-room records include labor, use of waste oil

and supi)lies, as well as all repairs made on engines, dynamos and
the valves.

auxiliaries.

s
o
o
K

be

74

POWER STATIONS

Boiler-room records include labor and repairs, amount of

coal used, which amount may he kept in detail if desirable, amount
of water used, together with steam-gauge record and periodical
analysis of flue gases as a check on the

methods of

firing.

Kecords for the distributing system include labor and maFor multiple- wire
terial used for the lines and substations.

POWEK
systems, frequent

STATIOISrS

75

of the ciifrent in the different feeders

leailiiiirs

will serve as a cliedc on the l>alanc'e of the load.

The
which

power varies greatly with the

cost of ejenerating

it is

])i'odneed

well as upon local conditions.

as

operating expenses include cost of fuel, water, waste,

of repairs,

and superintendence.

labor,

ex])enses.

gives

tlie

oil, etc., coj

'Ost

Fixed charges include

Total exjienses divided by total kilowatt hours

cost of generation of a kilowatt hour.

tributing a kilowatt hour

The

at

on investment, depreciation, and general

insui'anee, taxes, iiitei-est

office

rate

Statio
on

may

The

cost of dis-

be determined in a similar manner.

rate of depreciation of appaiatns differs greatly with different

machines, but the following figures

may

1)e

taken as average values,

these figures representing percentage of first cost to be charged

up

each year
Fireproof buildings froui 2 to per cent.
Frame buildinss from .5 U. 8 ]ier eeiit.
Dynamos from 2 to 4 per cent.
Priiiie mo\ ers from 2'jA to 5 per rent.
Boilers from 4 to T) per cent
."

Overhead

linjs, best coristruete<i, 6 to 10 per cent.

poorly eonstriicted lines l!0 to i!() jier cent
I'adly constrncled line's 4!) to (JO per cent
j\[()re

nndersround
Lead covered

cuniluits
rallies

12

li

jjer

cent.

per cent.
I

Hethods

of

Charging

Power.

for

There are four methods

used for charging consumers for electrical energv, namely, the Hatrate or contract system, the

meter svstem, the two- rate meter

sys-

tem, and a system by which each customer pavs a fixe<l amount

depending on the maximum demand and in addition pays at a
In the Hat-rate
I'easonable rate for the power actually used.
system, eacli customer pays a certain amount a year for service,
this

amount being
These

used.

rales vary,

which the power

lie

is to

the estimated

lie

many customers

reasonable in order to

if

the energy

are liable to

to

take advantage

lights than contracted

make

is

an unsatisfactory method for

It is

different hours, while the honest customer

is

of jiower to

depending on the hours of the day during

the company, burning more

than

amount

be used, being greatest

used during jieak hours.

lighting service, as
of

baseil on

for

and

must pay a higher

at

rate

the station operation profitable.

POWEE STATIONS

76

much

This method serves

motors, and

is

better

foi-

hen the power

is

used for driving

used largely for this class of service.

The simple meter method

better

\\

lightino-

of charging

but the rate here

hour of the day the

is

curreni" is used.

the

serves the purpose

same no matter what

Obviously, since machinery

Fig. 43.
is

installed to carry the

time tends

peak of the load, any power used

at this

from the plant, and users

the power at such times.

to increase the capital outlay

should be required to pay more for

The two-meter
The meters

extent.

rate

accomplishes this purpose to a certain

are arranged so that they record at two rates,

the higher rate being used during the hours of heavy load.

There are several methods of carrying out the fourth scheme.

In the Brighton System, a fixed chai'ge

depending on the

is

maximum denuvnd for power

made each month,

during the previous

month, a regular schedule of such charges being made out, based

on the cost of the plant.
]-ecord the

records the

An

integrating wattmeter

energy consumed, while a so-called

maximum

rate of

demand.

is

used to

"demand meter"

POWER TRANSMISSION,
ELECTRICAL.
The subject

power transmission is a very broad one dealing with the transmission and distribntion of electrical energy, aa
generated by the dynamo or alternating-current generator, to the

The

receivers.

of

receivers

may

Electric distribution of

etc.

be lamps, motors, electrolytic

power

superior flexibility, efficiency, and effectiveness

on account of

its

and we find

taking the place of other methods in

it

cells,

better than other systems

is

all

For some purposes the problem

few applications.

tively simple, while for other uses,

but a very-

is

compara-

such as supplying a large

system of incandescent lamps, scattered over a comparatively large

area, it

is

engineering,

it

have been made

trical
still

As with

quite complicated.
is

other branches of electrical

only in recent years that any great advances

in the

means employed

for transmission of elec-

power, and while this advance has been very rapid, there

is

a large field for development.

In a study of this subject the different methods employed

and their application, the most

efficient

systems to be installed for

given service, the preparation of conductors and the calculation

of their size, together

with the proper installation of the same,

should be considered.

CONDUCTORS.
Material Used.

Power, in any appreciable amount,

is

trans-

mitted, electrically, by the aid of metal wires, cables, tubes, or bars.

The materials used

metals

may

are iron or steel, copper and

aluminum.

Other

serve to conduct electricity but they are not applied

to the general transmission

latter are the

of energy.

most important, iron or

steel

Of

these three, the two

being used to a consid-

erable extent only in the construction of telephone and telegraph

and even here they are rapidly giving way to copper. Steel.
may be used in some special cases, such as extremely long spans
in overhead construction or for the working conductors for raillines,

way

installations using a third rail.

ited use on account of

its

Phosphor bronze has a lim-

mechanical strength.

POWER TRANSMISSION
Copper and alumiuuin are used in the commercially pure state
and are selected on account of their conductivity and comparatively
low cost. The use of aluminum is at present limited to long-distance transmission lines or to large bus-bars, and

account of

its

being

much

lighter than copper.

insulated conductors because of

tion

and consequent increase

in

its

is

not used for

of insulation necessary.

I.

Copper Wire Table.

Dimensions.

selected on

comparatively large cross-sec-

amount

TABLE

It

is

POWEK TRANSMISSION
For

(.ylindrical

in circulai- rails.

.001

inches in

whose
rails.

sides

conductors,

By

is

usually expressed in feet and

a circular mil

diameter.

is

square

measure .001 inches and

is

meant the area

rail is

equivalent to 1.27 circular

Cylindrical conductors are designated by gauge

by their diameter.
wire gauge

sponding

is

The Brown

Sharpe (B.

&

number

S.) or

or

American

used almost universally and the diameters corre-

to the different

"Wires above

&

of a circle

the area of a square

gauge numbers are given

in

Table

I.

No. 0000. are designated by their diameter or by

their area in circular mils.

TABLE
Resistances of Pure

II.

Aluminum Wire.

POWEK TRANSMISSION
feet of

number 10 copper wire has

weighs

'iilA

a resistance of 1

ohm and

pounds.

When/" is

expressed in terms of the mil foot, a wire one foot

having a cross-section of one mil, its value for copper of
a.])urity known as Matthiessen's Standard, or copper of 100%
in length

conductivity,

9.58G at 0

is

C*

aluminum iJ9.5%
aluminum wire.

as 15.2 for

of

For aluminum

value

its

is

Table II gives the resistance

pure.

This shows the conductivity of akiminum to be aljout

The conductivity

that of copper.

given

of iron wire

is

about

63%
J-

of

that

of copper.

Matthiessen's standard

is

based on the resistance of copper

supposed, by Matthiessen, to be pure.

provements

in the refining of

Since his experiments, im-

copper have made

98%

lower than

possible to produce

seldom used for power transmission purposes.

is

Temperature
per mil foot)

it

Copper of a conductivity

copper of a conductivity exceeding 100%.

Coefficient.

The

specific resistance (resistance

given for copper as 9.586 at 0" Centigrade.

is

Its

resistance increases with the temperature according to the approx-

imate formula:

Ph
K^

where

= K^ (1 + at)
= Kesistance at temperature

K=
a

It is

of

value.

The

Kempe

as .0039.

specific gravity of

copper

is

8.89.

The value

showing aluminum to weigh .GOT times as

much as copper for the same conductivity or resistance. It is this
property which makes its use desirable in special cases.
Iron, as
for

aluminum

Centigrade.

a for aluminum does not differ greatly from

given by

Weiglit.

f-',

C.

= .0042, commercial

The value
this.

"

"

is 2.7,

used for conductors, has a specific gravity of

Meclianical
strength of

Strength.

2."j,000 to

35,000

Soft-drawn

lbs. pei' sq. in.

has a tensile strength of 50,000 to 70,000

on the size;

to 11

7.S.

copper

lbs.

lias

tensile

Ilard-dra\vn copper

per sq.

in.,

depending

the lower value corresponding to Xos. 0000 and 000.

"The cominercial values given

ohms.

for

the mil foot vary from 10.7

POWER TEANSMISSION
Aluminum
in. for

Las a tensile strength of about 33,000

hard-drawn wire J inch

Effects of Resistance.
is

lbs.

per sq.

in diameter.

The

effect of resistance in

conductors

three-fold.
1.

There

Is

a dioi) in voltage, determined Irom Obnj's law,

I

2.

There

is

= g

or

E=

IK.

a loss of energy proportional to the resistance

sfiuare of the current flowing.

Loss in watts

= PK =

and the

E2
-^5-

3.
There is a heating of the conductors, due to the energy lost, and
the amount of heating allowable depends on the material surrounding the
conductors. The drop in voltage or the heating limit is usually more important in the design of a transmission system than the loss of energy.

Capacity of Conductors for Carrying Current.

perature of a conductor will rise until heat
to the rate it is

is lost at

generated so that a conductor

is

The tema rate etpial

only capable of

carrying a certain current with a given allowable temperature

The -limit

of this rise in temperature

injury to insulation.

determined by

is

general rule

rise.

lire risk, or

that the current densit)'

is

should not exceed 1,000 amperes per square inch of cross-section

for copper conductors.

too high for

This value

heavy conductors, and

is

too low for small wire

it is

and

governed by the way

in

which the conductors are installed. This value serves for bus-ljars
where the thickness of the copper used is limited to |-inch.
Curves shown in Fig. 1 are applicable to switchboard wiring, and
Table

VII

of "Electric

Wiring"

conductors for inside wiring.

showing the

gives safe carrying capacity of

Perrine

class of conductors to be used

tcives the

followintr table

under various conditions:

POWER TRANSMISSION
,1

LO
01

3
_o

-i
CO

<

3
C
o

"O

U
tn

in
cs

POWER TRANSMISSION
but being -weak mechanically, and this combined

specific resistance

with a material serving to give the necessary strength to the insu-

For this purpose yarns are iised as the mechanical supand waxes and asphaltum serve for the insulation proper.

lation.

port,

mm

Ci/VS

qF,^*A>JiCIMIJM CQI^TINUQIJS

ffi
fflffl
ffl
CuffhcNT
fiCNTC,
dAfi^YING C/^P^CITY
1

tttH

rOR ffUBBEFt AND LEAD

ttn-r
Ji ll
coVkhkh (,Wb l 3

'

^Of*, S,

Vl'/TCH-eo^kD W, RINQ

Bascd on 25
ArrrR

C._

mm

Rise

Houf^RuN

M
%
i

n
t
-^\
-/::

y-

f:.

20

60-BO

io-miQ-l4ii4q4-| I6cl44 led -Haoo Usso 1-|a4Q

Fig-

Annunciator wire
jiaraffine.

The

is

1.

covered with heavy cotton yarn saturated with

so-called Underwriter's wire

ton braid saturated with white paint.

is

witii a single

is

insulated with cot-

Asphaltum

used for insulating Weatherproof wire.

several ways, the best insulation being

ductor

Hgeo

It

or mineral

may

wax

be applied

made by covering

in

the con-

braiding laid over asphaltum and then passing

POWER TRANSMISSION

10

the covered wire through the liquid insulation, at the same time
applying two cotton braids, and finishing by an external application
of asphaltura

up
is

and polishing.

of a material

The most complete

insulation

is

made

which gives the most perfect insulation and which

strong enough, mechanically, to withstand pressure and abrasion

without additional support.

Fig.

1.

Qutta Percha and India Rubber, Gutta percha is used for

submarine cables, but rubber is the insulating material most used
Gutta ])ercliM, cannot be used when exfor electrical conductors.
rapidly under such conditions.
deteriorates
it
as
posed to air,

POWEK TRANSMISSION
llubber,

when

the process.

used,

is

vulcanized, and great care

This vulcanized rubber

is

is

necessary in

usually covered with braid

having a polished asphaltum surface. The insulation of high-tension

cables will be considered in the topic, "

Underground Construction."

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.
I

r-

POWEK TKANSMISSION

12

The drop

All calculations for series systems are simple.

voltage

is

obtained from

Ohm's

law, I

E
=

in

A wire smaller than

ii
ISIo.

8 should never be iised for line construction, as

it

would not

be strong enough mechanically, even though the drop in voltage

with

its

use should be well within the limit.

The current taken by

For

arc

lamps seldom exceeds 10 amperes.

series incandesceiit lighting, the current

may

be lower than

POWER TRANSMISSION
Parallel

Systems

of Distribution.

13

In the parallel or "mul-

tiple-arc" system of distribution, the lamps or motors are supplied

with a constant potential, and^the current supplied by the generators

is

the

sum

of the currents taken

are several

methods

by each translating device.

one having some characteristic which makes

The usual arrangement

certain installations.

known

as

There

of distribution applicable to this system, each

its

use desirable for

is to

run conductors

"feeders" out from the station, and connectetl to these

feeders are other conductors

known

as mains, to which, in turn,

the receivers or translating devices are connected.

Fig. 4

is

diagram of such a "feeder and main" system.

The
known as

feeders

may

be connected at the same ends of the mains,

parallel feeding; or they

may

be connected at the opposite

ends of the main, giving us the anti-parallel system of feeding.

The mains may be

may change

keep the current density approximately

The above conditions give

constant.
nations,

of uniform cross-section throughout, or they

in size so as to

rise to four possible

combi-

namely
Cylindrical conductors, parallel feeding. Fig. 5.
Fig. (i.
C'ylindrical conductors, anti-parallel feeding. Fig.
Tapering conductors, anti-parallel feeding. Jig. 8.

I.

Tapering conductors, parallel feeding.

II.

III.

IV.

7.

The regulation of the voltage of a system is of particular imwhen incandescent lamps are supplied; and the calcula-

portance

tion of the

drop in voltage to lamps connected

with a constant potential should be considered.

detail as to the
niulic

methods

which apply

to the

of derivation,

to mains supplied
Without going into

we have

the following for-

above combinations when the receivers are

uniformly distrilnited and each taking the same amount of current.

Oylindrical conductors, parallel feeding.

Tapering conductors, parallel feeding,

= 2 llh:

II

Cvlindrical conductors, anti-parallel feeding,

D=^(L-;r)

III

Tapering conductors, anti-parallel feeding,

'

= O.

IV

POWEE TRANSMISSION

wliere

D = difference between potentials applied to different lamps.

R resistance of conductors per unit length at feeding
This will be a constant quantity for cylindrical conductors,

point.

but will change for tapering conductors, having

at

the feeding point, and

I

its

maximum

mains only are shown

In Figs.

5, 6, 7,

and 8 the

in detail.

distance from feeding point to the particular lamps at

which the voltage

L ~

value

current in main at feeding point, or point at which the

feeders are connected to the mains.

minimum

its

value at the end of the main.

is

being considered.

length of main.

For Cases I and II the maxinuim difference of potential

found where x = L, that

lamps located
end of the mains.
at the

is
is,

at the

For Case III the maxi-

mum
is

difference of potential

found where x

lamp

at the

=-^

or

located at the

middle point of the mains.

Foi-

on

Case

all

IV

of the

the potential

lamps

is

same, but the difference

tween the voltage on

the
le-

the

and the voltage on

the lamps is equal to EI L.

feeders

'^'

For unequal distribution of

receivers

points the drop in voltage can be calculated

and special feeding

by the

aid of

Ohm's

becomes quite complicated for extensive

sufficient to keep the rnax/mtnu drop within

law, but this calculation

systems.

It usually is

the desired limits

when designing

electrical conductors for lighting,

lieing careful not to exceed the safe carrying capacity of the wires.

The drop in voltage on the feeders may be calculated directly

from Ohm's law when direct current is used, knowing the current flowing

and the dimensions of the conductors used.

POWEE TRANSMISSION

15

Additional formulae are given in "Electric Wiring," whicii

'

determining the

will aid in

used for a given

size of wire to he

installation.

As examples

of calculation

System consists
feet.

R=

.01

ohm

of

I =r

I.

D=

Case

IT.

D =

"^"^

20

.01

Case III.

following:

tlie

.5

.5

10

in each of the first three cases.

10 amperes.

^^

^q

.01

D =

lamps

10

(160 - 80)

80

16

8 volts.

volts.

80
2

x (80

"80
^^

L = 80
maximum

amperes.

Find the

per foot at feeding point.

difference of potential on the

Case

we Lave

20 lamps, each taking

80\

^j=:

2 volts.

In Case IV" the difference in potential applied to the lamps and

the potential of the feeders would be .01

Again, with the

maximum

may

ance of the wires at the feeding point

tapering conductors, the current density
stant by vising wire
Thus supposing, as

10

80

is

be determined.

in the case considered, that the resistance at

ohm

size of the

per foot.

At

40 feet
of 10 or 5

a distance of
-|

wire would be one-half as great, giving

a resistance at this point of .02

Feeding Point,

For

kept approximately con-

from the feeding point the current would be only

it

8 volts.

of a smaller diameter as the current decreases.

the feeding point was .01

amperes and the

allowable drop given, the resist-

ohm

per foot.

In order to determine the point at which a

system of mains should preferably, be fed, that is, the point where
the feeders are attached to the mains, it is necessary to find the
electrical center of gravity of the system.

The method employed

power
and consists of separately obtaining the center of gravity of straight sections and then
determining the total resultant and point of application of tliis
is

similar to that used in determining the best location of a

plant as regards

amount

of copper required,

resultant of the straight sections to locate the best point for feed
ing.

Actual conditions are often such that the system cannot be

POWER TRANSMISSION

16

fed at a point so determined, but

close to this point as

is

well to run the feeders as

it is

copper

practical, as less

is

then required

drop in potential.

for a given

Consider, as an example, a system such as

is

showii in Fig.

9.

The number of lamps and location of the same are shown in this
The loads, A B C D, may be considered as concentrated
figure.
33.8 feet from I and equal to

at A', a point

This point

= By.

10
30.

C.r'

By'.

.y

= 20

B)

30y =

a."

...

+ y = 400.
'

15a?'

x'

20//'.

C
(A

= (C + D) f.

D.

+D=
+
."

if

500.

= ^^-^-^
= 285.7

^^"'
feet.

85.

=. 632.4.

./'

.,

_
~

852/".

A+B+ C + D=
A'

CI

obtained as follows:

is

A+ B=

Kx

A+ B+

and

is

F may

6.2 feet from

65

or 33.8 feet from

I.

be combined to form a group of 30 lamps and

the resultant of E, F, G, and

is

70 lamps located

at B', a point

same manner as
Similarly we find the resultant of the loads at A' and B' to
A'.
be 135 lamps located at C, a point 331.1 feet from I, and the
310

feet

from J,

this point being located in

the

proper feeding point for the system.

= 65 lights, 33.8 feet from

= 70 lights, 310 feet from J.
Distance IJ = 360
Distance from A' to B' = 360 +
= 70y.
X + y = 703.8
X = 364.9
364.9 - 38.8 = 331.1
A'

I.

B'

feet.

310

33.S .= 703.8 feet.

65,/'

feet.

feet.

feet.

The above

is

a simple

definite case.

variable, the proper feeding point will

in extensive systems, the location of this

The same method

approximately only.
in locating the points

the terminals of the

Should the load be

change with the load, and,

point can be obtained

of calculation

is employed
from which sub-feeders are run out from

main

feeders as

is

the case in large systems.

POWER TRANSMISSION

1?

the voltage being maintained constant at the pdint wliere the snhIVeders are connected

Good

If)

the feeders.

practice sliows the drop in potential to he witliin

following limits:

From
or

feeding points (points where sub-feeders

mains are attached)

Loss in sub-feeders
Loss in mains
Loss in service wires

The

to

lamps

per cent.

">

1.5
0..t

actual variation in voltage should not exceeil

30

"
"
"

8%.

tlie

POWER TRANSMISSION

18

MULTIPLE=WIRE SYSTEMS.
The Three=Wire System.
of conductors the
of

power

We

in any system
For a given amount

have seen that

lost is e(|ual to I"E..

power transmitted (lEj the current varies inversely with the

consequently the amount of power lost, which is

voltage and

directly proportional to the square of the current,

portional to the square of the voltage.

is

inversely pro-

Hence, for the same

loss

power and the same percentage drop in voltage, doubling the

voltage of the system would allow the resistance of the conductors
to be made four times as great, and wire of one-fourth the crossof

section or one-fourth

amount

of

the

copper would be

The voltage

required.

for

which incandescent lamps,

having a reasonable efficiency,

jnig_ 10.

can be economically manufactured

is

them

limited to 220, while the majority of

are

made

In order to increase the voltage on the system, a special

for 110.

connection of such lamps

is

necessary.

The three-wire and

five-

wire systems are adopted for the purpose of increasing this voltage.
Fig. 10 shows a diagram of a three-wire system.

conductor

Consider the

removed, and we have a series-multiple system with

two lamps in

series.

This arrangement does not give independent

control of individual lamps,

and the third

wii-e is

introduced to

_^^

_^3

take care of any unbalancing

of the

number

of

lamps or

units connected on either side

of the system,

more freedom
of the lights.

and

to allow

in the location

Q
^^
-^~r2-

The current

in
icSiini

_^2

iQ

'O'O

iiiiiiO

Fir. 11.

flowing in the conductor B,

known

as the neutral conductor,

depends on the difference of the

currents required by the units on the two sides of the system.

Fig. 11 shows a system in which the loads on the two sides are

unequal, an unbalanced system, \vith the value of the current in

the neutral wire at different points.
to take

one ampere.

Each unit

is

here assumed

POWER TRANSMISSION
As

stated alxjvo,

were no neutral wire

19

]-e(jnire(l,

the anionnt

of copper necessary for a system with the laiujis eouueetcd, two in

same percentage drop in voltage would bo one-fourth

amount necessary for the parallel connection. This may be
shown as follows: The current in the wire in the first case is oneseries, for the

the

half as great, so that the voltage drop

same

the

would be divided by two

for

wire.

size

The voltage on the system is twice as great,

so that, with the

same

s^

C^

jx'rcfn tctiji' regulation,

the actual voltage drop

would

be doubled.
Consequently wire of
one -fourth the cross-

wire

and weight may

section

be used.

If the neutral

made

is

one-half

the size of the outside

conductor, as

usually

is

the case in feeders, the

amount
quired

copper

of
is

-^-^

re-

of that

necessary for the two\v

to

For

system.

mains

is

customary

all

three con-

it

make

ductors the same

size,

inci'easing the

amount

of copper to

of that re([uired

|-

wire system with

necessai-y

is

all

a two-wire system.

foi-

conductors the same

.150 times that

foi'

;i,

size, the

For a

weight of

five-

coiJijei-

two-\vire system.

Multiple-wire systems have no advantage other than saving

of coj)])er, except

among
(

when used

for multiple-voltage systems, while

their disadvantages ma^- be

mentioned:

'(implication of generating apparatus.

Cciinplication of iustrunients

and wiring,
due to uubalauciug of load.

Liability to variation iu voltage,

POWER TRANSMISSION

20

Fig. 12 shows

some

current for a tliree-wire

Two dynamos

A.
B.

A double

of the

methods employed

in generating

syHU-iii.

connected in

series, tlie

usual inetliod

dynamo.

C. Bridge arrangement, using a resistance R with the neutral connection arranged so as to change the value of resistance in either side of
the system. Has the disadvantage of continuous loss of energy in R.
D. Storage battery connected across the line with neutral connected
at

middle point.

B. Special dynamo supplied with three brushes.

F. Special machine having collector rings, across which is connected an impedance coil, the neutral wire being connected to the middle
point of this coil.
G. Compensators or motor-generator set used in connection with
generator. The motor-generator set is known as a balancer set.

Compensators are usually wound for about

10%

of the capac-

In the motor-gen-

machine with which they are used.

motor or generator depending on
whether the load on that side is less or greater than the load on
ity of the

erator set, one side becomes a

the opposite side.

Voltage Regulation of Parallel Systems.

customary

It is

to

keep the voltage on the mains constant, or as nearly so as possible,

at the point

of feeders

is

where the feeders are attached. Where but one set

run out from the station, this miay be readily accom-

plished by the use of over-compounded dynamos, adjusted to give

an increase of voltage equal to the drop in the feeders at different

Again, the

loads.
trolled

field of a

by hand, the pressure

by a voltmeter connected

may

shunt- wound generator

at the

be con-

feeding points being indicated

to pilot wires

running from the feeding

point back to the station.

When

the system

different feeders
in series

is

is

more

necessary.

extensive, separate regulation of

A variable

with separate feeders, but this

resistance

is

may

be placed

undesirable on account

may

of a constant loss of energy.

Feeders

a system of mains and one or

more

service as the load changes.

Bus-bars giving different voltages

may be aranged

be connected in along

of these switched in or out of

so that the feeders can be

voltage bar as the load increases.

Boosters

changed
series

be connected in series with separate feeders and these

ranged to regulate the voltage automatically.

to a

dynamos

The use

may

higher

may
be

ar-

of boosters

is

POWER TRANSMISSION

21

not to be recom mended except for a few very long feeders, and then
the total capacity of boosters should equal but a small percentage

output

of the station
to

remain high.

methods

the efficiency of the system as a whole

if

Fig. 13

is

of voltage regulation.

Alternating-Current Systems of Distribution

fied in a

is

a diagram of a system using different

manner

may

similar to direct-current systems, that

and

parallel systems; but in addition to these

tion

depending on the number of

(fuartcr- or tini)-2)]mi<e

])hases used,

and three -plinxu

The Series System may

is,

classi-

as series

a classifica-

such as suKjle-phase^

xijuteins.

consist of a simple series circuit fed

by a constant-current generator, or

we have

be

it

may

be fed by a constant-

i?^i?^fi^^if

Fig. 13.

current transformer, the

stant j)otential,
a descri])tiou

])riniai-y of

of

such a

Again, the current

may

is

supplied with a con-

For

transformer, see "Electric Lighting".

be maintained constant

stant-current regulator, such as

ino-".

which

the secondary furnishing a constant current.

is

liy

means

of a con-

described in "Electric Light-

Constant-current alternators are seldom used, the two latter

foi'ms of regulation being applied to

pi-incipal

most

series installations.

application of scries alternating-current systems

slrecl-li'diting.

rai-allel-scries

iiUcnuiting-curreut

systems

The
is

to

are

somclimes used for street-lighting with incandescent lamps.

Parallel Systems, using alternating current are also analogous to parallel systems using direct current, though the receivers,
esriecially if Iami)s. ai'e seldom connected directly to the leads coming from the station, but are fed from the secondaries of constant-

POWER TEANSMISSION

22

which are connected to the lines in parallel,

and step down the voltage. The readiness with which the voltage
of such systems may be changed by means of suitable transformers
potential transformers,

is

The

the chief advantage of the single-phase systems.

may be

generated

at,

up

or transformed

to,

voltage

high value

at the

station, transmitted over a considerable distance over small con-

ductors with a small loss of energy, and then transformed to the

desired value for the connected units.

may

Transformers

be readily

constructed to furnish voltage for a three-wire secondary distribu-

diagram of a single-phase system supplying

tion.

Fig. 14

power

to both two-wire

is

Two

and three-wire systems.

separate

transformers are used for obtaining the three-wire system, in one

and a transformer, supplied with a tap connected

case,

dle point of the secondary,

The regulation

is

to the

mid-

used in the other case.

of voltage for alternating-current systems

may

be accomplished, as in direct-current installations, by means of

compounding (" composite- wound alternators"), hand regulation,

or resistance or reactance connected in series with the feeders.
addition, the feeders
lators

whicli

may

be controlled

l)y

means

such as the Stillwell Ttegulator, or the "

consist

of transformers with the

and the secondary

In

of special regu-

primary

K"
coil

Regulator,

connected

and so
windings may
be varied: other forms of regulators are the magnetic regulator
and the induction regulator.
Polyphase Systems. Polyphase systems of distribution are
used where motors are to be run from the circuits; also for longacross the line

arranged that the

number

in

series

with the

line,

of turns in one or both

distance transmission lines partly on account of the saving in copper.

Polyphase generators

may

be constructed more cheaply, for

machines because of a better

winding space on the armature; while single-

a given output, than single-phase

utilization

of the

])hase motors, except in small sizes, or series

railway work, are not entirely satisfactory.

phase systems are the only ones that are in

motors as applied

to

Two-phase and threeuse for power

common

transmission, three phases being used for long-distance transmission lines.

c-ipacitv of
six-])liase.

Six phases are used for rotary converters only, the

tli{^

macbincs being greatly increased whin connected

POWER TRANSMISSION
The amount

of copper required for the different systems,

assuming the weight of copper

to be

100%,

is

23

for a single phase two-wire system

as follows:

Single-phase two-wire systems

"
"
three-wire
"
(Neutral wire
size as outside wires)

100 per cent

same

"

"

"

75

"

four-wire

"

72-.9

Three-phase three-wii'e system.

"

"

100

"

three-wire

"

"

37. .j

Two-phase four-wire system

"

2.!. .3

This assumes the voltage on the receivers to he the same in

every case, the maximum voltage having different values, depending on the system used. The three-

phase three- wire system

to the
for

preferable

is

two-phase three-wire system

most purposes.

In the three-

Fig. 15.

Fig. 14.

phase four-wire system the

voltage on the receivers.

maximum

Were

voltage

the same

is

able as in the three-phase three- wire system, the

for the three-phase four- wire system

8 times the

would be

-|

amount

allow-

of copper

that required for

Fig. 15 shows, diagrammatic-

the three-phase three-wire system.

ally,

maximum voltage

the connections of the different systems.

As an example

of the

way

in

copper are calculated, take the

Assume

the

amount

of

which the

relative

three-phase

power transmitted

to be

amounts of

three-wire

P and

system.

the percent-

POWBE TRANSMISSION

24

age loss of energy to be

I

and

ji.

Let

the voltage on the receiver,

the current flowing in a single conductor, single-phase system,

I'

=- current in a single conductor, three-phase system.

"We

have for the single-phase two-wire system,

== IE,

for the three-phase three-wire system,

i/3"rE

IE

'3

T'E

The
when li

loss in

energy in the two-wire system

= resistance. of one conductor.

three-phase system =
P = 3

=-

for

The amount

I',

PR

energy

Y'll.

in the

3 ITi'
= -^or 2 R =

of copper

is

E'.

inversely proportional to the resistif

W = weight of one conductor

W = weight

for

of one conductor for three-

W = 2 W.

phase system,

Two

we have

ance of the conductor, so that

single-phase system and

loss in

I'^'R'.

7'

Substitutine;

The

conductors are required in the

Three conductors are required

3
2

W=I
W

--=

W'_

2
i

case ;= 2

second case

in the

W.

= 3 W,

^\.

W.

W_ _
~ 2 W"
4 ~
2 W
3

first

"'^"

TRANSniSSlON LINES.
Capacity.

Conductors used for

tlie

transmission of power

form, with their metallic shields, with the ground, or with neighborincr conductors, condensers, which, when the line is long, ha\e
an appreciable capacity.

The capacity

of circuits

calculated, the following formula applying

is

quite readily

to individual cases.

POWER TRANSMISSION
TABLE

25

IV.

Capacity in nicro=Farads Per Mile of Circuit for Tliree=Pliase

System.

Size
I!.

&

S.

Distance

Capacity

ill

inch.

in iuche.s.

in M. F.

Diain.

00(10

12
18
24
48
.41

00

12
18
24
48
12
18
24
48

12
18
24
48
281)

12
18

24
48
12
18
24
48
12
18
24
48

POWER TEANSMISSION

26

C =

Capacity iu

micro-farads,

(Divide by 1,000,000 to give

capacity in farads.)

specific inductive capacity of insulating material

air

D=

inside diameter of lead sheath.

A =
A =

diameter of conductor.

distance of conductors above ground.

distance between wires.

Common

logarithms apply to these formulie and

metallic circuit

is

the capacity between wires.

TABLE

V.

Inductance Per Mile of Three=Phase Circuit.

Size

1 for

2.25 to 3.7 for rubber.

for a

POWER TRANSMISSION
If the capacity be taken

27

between one wire and the neutral point

of a system, or the point of zero potential, the capacity is given as:

nucro-faradsj

(in

size

loar

i-'inui/ii.

Table I\^ gives the capacity, to the neutral point, of different

wire used for three-phase transmission lines.

The
in

per mile of

^d

;j-r

effect of this capacity is to cause a

advance of the impressed pressure,

the regulation of the system

be seen

will

may

Capacity

later.

to flow in the circuit,

by

affected

is

charging current, 90'

and

charging current as

this

be reduced by increasing the

distance between conductors or in lead-sheathed cables,

by using
an insulating material having a low specific inductive capacity,
such as paper.
Inductance.

num

The

Following

culated.

is

self-inductance of lines

is

very readily cal-

a formula applicable to copper or alumi-

conductors:

= .OUO^TjS

per mile of rh-cuJt

when

:= inductance of a loop of a three phase circuit in lienrys.

The

r2.;i()8 log

() +

-3"!

inductance of a complete circuit, single

above value

iiiultiplied

Self-inductance
wires and

is

by 2

-:-

])liase,

is

equal to

reduced by decreasing the distance between

Sub-

disappears entirely in concentric conductors.

it

dividing the conductors decreases the drop in voltage due to

inductance but

it

the

;3.

).

complicates the wiring.

conductors twisted together have very

little

Circuits

self-

formed of

When

inductance.

alternating-current wires are run in iron pipes, both wires of the

circuit

must be run

in the

tance depends on the

same

number

pipe,

of

inasmuch

between the conductors or threadinor the

will be increased

The
to lag

when

iron

is

circuit,

and

this

number

present between the conductors.

effect of self-inductance in a circuit is to cause the current

behind the impressed voltage and

dance of the

The

as the self-induc-

magnetic lines of force passing

it

also increases the

impe-

circuit.

effect of self-induclauce niay be neutralized

or vtce-oc/vii.

The

relative value of the

by capacity

two must be as follows:

POWER TRANSMISSION

28

-^

7-^-

when C and L

are in farads and henrys respectively,

and/' is the frequency of the system.

Mutual=Inductance. By mutiial-indnctance

is

meant the

in-

ductive effect one circuit has on another sep

arate

circuit,

generally a parallel circuit in

power transmission.

An

alternating current

flowing in one circuit sets up an electromotive

which is opposite in
E.M.F. impressed on the first

force in a parallel circu.it

direction to the

d
Fig. 16.

circuit,

and

is

proportional to the

the lines of force set

up by the

which thread the second

number

of

first circuit

circuit.

mutual inductance may be reduced by increasing the distance between the circuits, the distance between wires
This is impractical beyond a
of a circuit remaining the same.

The

effects of

-M3.00

roWER TRANSMISSION
Lines of force set up by the circuit

circu-it.

circuit

VD, provided

AB

a square so that there

assume an E.M.F.

is

(!

no

to be set

and

effect

up

29

AB

do not thread

are arranged at

tlie

on the circuit CD.

thfi

corners of

In Fig. 17

in the portion of the circuit

CD

in

The E.M.F. in the section DE will

the arrows shown and the effects on the

the direction of the arrows.

then be in the direction of

circuit

AB

be neutralized, provided the transposition, as the

will

crossing of the conductors

is

called,

is

Such transpositions are made

the line.

transmission lines to do

away with

in

same pole

at frequent intervals on

When

Thus

is

in Fig. 17

tion of the circuits of a line

composed

must be made

transposed in
is

also

circuits

several

line, these transpositions

such a manner that each circuit

the other circuits.

the middle of

at

the effects of mutual indirctance

which, at times, might be considerable.

are run on the

made

its

shown the

relation to

transposi-

of ten two-wire circuits.

CALCULATION OF ALTERNATINQ=CURRENT LINES.

In dealing with alternating currents, Ohm's law can be applied
only when

all of

the effects of inductance and capacity have been

eliminated, and, since this can seldom be accomplished, a

new

for-

mula must be used which takes such capacity and inductance

Not only the inductance or capacity of the
effects into account.
line itself must be considered, but the nature of the receiver must
be taken into account as Mell, when the regulation of the system
The following (piantities must lie
as a whole is being considered.

known

in the complete solution of

problems relating to alternating-

current systems.

4.

Frequency of the current used.

yelf-ind action and capacity of the receivers.
Self-lniluction and capacity of t)ie lines.
Voltage of, and current flowing in, the lines.

6.

Besistance of the various parts.

1.
2.

3.

Following

is

a set of

formula and an appropriate

culating transmission lines proper

when using

direct or alternating

current and for frequencies varying from 25 to

and polyphase currents.

tric

Company.

This table

is

table for cal-

12.5,

and for single

issued by the General Elec-

POWER

30

TRANS.MISSION

GENERAL WrRINQ FORMULA.

1^

Area

of condTiftor, ('ircular ]\[ils

CuiTeiit

main fonductors

ill

r X

W_X T
~E

l>

= Total Avatts dclioerci].

= Distance of traiisinission (one way)
= Loss in line in per cent of power

=; \''oltage between main condnctors at

A\"

Y)

end of

sniiii/r's

that

of

is,

receii:iii.(j

"\V.

or cmi-

circuit.

For continuous current

in feet.

ijrl ivi-rrJ,

C =

T =

1,

and

be found convenient for

cal-

2.1()(),

1,

6.04.
Tu 1
r
\ olts Joss in lines

=^

y>

X E X B
1(10

TV,
JLbs.

copper
^^

3>'

/*

X ^y X <" X A
X E' X 1,000,000

The following formula

will also

culating the copper required for long-distance three-phase trans-

mission circuits:
r,

Jjbs.

is

^
Copper

iPx K.W. X

300,000,000

'

the distance of transmission in miles,

delivered in kilowatts, and the power factor

is

K.W.

the power

assumed

to

he

approximately 05%.

APPLICATION OF FORMUL/E.
"

The

value' of

C!'

for

any particular power factor

is

obtained by

dividing 2,160, the value for continuous current, by the square of

that power factor for single-phase, by twice the square of that
power factor for three-wire three-phase, or fonr-wire two-phase.

The value
power

of

factor.

B
It

depeiids
is

on

the

size

of wire, frequency,

and

equal to 1 for continuous current, and for

alternating current with 100 per cent power factor and sizes of wire

given in the following table of wiring constants.

"The

figures given are for wires IS inches apart,

and are

suffi-

ciently accurate for all practical purposes provided the displacement

in pVase

between current and E.M.F.

at the receiving

end

is

not

POWEE TKANSMISSION
TABLE

Single-phase

Two-phase

(four-wire)

Thre-phase (three-wire)

VI.

31

32

POWER TEANSMISSION

POWER TRANSMISSION
the fonnulai, and

if

close

together, as with multiple-conductor

due

cable, the loss will be only that

"
is

The value

of

33

to resistance.

depends on the system and power factor.

It

equal to 1 for continuous current and for single-phase current

100 per cent power

of

The value

factor.

of

the wires in the table are based on .00000302

and the weights

pound

of

as the weight

of a foot of copper M-ire of one circular mil area.

" lu using the above formuhe and constants, it should be particularly
observed thatp stands for the jier cen t loss iu the lineof the delivered power,
not foi the per cent loss iu the line of the power at the generator; and that
Eis the potential at the delivery end of the line and not at the generator.

"

"When the power factor cannot be more accurately determined

be assumed to be as follows for any alternating system operIncandescent lighting and synating under average conditions:
chronous motors, 95%; lighting and induction motors together,
85% induction motors alone, 80%.
it

may

'

In continuous-current three-wire systems, the neutral wire for

feedei's

should be

made

of one-third the section obtained by the for-

mula' for either of the outside wires.

In both continuous and

alter-

nating-current systems, the neutral conductor for secondary mains

and house wiring should be taken as large

"

The three wires

as the other conductors.

and the four wires of

size, and each
conductor should be of the cross-section given by the first formula".
Numerical examples of the application of this table, as well
of a three-phase circuit

a two-phase circuit should

all

be made the same

as of other forraulfe, are given later.

better idea of the

way

volved affect the regulation of

in

which the

different quantities in-

an alternating-current line

may

be

obtained from graphical representation or from formulfe which are

not so empirical.

however,

Before taking up other methods of calculation,

us consider the meaning of power factor.

let

By power

factor

we mean

the cosine of the angle by which

the current lags behind or leads the electromotive force producing

that current.

It is the factor

by which the apparent watts

(volts

times amperes) must be multiplied to give true power. The formula

for

power in a single-phase circuit is then,

IE cos 6 when 6 is the lag or lead angle; and
Power

three-phase circuits.

for

POWER TRANSMISSION

34

single coiuhietor.

For two-phase

Power
Power

=
^

balanced load, this becomes,

circuits,

IE

cos d; and.

IE

cos

for six-phase circuits.

9,

For single and three-phase

For two-phase circuits it

lines.

and

for six-phase circuits

it is

circuits
is

is

the voltage between

the voltage across either phase,

the voltage across one phase of what

corresponds to a three-phase connection.

Considering the formula for single phase, we find that the

may

current flowing in the line

made up

be taken as

of

two com

ponents, one in phase with the voltage and one 90 out of phase,
lagging, or leading, depending on conditions.

In Fig. 18

let

OE

equal the impressed pres-

sure and

OC

flowing.

the current

= angle of lag.
OC may

The current

be

resolved into two compo^.

"

nents,^ one in

riff. Jo.

OB

= OC3 cos

phase with
r

= OB, and one 90 degrees behind OE = EC.

OE

and

is

known

as the active

sin 6

and

is

known

as the wattless

component

of the

current.

EC

OC

component

of

the current.

The capacity and inductance

may be

line, that is, the line

^c:'Tsw^
^

Tfire^

'WW"

T!OT")

omri

rsW'

are distributed throughout the

considered as
rwir^

TRRT

nsntr^

made up

OITO^J

ns^

of tiny con-

Tmr>

r^r^

T!W>

Fig. 19.

densers and reactance

in Fig. 19.

connected at short intervals as shown

Considering the inductance and capacity as distributed
coils,

manner, the regulation of a syjstem may be calculated, but

is very difficult, and simpler methods, which give very
close results, have been adopted for practical work.
Probably the
in this

the process

POWER TRANSMISSION
Baum

methods presented by Perrine and

35

are as simple as

any ex-

cept those based on purely empirical formulse.

Tables giving the capacity and inductance of lines, together

with the formula for the calc^^lation of these quantities, have

already been given.

this current

It has also

been stated that the effect of the

cause a charging current to flow in the line,

being 90 in advance of the impressed voltage. The

capacity of a line

is to

value of this chai'ging current

(.barging current per wire

is:

^, single-phase.

J-"

capacity in micro-farads of one wire to neutral point.

= frequency of circuit.
E ^ voltage between wires.
the.

_/

Charging current, three-phase,

~'-__-

or

l.l."),^)

'

charging

current, single-phase.

Since the voltage across the lines

not the same

is

all

along

the line, the value of the charging current will not be the same,

but the error introduced by assuming

it

For our

that the charging current in

calculation, then,

an open -circuited line

is

we assume

to

be constant

constant throughout

that the capacity of the line

may

its

is

not great.

length, and also

be taken as concentrated at the

center of the line.

^acwip
1

Pig. 20.

Consider a single-phase line such as

is

shown diagrammatically

in Fig. 20.

=
E =
L =
Tg =
I
=

Let E^

the voltage at the generator end of the line.

the- voltage at the receiver.
self

induction of the

line.

charging current per wire.

current flowing in the line due to
line.

tlie

load on

tlie

POWER TRANSMISSION

36

angle by which the load current differs from the

impressed voltage.

E =
o)

=
=

_/

resistance of the line.

drop in voltage in the

line.

2 ,7/.
is

a symbol indicating that the current

is

90" in

advance of the pressure.

-j

The

indicates that the current

represented by E.

sum

+ iLco,

the factor

-\-

may

be

j indicating that the square

two quantities must be

of the squares of these

taken to obtain the numerical result.

sidered as

90^ behind the pressure.

VW + (2 tt/L)^ = VW+'JlJ

expression,

root of the

is

The quantity _y^ may be con-

1.

Taking the capacity of the

line

and considering it as a conwe may assume the charg-

denser located at the middle of the line,

ing current as flowing over only one-half of the

charging current

may

line, or one-half the

be considered as flowing over

the line.

all of

The impedance of the line is equal to VH^ + &>" 1/ = H + ./Lcd.

The power factor of the load = cos 6.
The active component of the current is I cos 6.
The wattless component of the ciirrent is - j\ sin 6 {-j indicating that the current lags 90 behind the pressure).

The charging current may be represented by

Then the drop due

to the active

I cos e

The drop due

to the wattless

-jl
The drop due
The

total

(R

to the

drop

is

sin

-\-

component

+j

-rf

of the load

is

jLco).

component

of the load

is

0{R +jLai).

charging current

equal to the

sum

is

_/'

-.,"

(E.

+ j'L&j)

of these three vahies

80 that,

\=~E +

lcos

e(R+ jLoj)

-jl

sin 6

{R

+ j^(R+jLco)
Expanding

this

and substituting -

1 for^'

we have.

+ JLo))

e,

POWER TEANSMISSION
E

=E+

I cos

61

K + ,/I

cos 6 'Loy-jl sin

37

(9

R+

I sin 6 Leo

Referring to Fig. 21 we have these various values plotted

gruphically.
>,/

rv/

E,

= +

>fh

I cos

^;/= -,ylR
o'J

is

R,

sin 0,

= -j

L,R

00

2~'

de

= +

f(/=-^

ILcu

^2

/I cos ^ Lro,

TLq) sin

^,

e',

plotted 90 in advance of

cc-

on account of

tlie

symbol

+ Jlie is

plotted in the opposite direction from

oit

on account of

the negative sign.

(^

IS

plotted

downward on account

of the

symbol - j.

/'X
1

POWEK TRANSMISSION

38

resistance, capacity,

and inductance of the translating devices must

In Fig. 22 is shown a diagram of a com-

be considered as well.

plete system with both step-up

nected in service.

and step-down transformers con-

The charging current may be considered

as

flowing through half of the system only, namely, the generator,

the step-up transformers, and one-half of the line.

Fig. 22

Let Ej

= the

equivalent resistance of the step-down trans-

formers.

Kj

^ the

equivalent

resistance

of

the

step-up

trans-

formers.

= inductance of the step-down transformers.

= inductance of the step-up transformers.
K = equivalent resistance of the generators.
Lg = equivalent inductance of the generators.
K, = resistance of the
L = inductance of the
L, = L, + L, + L^ + L.
K, = K, + K, + E, + R.
Lj

Lj

line.

line.

All quantities

should

be converted into their

equivalent

Thus the generator and revoltages should be multiplied by the ratio of transforma-

values for the full line pressure.

ceiver

tion of the step-up and step-down transformers, respectively, to

change them

The

to the full line pressure.

resistance

and induc-

must include the resistance and inductance

of both windings, and the value must correspond to the line voltage.
Thus the resistance of the step-up transformers will be j\ iv' -\- r^,
tance of the transformers

when

r^

= resistance of primary
= resistance of secondary

r^

coil,

coil,

the ratio of transformation.

In the same way, the

equivalent resistance of the step-down transformers will be

r,^.

n?

r^-{- in?

The generator resistance and inductance must be multiplied by

to bring them to equivalent values for the full line pressure.

POWER TRANSMISSION

39

Our formula then becomes:

=E+

Eq

Icos 6 (Et -j-JLt^m) -ylsin 6 (E^ +jLt.q})

^c [(I +

Ps

Plotted graphically

+
we

/E
'

'

/L

may

it

t/e

cf

of

\
L,)
T

tu
6*

(o

f<l

^^^^^^

and Eg

showii in Fig. 21,

may

be determined, from a

when constructed

to scale;

be calculated analytically, remembering that the quan-

affected

tities

is

L,

The numerical value

diagram such as

'

= -I,.(_ +

J.

^
^/

T3

\2

L,)]

= I cos 6 E^
= 1 cos ^ Lrp
-jl E^, sin
^ Lq, sin ^

al

L,

have, Fig. 21:

= E

oa

or

(I +

E,) +JCO

by j are to be combined, geometrically, with the

by the symbol.

quantities not affected

The above formulae apply

If to

to single-phase circuits directly.

be used for the calculation of three-phase circuits, the follow-

ing points must be observed:

Charging current

1.

Ic

three-phase

,
V' x

charging current

single-phase.

The voltage should,

1!.

will

preferably, be considered as the voltage be-

and the neutral point. The voltage to the neutral point

be the line voltage divided by j ^3.
3.
The resistance of one line only is considered, not the resistance

tween one

line

of a loop.

The inductance

4.

of one line only

is

line equals the inductance of a loop divided

Examples

by

The inductance

of one

/j^

of Alternating=Current Line Calculation.

What

1.

used.

is

the capacity, in micro-farads-, l)et\veen wires of a

single-phase transmission line 10 miles in Icuoth

composed

number G

AVhat

coj)per

wire

spaced 15 inches apart

capacity to the neutral point

jn farads

(;

^^

1-")

inclies

-,

^- 1.S5

is

'':

,-

2A

per mile of circuit.

il

.1()2 inches.

2A
,

'^

log IHT)

2.2072

of

the

POWEK TKANSMISSION

40

V 10-"
X
'^^m^

19 42

in farads

.000000085

= .085
C in micro-farads with respect to the neutral point =
C

1*^

in micro-farads

.000000085

1,000,000

in micro-farads

o7o

10

y-r-

^^g^

.171

This shows that the capacity to the neutral point

is

twice the

capacity to the other wire.

What

2.

is

the self inductance of the above circuit

X -^=("2.303

.000558

L =

X
X

.000644 (2.303

.000644

A circuit

3.

be the value of

60 cycles

5.47

.25 ^

(i

+ .25) X

2.2672

10

inductance to

1'"' '"'^'^

"^

circuit.

10

.0352 henrys.

has a capacity of

its

!f +

log

V 3\

.2

micro-farads.

compensate for

What must

this capacity at

^-

(2 77/7 L
C = .0000002

(2 -af

)^

0000002

L=
4.

(2

farads

60/

142122

= jj^_
(142122

It is desired

to

8.1416

0000002)

= 35.2 henrys

transmit 1,000

K.W.

miles at a voltage of 20,000, a frequency of

factor of

85%. Transmission

Allowing

tem.
a
b
c

10%

is to

power

(.'urreiit iu each conductor.

Volts lost in line.
Pounds of copper.

D=

25

W=

1,000

= 1)

5,280

IjOOO

1>

pr^
^'

132,000

and a power

be a three-phase three-wire sys-

loss of delivered

Area of conductor.

..
,
^.
Circular mils

00

a distance of 25

cycles,

1,000,000

in the line, required:

POWER TRANSMISSION
i"

41

1,500 for tliree-phase three wire system and

=
^

20,000

85% power

factor.
J,

10

,,.

E^

400,000,000

X 1000000 X
X 400000000

l:]:300()

.,

Circular lails

:=^

10

18^X150^
4

Number
b

T
c

.(is

^^

W ,^
X T=
=
K

34.

85% power
X E X B

for three-phase system,

oits lost

each conductor

in

= 40,500.

o wire has a cross-section of 52,400 cir. mils.

Current

1500

line

number

1.18 for

7^

factor.

3 wires,

cycles

IK)

and

85% power

^^

"'''^

factor.
^ oltS lost

10

ciliated directly

1.1.^

:rT~^

Pounds copper

20,()()()

23(10

= ^;-^-ng. -^i^uOOTOOO

from the weight

'

of wire given in

the tables after

the size of wire has been determined by other formulas.

miles of numlier 3 wire

per 1,000

5.280

75

()2,'.l(;4

pounds.

single-phase line 20 miles in length

number 000 wire strung 24

K.W.

mit 500

Thus 75

This weighs 150 pounds

feet.

150
5.

re(piired.

is

is

constructed of

It is desired to trans-

inches apart.

over this line at a fre(jueiicy of 25 cycles and a

power factor of 80%, the voltage

end being 25,000.

at the receiver

Considering the line di'op only, what must be the voltage at the
tjenerHtor

E^

end of the

=K +
L

E ^
I

O)

line?

I (Mis

-f-

+J

II

--^

B.

1 ri,H

'

\.a}

j i

sin

a).

25,000

500,000

.,.

:= 2.J

25,000

.80

rowei-

IE

cos 0)^

R+

I sin

POWER TRANSMISSION

42

Cos e =: .80

= .60 (from trigonometric tables)

= resistance of 40 miles of number

Sin

R
ohms

000 wire

= 14.56

at 50 C.

L=

.00277,

X -^ X

20

.064 (calculated from Table V).

1/3

o)

^<=

27r/'= 2

TT

25

157

25,000 X .3752 X 157 _

_
~ ExCx27rX/
""
"
2 X
2 X 1,000,000
C ^ .3752 (Table IV or calculated).

"P-

lO''

Siibstituting these values in the above formula

we

have,

+ 291.2 +y 200.8 -,; 218.4 + 150.6 +,;5.36 - 3.7

= 25,000 + 291.2 + 150.6 - '3.7 + j>'(200.8 - 218 4 + 5.36)
= 25,000 + 291.2 + 150.6 - 3.7 - j (218.4 - 200.8 - 5.36)
Eo = 1/(25,000 + 291.2 + 150.6 - 3.7)^ + (218.4 - 200.8 - 5 36)^

Eo
Eo
Eo

25,000

Since the symbol

;'

indicates that the quantities

must be com-

bined geometrically.

Eo
6.

number
1,000

(12.24)2

25,438.1 volts.

three-phase line 20 miles in length

We

000 wire strung 24 inches apart.

K.W.

factor of

1/(25,438.1)2

is

constructed of

wish to transmit

over this line at a frequency of 25 cycles and a power

85%,

the voltage at the receiving end being 2,000. Three

Y-connected 500 K.AV". transformers having a ratio of 10

1 step

up and down at either end of the line. The resistance

high-tension
winding of each transformer is 4 ohms. The
of the
The inducresistance of the low-tension windings is .04 ohms.
Neglecting the generator
tance of each transformer is 4 henrys.
constants, what must be the voltage applied to the low-tension
the voltage

windings of the step-up transformers?

Eo

=E+

I cos

6*

(Rt

+ j Lt(b)

-j I

[(I +iO+>(t +
Since this

is

sin 6

(R^

+ j 1^0)) + j I^

!.)]

for a three-phase circuit

we

will

work with the

voltage to the neutral point and will change all values to corre-

spond to the line voltage.

Hence,

POWER TRANSMISSION
E

>

34 amperes.

Since

IE Cos

E =
I

Resistance of one line

:--

10

Cos d

lir|.

-13

61

1,000,000

2,000

20,000

.85

34.

equivalent ivsistH.nee of one

transformer at each end of the line.

=
=
Lt =
=

T.28

IIt

28. 2S

100

.04

100

-04.

ohms.

.0554 H- 1-3'+

.4

.4

.832 henrys.

charging current single-

157

<

=--

.52

.5811

sin

ohms

I^.

Tihase
^

X -= =

.077 amp.

- ^=.
3
I

^-=3.64
E,
^,y

=
=

L,

.010

.4

Substituting these values in our formula

we

have,

= ^+072..+;3774-;411..;-|-.3OU
%^/'
1.(3
1./3
+J
-- 11,.j5()

672.8

=
=

-I

1.H8 - 44.2

2,-300 - 44.2

14,487.6^

2,578

+j

(3,774 ^ 411.6

7.88)

3370.3^ == 14,874

volts.

TRANSFORMERS.

A transformer consists of

two

coils

made up

of insulated wire,

the coils being insulated from each other and from a core,

up

of laminated iron, on which

coils,

known

as the

primary

they are placed.

coil, is connectcil ;ktoss

constant-potential transformers, and the other

coil,

One

made

of these

the circuit, in

known

as the

POWEK TEANSMISSION

secondary coil, is connected to the lamps or motors, or whatever

makes up the receivers. As a matter of fact, these coils are each
usually made up of sevei-al sections.
The voltage induced in the
secondary windings

is

equal to the voltage impressed on the

j)ri-

mary winding multiplied by the ratio of the number of turns in

the secondary to the number in the primary coil, less a certain drop
due
is

to

impedance of the

coils

negligible on no load.

voltage, they are termed

and

to

magnetic leakage.

This drop

If trausforiners are used to raise the

transformers.

)<t<'j>-uj)

the voltage, they are called

^tc'j>-Jot':n.

Losses of power occurring

If used to lower

transformers.

transformers are of two kinds

in

namely:
Iron or core losses which are

current losses in the iron

made up of hysteresis and eddymaking up the core, and

Copper losses which are due

to the

PE

losses

m the

with the addition, in some cases, of eddy currents

set

windings

up

in

the

conductors themselves.

The
losses

efficiency of a transformer depends on the value of these

and may be expressed

the watts input.

w,

W,-^

as

the ratio of the watts output to

POWER TEANSMISSION

and run with no load for the remaining nineteen.

for five hours

The

all-day efficiency

is

then determined as follows:

K.W. hours =
K.W. hours =

Output,

watts output at full load

Input,

watts output at full load

loss at full load

X
11

+
rn

The assumption
from two

C
input,

to three

is

I'H

24.

watt-hours.

that a lighting transformer

hours out of the day

circuits

5-

output, watt-hours

X
X

core loss at normal voltage

All-day eihciency

five

45

is

fully loaded

On many

not always a correct one.

hours of

full load

would be more nearly

the proper value to use in calculating the all-day efficiency.

By Regulation

of a transformer

meant the percentage drop

secondary voltage from no load
load when normal pressure

is

pressed on the primary.

due
and

to full
is

im-

This drop

is

AWVVAW
.vv^^ww^'

A/V^VWWv

drop in the windings

to the IE,
to

in the

magnetic leakage.

In well

designed transformers the loss due to

magnetic leakage
less, of that

is

about 10%, or

due to the resistance drop.

For non-inductive load (power factor

= unity) the regulation is from 1 to
3% in good transformers. With induction load this is increased co 4 or
)%, or even more.

Both the

Fig. 23.

efficiency

and the reg-

ulation should be considered in selecting a transformer for given

service.

Thus,

if

a transformer

is to

be used for lighting,

its

reg-

ulation should be of the best, since drop in voltage due to the trans-

former

way

is in

addition to that due to the conductors.

In the same

the regulation of any system as a whole depends to a certain

extent on the regulation of the transformer installed.

If the efficiency of a transformer is low,

it

means a

direct loss

of considerable energy as well as greater heating of the transformer

and consequent deterioration.

lighting purposes, or

is

If a transformer is to be used for

lightly loaded, a large portion of the time,

POWER TRANSMISSION

46

a tjjie should be selected

which has a relatively low core

to increase the all-day etiiciency.

fully loaded

If

all

loss so as

day, the

between the copper and the

losses should be divided about equally

iron losses.

Transformer Connections. Transformers for three-phase

work may be connected in two M-ays. "Where three transformers,
are used, they

may

be connected in

terminal of each primary brought to a

or star, that

common

is,

point and the other

terminal connected

to a line wire

they

(see Fig. 23), or

may

mesh when

nected in A. or

with one

be con-

the three

primaries are connected in series and

vAAA/vW\A^

^vVvv^A,^^^AA'l

the line wires are connected to the

^^^A.A/\AA/v^

three corners of the triangle so

formed (see Fig. 24). The secondaries may be connected in Y the

same

as the primaries or the second-

aries

may

be connected in

when

the primaries are in A, or vice versa.

The voltage

relation

may

be best de-

termined from vector diagrams as

shown

Fig. 24.

in Fig. 25,

which gives the

voltage relation of step-down trans-

formers with a ratio of 10

1,

when the voltage

across the primary

lines is 1,000.

Changes may be made from two to three phases, or from three

to two phases, with or without a change of voltage, by means of
transformers having the required ratio of transformation by use of
what is known as the Scott connections. Fig. 26 shows such a
connection together with a corresponding vector diagram showing
the relations

10

when

the change

is

1 transformation of voltage.

from two

The

with a

to three-phase

i/iain

transformer

is fitted

with a tap at the middle point of the secondary wiring to which

one terminal of the teaser transformer

is

connected.

The

teaser

has a ratio of transformation differing from that of the main transformer, as shown in the figure.
S'/'.r

Phases are obtained from three phases for use with

by means of transformers having two secondary

rotary converters

POWER TEANSMISSION

-17

windings or by bringing both ends of each winding to opposite

points on the rotary-converter winding, utilizing the converter

winding for giving the

is

known

The

six phases.

as a diametrical connection.

-^ !-

1000 ->

-1000

1000

A'VVA'

NV/VW>AA^

[\A'^WWV\^

.M

V^AAA.^Vu'

fA'W\A'VV//'T"*AA^^^\AA'V~ "\W^VvV^AA1

-100

-100

in Fig. 27,

transformers with

1000-

1000
1000

shown

latter,

When

57&|*57SH
*-

100

576

578
1000

1000

-1000

1000

loookooo
Ooi-1

->j<10i
'1000-+1000-

<

|AV>VVVW\VTVvVvW^AA^TV^^AA^WAI

^^^AAAAAAfl

hAA'WW^AI

[^^^/V^^^AA1

^W^lOO
100

1000

1000
Fig. 25.

two secondaries are nsed, the secondaries may be connected in sixY or six-phase A as shown in Figs. 28 and 29. When the

phase

y -connection
ondaries

is

is

made

used, the

common

connection of each set of sec-

at the opposite ends of the coils.

This leaves the

free ends directly opposite or 180 different in phase.

The way

in

POWER TRANSMISSION

48

which these ends are brought out to give six phases is best illustrated by means of the two triangles arranged as shown in Fig. 30.

which have

their points

numbered corresponding

to the connec-

TEASER

o
o
o

D
D

4-2o
o

o
o
o

CO

MAIN

100

1000
Fig. 26.

tion in Fig. 28.

other,

and

In Fig. 29 one

six phases are

is

reversed with respect to the

brought about

in this

manner.

Single transformers, constructed for three-phase and six-phase

work, are

now being manufactured

^A^A^AAAA/V~^"^A/AV^A^A~^"V\AAA/WVW

4-

in this country,

and they

ai-e

POWER
may

19

be taken out of circuit and the remaining two will maintain

may

the service, and

the system.
oil

TRAXSAirSSTOX

up

of the former capacity of

to

In the Y-connection, however, the voltage impressed

the transformer

age of the

he loaded

line,

winding

thus making

only

is

it

--

.5S

times the volt-

jwssihle to construct a transformer

with a fewer number of turns.

from the

case,

The windings must be insulated

however, for a potential eipial to the line potential,

unless the neutral point be grounded

which the transformer

conditions,

reduced to

is

liable

is

to

when

-= of its value

grounded.

wound

the potential strain to

be snbjecteil, under ordinary

for

when

the neutral

not

is

For small transformers

high

])otential the cost is in

favor of the 'i'-connection.

K^\AA'^VV\r"T"VSA/WvV^"r"W\^VV\A1

PVVVWWV

^/V\A^AA4

4-52

Fig.

yf).

Choice of Frequency.
present in this counti-y are

The frequencies
2.j,

40, and

(iO

in

being met with moi'e frecjuently than 40 cycles.

(juency of 125 or 13-3 cycles

j)er

extended use at

cycles,

2."j

or (iO cycles

Formerly, a

fre-

second was quite often employed

for lighting jjui-poses, but these are no longer considered standard.

The advantages
1.

Less

fii-sl

cost

of the higher fre(pieney are:

and smaller

size cil'uenerators

and transformers

for

a uiven output.
2.

Better adajited to the oiieration of arc or incandescent lamps.

Lamps, when run below 40 cycles, esi)ecially low candle-power incandescent lamps at 110 volts or higher, are liable to be trying to the eyes ou
accoimt of the

flicker.

POWEE TKANSMISSION

50

Its disadvantaifes aj'e:

Inductance and capacity eflects are greater, hence a poorer reguThe charging current is directly proportional to the
frequency and this amounts to considerable in a long line.
2.
There is greater djfliculty in parallel operation of the high-frequency machines due to the fact that the armature reactions of the older
types of high-frequency machines are high.
IMaclii-nes for high frequencies are not so readily constructed for
operation at slow speeds. This, however, will cease to be an objection
with the increasing use of the si:eam turbine.
4.
Not well adapted to the operation of rotary converters and singlephase series motors on account of added complications in construction and
increased eojii mutator troubles.
1.

Jation of the voltage.

:'>.

frequency of

(id

By the

alone.

is

nsnally adopted

2.^

cycles are

cycles

Le used for lighting only, and

if tlie

l:)etter

powei-

use of frequency changers the frequency of

tem may he readily changed

to suit the

OVERHEAD

is

to

work
any sys-

for railway

requirements of the service.

LINES.

Ilavino; considered the calculation of the electrical constants

of a transmission line

mechanical features of

and distrihuting system, we turn next

installation of the conductors

tlie

to the

and find

two general methods of running the wires or cahles.

In the first

method the conductors

are run overhead

and sup-

ported by insulators attached to pins in cross-arms which, in turn,

In the other methods the

are fastened to the supporting poles.

cables are jilaced

underground and are supported and protected by

some form of conduit.

Overhead construction

used when the lines are run through

is

o])en country or in small towns.

viding satisfactory service and

It

is

It

has the advantage that the wires

a])art

forms a cheap method of pro-

reliable

may

when

carefully installed.

be placed some distance

and, being air-insulated, the capacity of the line

of. underground

than that

The

much

less

old practice in overhead line construction has always been

to consider the design

and erection of the line

as

work

that anyone

it

being taken as the simplest part of the electrical

As

a result, the line was a source of a great deal of trouble

could do,
system.

is

conductors.

which was

laid to almost

The overhead

line,

when

any other catise than poor construction.

must be considered as a part of the

used,

POWER
powei- plant and
oF

tin-

it

THAXS.MTSSIOX

should receive as

It

often lias to meet

more sexerc eonditions than the jiower plant

sible to a very

The new

any

attention as

i-ai'efnl

station or substation.

eenti'al

r,l

and

itself

it is

part

iiiui-h

respon-

extent for the reliabilit\' of service.

larjre
^\n\ of

treatino- the (piestion of o\erliead

consider them as structures which must

lines is to

desjoiied to iiLeet cer-

l)e

tain strains just as a briduv or similar structure

is

This

desiirned.

is

especially true -when steel or iron poles are used as

in

nearlv

is

the case

transmission lines abroad.

all

Thedesign

linemav

of an overhead

divided into ti\e parts:

lie

Location of line.
Supports for the

1.

line, pole, anil cross-arms.

Insulators and pins.
Stresses sustained \>y the pole line,
Conductors, material, si/.e.

2.
:;.

i.

o.

Some

of these

ai'e

both mechanical and

purely nieclianical featui'es while others are

Let us take them

electrical.

the order

uj) in

named.

The

Location of Line.
the territory over

location of the line takes into account

which the

line

must be run with respect

contour, direction, and freedom from obsti'uctions as well as

wav.

sible right of

sidered,

may
its

to

when such

be secured,

location

is

in

The

are present.

some

cases,

rioht of

way

interfered with, or
it is

for electric lines

along a i-ailway or public

comparatively simple, ])rovided

containing no roads,

biiildins/s,

with or from other systems must be con-

interfere with adjoining ])ropertv.

must be

and heig-ht of

AV^idth of streets, kind

liability to interfeirnce

to

iios-

when

When

the line

is

it

is

I'oad

when

not necessai'v

adjoining
to I'un

jiropei'ty

over sections

usually jiossible to form contracts with

the proj)ert\- owner such as shall free the line from future inter-

ference

liy

the

tracts will be

pi'o|iei-ty

owner.

In general, the cost of such

comparatively low.

be purchased outright as

is

i\gain, the right of

preferable

when right

secured for higli-sjieed electric railways.

right of

May

ai'e

condemnation
the line

may

in

When

of

the

ccni-

way may

way is being
demands for

excess of a reasonable amount, the process of

of pro[)erty

may

be

rt^soi'ted

to or the direction of

be changed so as to avoid such locations.

uary survey of the line should be

made

at the

iiivlijni-

time the route

is

POWER TRANSMISSION
being located, such a survey consisting of the approximate location

changes

of the poles, notes of the

trround as well as of
tion of material to

Chanoes

its

l)e

character.

delivered to

direction and level of the

in

This snrvey aids in the selecdifferent parts of the line.

tlie

compensated for

in level are

as

much

for the

higher elevations, thus reducing the unbalanced strains in the

The heavier
I

change

^T31*~

poles should be used

in direction,

where the

by

possible

as

and short poles

selecting long poles for the low places

line.

where there

is

posed to the wind or where branch lines are taken

off.

sometimes necessary that power lines be run on

It is

the

line is especially ex-

same poles

as telephone wires, in

which case the

power conductors should, preferably, be located above

the telephone wires.

Supports, Poles.

In this country, the support

for ferial lines consists almost universally of

pins, are attached.

grown
vails..

wooden

which the cross-arms, bearing the insulator

poles to

or sawn.

These poles

mav be

either natural

Abroad, the use of metal poles pre-

In order to determine the proper cross-section

of a pole

it

may

be regarded as a beam fixed at one

end and loaded at the other,

this load consisting of the

weight of the wire, with attendant snow or

sleet,

which

tends to produce compression in the pole, and the

wind
Only the

tension of the wires together with the effect of

pressure,
Fig- 31.

which tends

latter stresses

to

produce flexure.

need be considered in selecting a pole

for ordinary transmission lines.

The

poles are in the

shape of a truncated cone or pyramid, the equation of which

v/

//
.'

I
r/|

and

spectively.

fJ.^

'/,

.'

OIlzAX

is:

See Fig. 81.

= diameter of any section.

= distance from the top of the pole.
= length of pole.
= diameter of the pole at the top and

bottom

re-

POWEK TRANSMISSION
The proper
If

(/,

>

taper for a pole should be such that

the pole

c/,

jS

heavier than need be as

is

break below the ground.

to

53

If less than

break above the ground and the material

is

.,

of V,.

jj

would tend

it

the

|- i;/,,

<1

will

])ole

to

tend

not distributed to

the best advantatje.

In calculating the size of jwie necessary to stand a certain

we

stress,

have, from the principles of Mechanics,

]\I

=:

moment
moment

--^

stress in

least able to

^r

of resistance.
of inertia.

the section

at V, at

which

]ioint

withstand the strain Avhich comes on

P/ where

is

tlie jiole is

it.

the tension in the wires and

^^ lenjith

of pole in inches.

For a round pole, I

'

<1\
-

,v,

1+

and we have,

Solvini'' for S,

P/

S :^

,,

77'/",

For a sawn pole with

s(juai'c (i-(Jss-sections

//

and

The value

for

= -^-

sli'engtli in
tlie

pounds

])er s(piare

structures.

is

liii^h

is:

7=

S should not exceed a certain jtroportion

factor of safet\' and

wooden

the \alue of I

''^

or S

ultimate strength of the material.

as

^TTj"

If

inch, then

of the

represents the ultimate

=:

T
-

where

//

is

known

ordinaiiU' imi taken less than 10 for

factor of safety

is

necessai-y on account

POWEK

54

the material not

of

lieiiio-

TRA^^SMISSION

uniform, and the

the

iincertaintj' of

vahie of T.

commonly accepted

are

P'ollowiiiij;

values of T:

5,000 - 12,000

pouuds

Yellow pine
Chestnut
Cedar

Il,o00

"

Redwood

11,000

"

The value

of

7,000-18,000

'

should not be over about SOO for natural poles

'-

//.

and (300 for sawn poles.

f7.,

is

measured

at the

ground

line of the ]ole. not at the base.

Consider a pole of circular cross-section having a length of

35

feet

and a diameter

(iOO.

what

at the

ground

line of 12 inches.

Using

the inaximuni allowal;le stress that should be

is

II

end of the pole

ajiplied at the

TTt/

p=

(;oo

;i.-)

<J..

Tt is

line

.,

12

4-20 inches.

= 12
X 420
8.i4T(r>ri72s

^'

'(

:i2

customary

fiOO

to select a

,^-

^'^^'^

""
,,

general type of pole for the whole

determined from calculations based on the above formuhe,

after the tension

in

the wire has been found, and not to apply

such calculations to evei'y section of the

reinforced, M'here necessary,
l-i'ollowing are

some

line.

The

by means of guy wires or

line

is

then

struts.

of the general requirements for poles:

Spacing should not exceed 40 to 4-5 yards.

Poles should be set at least five feet in the grouud with an additional six inches lor e\eiy five feet increase in length over thirty-five feet.
Siiecial care in- setting is necessary when, the ground is soft.
End and
corner poles sliould be braced and at least every tenth pole along the line
should be guyed with ^ ^ or '^-inch stranded galvanized iron wire.
li,egular inspection of poles, at least yearly,

tained and dcfectivf p.oles )'ej)laced.

detcnniiicd

1)V

examination

should be main-

Tlic condition of poles

at the base.

is

best

PO^YER TRANSMISSION
Poles slioukl preferably

55

of good, sound chestnut, cedar, or

l>e

Other kinds of wood are sometimes used, the material

depending largely on the section of the country in which the line
is to be erected and the timber availaljle.
Natural poles should be
redwood.

shaved, roofed, gained, and given one coat of paint Ijefore erecting.
Special methods of preserving poles ha\e been introduced,
chief

among which may be

considered the process of creosoting.

C'reosoting consists of treating the poh-s with live steam at a tem-

perature of 225 to 250", so as to thoroughly heat the timber, after

which a vacuum

pumped

is

formed and then the containing cylinder

full of the preserving material, a j)ressure of

pounds per square inch being used

material into the wood.
pitch or

The butts

about 100

amount

to force the desired

of

of poles are often treated with

but this should only be applied after the pole

tar,

is

is

thoroughly dry.

Guying

of pole lines

is

one of the most important features of

(iuys consist of three or more strands

construction,

twisted together, fastened at or near the

I'ied to

guy stub

or

guv

The lower end

anciior.

Guy

anchor.
that the

stuljs

ai-e

set in the

guy makes an angle

is

This ma\-

pole, a short length of pole set in

held in place h\

timlji'r

a tree, a neiglil)oring

lie

the ground, or

ground

at

the

"When there

a,

may

a timber

is

known

guy wire makes witli

is not room to cai'i'y

be used.

guy

of DO' with the stub or with the axis

case beilig

lattci'

as a

'

dead

man

".

the pole should be at least

the

guy

far

enough away

from the base of the pole to bring this angle to 20

strut

jiatent

an inclination such

or ])late fastened at right angles to the

Such

of the stub.

The angle
20".

car-

attached to some form

of the stub in the direction of guy, the stub in the

bottom

of M'ire,

and

the ground in a direction o])posite to that of the resulting

strain on the pole line.

of

of the poTe,

to])

or more, a

This consists of a pole slightly shorter and

lighter than the one to be reinforced.

It is

framed into the

line

pole near the top and set in the ground at a short distance from
the base of the pole on the opposite

which a guy would

sitle

ot the jiole

from that on

be fastened.

Stranded galvanized

steel

guy wire

is

used for guys.

There

are two general inethods of attaching the guys to the top of the
T)ole.

In the one, a single

guy

is

)'un,

attached at or near the

POWEK TRANSMISSION

56

cross-ami, while in the other,

iiiiddle

known

as "

Y"

guying, two

wires are run to the top of the pole, one nt Uiv np])er the other at
the lower arm,

from the

and these united into a single

pole.

Head guying, guying

the line

line a short distance

is

chaneine

level

in the direction of the line,

and

for

end

poles.

The guys

is

used when

are attached

Pig. 32.

near the top of one pole and run to the bottom of the
above.

])ole

Fig. 32 shows several methods of reinforcing pole

methods are adapted as necessary.

Cross-Arms. The best cross-arms are made

just

lines.

^Special

pine.

Oak

is

also

selected well-se;isoued stock.

paint

them with white

spacing of

jjins

of southern yellow

They should be of
The usual method of treatment is to
and oil. The size of cross-arms and

used to a large extent.

lead

have not been thoroughly standardized.

For

cir-

POWER TRANSMISSION
euits up to 5,000 volts, 3^ X ij or S'-^^ X ij-" cross-arms with
spacing between pins of Ki inches, the pole pins being spaced 22

inches, are

and

recommended.

s])aciiigs

least

24 inches between
the top of the

l)elo\v

For higher voltages, special cross-arms

are necessary.

The cross-arms should be spaced at

the top arm being ])laced 12 inches
They

ceiitei's,

jiole.

by
two bolts and are braced

are nsnally attached to the pole

means

of

by galvanized iron braces not

than

l]j

xii

'"^'^

^"*^^

less

abont 2s

inches long.
("ross-arms are placed on

al-

ternate sides of the poles so as to

prevent several of them from being

pulled

should one liecome

off

On

broken or detached.
or curves

double arms are used

In Euro])ean
is

cornel's

pi'actice,

done away with

the cross-arm

to a large extent,

the wire beincr uiounted on insula-

attached to iron brackets

tors

mounted one alio\-e the other. Fig.

33 gives an idea of this construction.

Insulators.

between

age

Electrical leak-

must be preway and \arious

\\ires

vented in some

forms of insulators are depended

The ma-

upon

for this purpose.

terial

used in the construction of

these insulators should possess the

following properties: high specific

resistance; surface not readily deFig. 33.

stroyed and one on which moisture

does not readiU' collect; mechanical strength to

and
be

yibratino; shocks.

I'eadily fastened to

Its desig-n
it

must

I)e

I'csist 1)()th

such that the

and the tension of the wire

strain

\\ire

can

will be trans-

mitted to the pin without producing a strong strain in the insu-

POWER TRANSMISSION

58

HEIGHT 3} TESTED AT 50,000V

AT

30,000V.

AT

70,000 V.

HEIGHT 7^ TESTED

AT

80,000 V.

4| TESTED AT

50,000V.

HEIGHT 4^ TESTED

AT

50,000V.

AT

40,000V.

HEIGHT 4^ TESTED

AT

40.000V.

HEIGHT 4^ TESTED

HEIGHT

HEIGHT 3" TESTED

HEIGHT 3^ TESTED

Fig.

,34.

POWER TRAMSMISSIOX

59

Leakage surface must be ample for the voltage of tlie line

and so foiistructed that a laroe portion of it will l)e protected from

lator.

moisture during rainstorms.

The principal materials used

Poi'celain has the advantaue over irjass that

and generally strongei' and that

it is

less

less cons|)icuous

and

it is

less

hygroscopic, that

ture does not so readily collect on and adhere to

is

are

and porcelain.

glass

its

l>rittle

is,

surface.

uiois<Tlass

is

cheaper for the smaller in-

Both

sulators.

materials

Cut Eccentric

in

BoH Cutter

are freely used for the construction of hitrh-tensiou

lines, ^vhile the

use of glass

j)revai]s for the

low-tension

Composite Pin
for
Hiqh Teniron Insulator

circuits.

All line insulators are

type and

of the petticoat

are ]nade

up

in

\'arious

The

shapes and sizes.

larger size j)orcelaiii

made

lators are

or

more

insu-

Tip in

two

pieces wliich are

fastened together

]>y

means

formed of

of a paste

arge and glycei'ine.

ad\'antau;es of this

lith-

The

form of

construction are gieater

uniformity

of

stiiicture,

and each part may be tested separateh'. f'ig. 'H shows several
forms of insulators now in use M'ith tlie \oltage at which they
ai'e

The

tested.

test aj)j)lied to

an insulator for high-tension lines

should be at least double the xoltanc of

recommend
Pins.
ferred for

Wood

and some engineers

made of locust wood lioiled

voltages up to 5,000.
Above this
Pins

in linseed oil are pre-

special ])ins are used.

pins are often objected to on account of the Imrniug or

cliarring
beinii-

tlie line,

three times the normal voltaire.

which takes place

used to a

larire extent.

in

certain
Vl".

''>'>

localities,

shows the

and iron pins are

diiiieiisiiins of

such

POWEK TRANSMISSION

66

The

a pin nsed on a GO.OOO-volt line.

]in

by means

The

pin.

cemented

of a thread in a lead lug

insulators in the

fastened to the

insulator

is

which

cast

is

shown

construction

on top of the

in

Fig. 3B are

to the iron biackets.

The Stresses sustained by the

may

line

he

classified

as

follows

Weight of

1.

wire,

which includes

may be supported by the wire.

Wind pressure upon the parts

which

:2.

insulation,

and snow and

sleet

of the line.

produced by the weight of the wire on the jwle

itself need not be considered except in exce])tional cases, because
if the pole is sufticiently strong to withstand the bending strains,

The

strain

more than strong enough

it is

to

withstand the compression due

to the weieiit of the wires.

Tension in the wire

3.

itself.

Langley shows the pressure of the wind normal

faces to

l)e

equal

-= .003(1

j>

/'

r^

.. ;;,,.

pressure in j)0unds per

s([. ft.

velocity in miles per hour.

For cylindrical surfaces the amount of pressure

erted on

to liat sur-

to:

a.

is

that ex-

surface of a width e(|ual to the diameter of the

flat

Without great error we ma^- assume that the maximum

and that for which calculation is necessary, is that
right-angles to the line, and a value of thirty pounds per sipiare

cylinder.

wind
at

pressui'e,

foot

is sufficient

])er

square foot

allowance for exposed places, while twenty pounds

is

where the

considered sufficient

line is par-

tially sheltered.

What

E.rdiiipl,'.

is

the pressure, due to the wind, on the

wires of a pole line containing three

number 0000

wires, the poles

being spaced 45 yards and the velocity of the wind such that the
pressure

may

1)e

taken as 30 pounds

The diameter

of a numl)er

against \vluch the wind exerts

-1.-)
-

^
:;

VI

])er

square foot.

0000 wire

its

force

Am

is

may

.460 inch.

The area

be considered as:

.j-K)!) S(piare feet.

POWER
X

5. Kit)

30

155 pounds pressure due

The most important

due

TKAXSJIISSIOX

freely between

as a catenary,

lowing e(]uations are derived

deflection

=
=

Pu

may be

ciii've

simjile ;ind

is

taken as a

from which the

fol-

sair at

oi'

lowest jioint in

feet.

actual length of wire lietween supj)orts in feet.

distance between su])ports in

W=
F^.

that

SI)

L =
11

is

wire suspended so as to

Ur^Y

_
""

1)

wires.

two supports assunies the form of curve known

but for ordinary work the

parabola the ecpiation of which

When

wind on

to

strain-producino- factor in a line

to the tension in the wire itself.

hang

61

weight of wire in jionnds

feet.

jier foot.

Iiorizontal tension in the wire at the

- where

tensile

strength

of

middle point.
the wii'e and

//

/I

factor of safety.

the wire

//

The

erected.

is

the value of this factor,

a

maximum, and

2 to

under the conditions existing when

(i

temj)erature changes in the wire affect

it

being

gi'eatest

when

the teni])erature

is

minimum when the temperatui'e is lowest, and

be for the maximum strain that may come on

calculation should

the wires.
If Lj

and

L,,|,

Then,

Lt

=
=
:

length of a wire at a given temperature,

i\

length of a wire at a given temperature, 20'

J.,,

[1

(i

('.

20)|.

.000012 tor iron.

.OOOOIOH to

.110(10114

lor

aluininum.

.0000172 tor eoiiper.

The following

table gives the deflection of spans of ^ire in

inches for different temi)ei'atures

poles, a

maxiumm

allowed at - 10

drawn

stress of

F,

co])per wire.

and different distances l)etween

30,000 pounds

which gives

])er

s((uare inch being

a factor of safety of 2 for hard-

f)2

POWEi; TKAXSMTSSION

TABLE

VII.

Temperature Effects

in Spans.

POWER

TKANSAITSSION

fi3

The regulation of the system and the amonntof power kist in

transmission togetlier delerniine the cross -sect ion of tiie condnctors
The amount of powei' lost, for most eeonomical operadetermined from the cost of generating; jiower and the
tixed eharges on the line investment.
Eitbei- copper or aluminum
to

used.

l)e

tion ean

lie

wire or cables

more

care

make

joints.

may

The

be used.

must be taken

latter

is

erecting and

in

lighter in weight but

moi'e ditHcult to

it is

UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION.
In large cities or other localities wheiv.
tion be used, tlie

objectionable, not

alone

acc(Uint of complication

The

overhead construccrreat as to

account of ap|)earanee but also

on

and danuvr, the

lines

ai'e

exjiense of installing undergi'ound systems

pai'ed

ance

if

numl)er of conductors becomes so

be
on

run underfi-round.
is

vei'y

great com-

with that of overhead construction, but the cost of mainten-

much

is

less

and the

troubles, greatly

to line

liability to interruption

The

i'edu('(Ml.

of ser\ice,

due

elements of an

essential

undei'ground system are the condiictoi', the insulator, and the protection.

The conductor is invariably of copper, the insid;itor may

p)a])er, some insulating comjiound, or individual insu-

be ruljber,
lators,

depending on the system, while the pnjtection takes one of

several forms.

The

s^-stem. as a whole,

may

be di\'ided into

Solid or built-in s\-steins.

Treneli systems.
I)rawiug-in systems.

As an example
which

is

of the first, -e

especially adapted

to

have the Kd'ixnn

Tiihi' xi/xfi'm.

house-to-house distribution and

used to a large extent for direct-current thi'ee-wire distribution

congested districts.

It

is

made up

of copper rods as conductors

thi' size of the

mains and the neutral but
feeders), which are insulated from each other

(three of e(ptal size for

main conductors

in

by an asphaltum compound.
insulation

-rl

This comjjound also serves as an

from the protecting

case,

which consists of wrought-

Pilot wires are also often installed in the feeder tubes.

iron T)ipe.

This tabe

is

in

is

built u|) in sections about tM'eiity feet long.

lating the conductors, they are

first

loosely

In insu-

wrapped with jute

rope so as to keep them from making contact with each other.

6i

POWER TEANSMISSION

V\g. 30.

POWER TRANSMISSION

05

and with the pipes, and tlie heated asphaltum forced into Uie tubii
from the bottom, when the tnbe is in a vertical position. Thiends of the conductors and the tultcs must 1k' joineil and pi-ojierly
insulated in a completed system.

Special connectors are furnished

for the conductors, and cast-iron coupling l)oxes are fitted to the

ends of the tube as shown

Fig.

in

properly connected, the cap

inside space then filled with insulating

This hole

in the cap.

The system

air-tight.

It is not

sive.

The

is later fitted
is

After

.'ili.

put on this

is

tlie

conduct(jrs are

coujilino;

box and the

compound through

a hole

with a plug to render the box

a cheap one, though the joints are expen-

adapted to high potentials.

tiiciihens-IIiilxlic

system of iron-taped cables consists of

insulated cables encased in lead to keep out uioisture, this lead

sheathing being in turn w'rapped with jute which forms

The

for the iron tape.

iron tape

ping thoroughly saturated

cables

may

with

is

a liedding

further protected by a wrap-

asphaltum compound.

be made up in lengths of from 5(lO to fiOO

These

feet.

In unexposed places, such as across private lands, the

taping

may

steel

be omitted and the lead sheathing simply protected by

a braid or wrapping saturated with asphaltum.

The

Tri'iicli

system consists of

bai-e

or insulated conductors

supported on special forms of insulators as in overhead construction, the

system

is

whole being installed

in small closed trenches.

this

not used to any extent in America, but one system, the

Crompton system, will be described.

In the Crompton system, bare copper
to

As

li inches wide and

-];

to \

inch thick.

strips are used, each 1

These strips

rest in

notches on the top of porcelain or glass insulators, supported by

oak timbers embedded in the sides of the cement-lined trench.

This trench

is

covered with a layer of flagstone.

are spaced about

device

is

50

feet

and about every 800

installed for taking

up

These insulators
feet

a straining

the sag in the conductors.

Hand-

holes are located over each insulator.

There are several of the

these have

come

tion in the

to

<! ra

mi iKj-i ii systeuis, and certain of

be considered standard underground construc-

United States.

construct ducts which

It is

no longer deemed advisable to

will serve as insulators, but they are de-

PO\YER TRANSJ[ISSION

66

peuded on

and should

for jneclianieal ])rott'ctioii only,

fulfill

the

followincr re([uireiiK'iits:

They must

liave a siuooth interior, tree from projections, so tliat tlie

be readily drawn in and out.
Ttiey must he reasonably water-tiglit.
They must l)e stronj; ejiough to resist injury due to street tratlic and

eal)les

may

accidental interference from worltmen.

Amono-

the materials used for duct construction

tioned: iron or steel, wood,

may

cement, and terra cotta.

he menIf r/

is

used in the form of a trough or box, or in the form of wooden

TO STREET SURFACE
A MINIMUM OF 3'
^''PLANKS

q:
Q_
a.

<
^-\

jS

y^^v

'~^

bS'.^-ROSENDALE CEMENT CONCRETEflS>-'-o

feCEMENT
PT SAND 2PTS. STONE SiPTSi

'-IC\i

m^\

's^M^j^MMtsmy^^m^mM'

Pij?: 37.

The

pipes.
vised

latter is

for this

ti'eated

known

as

"pump

log"' conduit.

with some antiseptic compound, such as creosote, in order

for the duct to give satisfactory service.

acetic acid

is

to deteriorate the insulation.

Wood

the drawing in of the cables, and

it

One
is

Tf impro])erlY treated,

formed during the decay of the wood, and

the lead covering of the cable, destroying

though

The wood

purpose must be very carefully seasoned and then

cannot

l)e

of the best

the one using

at the

a cheap

form

of conduit,

life.

same time most expensive systems

in a

bed of concrete.

of the duct consists of

digging a trench

tri'D/jglif-iroii j>!]i<s, laid

The ordinary construction

this attacks

and allowing moisture

offers very little resistance to

it is

depended on for long

and

it

POWER

TRANSMISSIOiN

and covering the bottom,

of the desired size

(57

after

it is

carefully

graded, with a layer of good concrete from two to four inches thick.

8uch

cement may consist of Rosendale cement, sand, and broken

2, 3, 5, the broken stone to pass through a

stone in the ratio of

sieve of lA-inch mesh.

inch planks.

The

first

The

sides of the trench are lined with 1^-

layer of pipes consisting of wrought-iron

pipes 3 to 4 inches in diameter, 20 feet long, and

joined by means of water-tight couplings,

and the space around and above them

ond layer of pipes

is

laid over this,

crete 2 to 3 inches thick

is

laid

is

filled

^ inch

with concrete.

and so on.

thjck,

on this concrete,
sec-

covering of con-

placed over the last layer, and a layer

all, to protect against injury by

workmen. Fig. 37 shows a cross-section of such duct construction.
The pipe should be reamed so as to remove any internal
burs which might injure the insulation during the process of
drawing in.

plank

of 2-inch

is

placed over

modification of this system consists of the use of

icniiujlii-'iron

Tnie<7

lengths

made

pipcu.

ceiin'iif-

This usually consists of eight-foot

of riveted sheet-iron

Rosendale cement

pipes.

used for the lining, this lining being about ^ inch thick.
external diameter of the pipe

the pipe
a very

They

is

is

embedded

described.

The outside of
The sections have

about 4i inches.

coated with tar to prevent rusting.

smooth interior and are light enough

are

is

The

to

be easily handled.

in concrete, similar to the

system previously

Connections between the sections are made by means

of joints, constructed on the ball-and-socket principle,

the cement at the ends of the sections.

moulded

in

This forms a cheaper con-

struction than the use of full-weight pipe.

Earthenware Conduits. This form of conduit is being exThe sections may be of

tensively used for underground cables.
The former consists of an
the single-duct or multiple-dnct type.
earthenware pipe from 18 to 24 inches in length. The internal
diameter is from 2| to 3 inches. These are laid on a bed of concrete, the separate tiles being laid up in concrete in such a manner
as to

break joints between the various ducts.

In the multiple-

duct system the joints are wrapped with burlap and the whole
This form of conduit has a smooth intein concrete.

embedded
rior

and the cables are readily drawn

in

and

out.

The single-duct

rOWEK

6S

type lends

may

itself

admirably

be necessary.

TJtANSMISSION
to

slight changes of direction that

Fig. 38 shows both forms of duct, while Fig.

39 shows a cement-lined iron -pipe duct system, laid

in

in concrete,

course of construction.

Other forms of conduits are ducts formed

in conci-ete, earthen-

ware troughs, cast-iron troughs, and fibre tubes.

Manholes. For all drawing-in systems, it

is

necessary to

provide some means of making connections between the several

lengths of cable after they are drawn
feeders.

Since the cables cannot

Pig.

than about 500

feet,

and

l)e

in, as

in

lengths oreater

.38.

many

than this in

less

well as for attaching

liandled

cases, vaults or

junction boxes must be placed at frequent intervals.

are

known

as splicing vaults or manholes.

hole depends upon the

number

on the depth of the conduit.

The

of ducts in the system, as well as

If the ducts

be laid but a short dis-

tance from the surface of the street and traffic

may

be readily spliced with a manhole but

feet deep.

The smaller

Such vaults
man-

size of the

-4

is light,

the cables

feet square

vaults are often called

'

and 4

/latid-hoJi'.^".

Deeper vaults are from 5 to

feet square, and the floor should be
18 inches below the lowest ducts on account of convenience
to the workmen and to serve as collecting basins for water which
(')

at least

gets into the system.

The ducts should always be

gentle slope toward sucli manholes.

laid

with a

POWER TEANSMISSION
Conmion construction

consists of a brick wall laid

crete floor, the brick being laid in

nally with cement.

The

taken that

set

in

the

workmen do

inter-

manhole

brickwork.

waste of cable in large manholes.

;i

upon a con-

cement and being coated

cables follow the sides of the

and they are supported on hooks

causes quite

69

This

Care should be

not use the cables, so suj)ported, as ladders

Fig. 39.

in

entering and leaving the manhole, as the lead sheathing

readily injured

when

maybe

the cables are so used.

Conductors are drawn into place by the aid of some form of

windlass.
Special jointed rods, 3 to 4 feet long, may be used for

making
tape

the

may

first

connection between manholes or a steel wire or

be pushed through.

attached to this rope.

the cable

is

the cable

may

rope

be attached to the rope.

that no sharp bends are

made

is

drawn

into the duct and

Fig. 40 shows one

in

Care must

way

1h'

in

which

taken to see

the cable during this process.

Cable should not be drawn in during extremely cold weather unless some ini'ans aic employed for keeping it warm, owing to the
liability of tlui iiisuhition to ! injured

by cracking.

POWEK TKANSMISSION

70

Conduit systems must be ventilated

in order to prevent ex-

to the collecting of explosive mixtures of gas.

plosion due

schemes have been

special ventilating

tried,

Many

but the majority of

systems depend for their ventilation on holes in the manhole cov-

This prevents excessive amounts of gas from collecting but

ers.

does not always free the system from gas so completely as to

it safe for workmen to enter the splicing vault until
air has been pumped out.
The above applies to the main conduit system.

make

the impure

Auxiliary

ducts are laid over the main ducts and distribution accomplished

from hand-holes in this system.

It is customary to ground the lead sheaths of the cables at
frequent intervals, thus in no way depending on the ducts even

when made

of insulating material, for insulation.

shackle;

YARN SERVING

Piff. 40.

Well insulated copper cables are used

Cables.

On

ground systems.
such as acids and
in

oils

which are

contact with the cable,

some manner.
sheath

is

and with

use

it

lead sheath

made continuous
its

is

all

in]'urious to the insulation,

necessary that

purpose.

the cable
dies,

is

come

be protected

in

employed for this purpose. This

whole length of the conductor,

employ insulating materials such

being readily saturated by moisture,

without such a hermetically sealed sheath.

Lead containing a small percentage of

this

it

for the

as paper which, on account of

could not be used at

is

jjossible to

it is

for under-

account of the fact that various materials,

The sheath may

employed for
which
drawn through suitable

tin is usually

consist of a lead pipe into

drawn, after which the whole

is

bringing the lead in close contact with the insulation or the

casing

may

be formed

liy

means

of a hydraulic jiress.

Yarns thoroughly dried and then saturated with such materials

and saturated.

as paraffin, aspbaltum, I'osin, etc., paper, both dry

POWEE TRANSMISSION
and rubber are the

When

tion.

more generally

lualerials

paper

is

eiiiployed,

it is

wound

71

eiii|)l()ye<l

for insula-

on in stripK, the cable

being passed through a die after each, layer is applied, after which
After
dried at a temperature of 200 F to expel moistui'e.

it is

being immersed in a bath of the saturating com[)ound

to the hydraulic presses where the lead sheath

When

rubber insulation

is

taken

it is

])ut on.

used, the conduetui-s are tinned to

is

may

prevent the action of any uncombined sulphur which

The Hooper process

present in the vulcanized rubber.

be

consists of

using a layer of j)ure rubl>er next to the conductors and using the
vulcanized rublier outside of
ber

One

this.

or two layers of pure rub-

are put on spirally,

tajie

the spiral being reversed for

each layer. Kubber compound in two or more laye]'S

is

a])plied over this in the

form of two

between
these

strips

stri])s

which pass

which

rollers

TE
IDLING

fold

around the core

and press the edges together.

Prepared rublier

ta|ie

is

over

after

which

])lied

-this,

the insulator

and the cable

ajt-

vulcanized

is

t'^iK.

isfactory the external protection

Cable for polyphase

one sheath.

is

w(.irk is

applied.

made up

of three conductors in

Fie. 41 shows a cross-section of cable manufactured

for three-phase transmission at (i,(iOO volts.

this cable
to

have a cross-section e(|uivalent

which an insulation

three
inches.

conductors

Jute

is

to a

are twisted together with a lay of

used as u

tiller,

1-inch thick, and

alloyed with

is

8'/,

should be c^ui\^de]lt

l<i

20

The

lead sheath

Tlw

employed

is

of tin.

Joints in caliles must be carefully made.

only should be em]iloye(l.

These

idjout

and, a second layer of rublier insu-

then ajiplied.

is

as a

The ccHiductors of
number 0000 wire,

of rublier ^e^-inch thick is applied.

lation ./,,-inch thick

and the joint

il.

If sat-

tested.

insulation

the insulation of

tla^

Well-trained

ap])lied

to

men

the joint

cable at othei' points,

whole must be protected by a lead sheath made

POWER TRANSMISSION

72

continuous with the main covering by means of plumbers' Joints.

Some engineers prefer rubber, some paper insulation, but
both types are giving good service, and are used up to voltages of
22,000.

It is

customary

potential soon after

it

is

to

subject each cable to twice

its

This voltage should

installed.

normal
be

riot

applied or removed too suddenly as unnecessary strains might be

])roduced in this manner.

Rubber-insulated cables should never be allowed to reach a

temperature

exceeding 05" to 70'

will stand a temperature of 90^

(140' to 158

(104^ F), but

it is

Paper

F).

neither desirable

The

nor economical to allow such a temperature to be reached.

followinocables.

table

is

of interest

connection with underground

in

The dimensions here given

TABLE

are only general.

Vlir.

Typical Cable Construction,

Sizes

Character
No. of Conductors.

Catlc

ot

of

Individual
Wires.

Conductor

Electric light less than 500 volts.

Stranded No. 10 B.&S.

Single

Arc lighting

Single

or smaller.
No. 6 or 4

Solid

B.&S.
High-tension power transmission. Single, concentric, Stranded No. 10 B.&S.
duplex, or three
or smaller.
conductors
.

Thickness of Insulation.
Saturated Saturated
Fiber.
Paper.

Dry
Paper.

Inch.

Thickness
of Lead.
Inch^

Electric light less than 500

volts

TiT

Arc lighting
High-tension powcu-

lO

Tff

trani-

nii.ssion

Selection of Voltage to be Used.

The voltage

to

be selected

system dej>ends on the distance the power is to be

transmitted as well as its amount, and on the use to l)e made of

for a given

lln^

power.

If a Jigliliii^' load

is

coiicejiti'ated in a

small district,

a 2'JO-volt three-wire s\stem will gi\'e very good service.

If the

POWER TKANSMISSION
region

is

little

more extended, possibly a

73

three-wire

4-l:()-volt

system using 220-volt lamps would serve the purpose without an

For
from 2,200

excessive loss of power or a prohibitive outlay for copper.

when

location
to

the service

is

scattered, a distribution at

4,000 volts alternating current

is

down

located as required for stepping

used, transformers

being

the voltage for the units

which may be fed from a two- or three-wire secondary system.

2,800 volts (alternating)

a standard voltage for lighting

is

purposes and for polyphase systems; 2,300 volts

is

often taken as

the voltage between the outside wires and the neutral wire of a

four-wire three-phase distribution.

For railway work, 550

to

COO

volts direct current is

used up

which it becomes more

economical to install an alternating-current main station and supply the line at intervals from substations to which the power is
to distances of

about 5 or

miles, beyond

transmitted at voltages of from 0,600 to 30,000 or even higher,

depending on the distance

it

to be transmitted.

is

At

the highest voltage used in long-distance transmission

is

present,

60,000,

Such voltages are used

only on very long lines, and each one becomes a special problem.
It is always well to select a voltage for apparatus which may be
considered as standard by manufacturing companies, as standard
apparatus may always be purchased more chea])ly and furnished
though higher values are contemplated.

in shorter

time than special machinery.

Protection of Circuits.

Lightning arresters are installed

along overhead lines

intervals

apparatus.

for the protection

For ordinary lighting

circuits,

stalled for the protection of transformers,

on the

first

pole

away from

bends or turns
connection.

in the

of connected

such arresters are

in-

and are located preferably

the one on which the transformer

Care should be taken

installed.

to see that

lines,

is

there are no sharp

ground wire and that there

Vnf the high-tension

at

is

a good ground

lightning arresters at

either end of the circuit are I'elied on to afford the greater part of

the protection.

In

some localities, a wire strung on the same pole

from the power wires and gi'ounded at very

line at a short distance

frequent intervals has been found to reduce troublesdue to lightning.

The

ifi'oundintf of the neutral of thi'ee-wire

Keeondarv systems

forms a means of protection of such circuits against high

jiutentials

POWEK TKANSMISSION

74

which might

from accidental contact with the primaries, and

some cases. The grounding of the neiitral of
high-tension systems reduces the potential between the lines and
is

arise

recommended

in

the ground, but a single

line with

ground will cause a short-circuit on the

any grounded system. Grounding, through a resistance

which will limit the flow of current

recommended and is employed

been

in

such a short-circuit, has

in

some

instances.

arresters are installed at the ends of high-tension

Spark

underground

systems to prevent high voltages which might injure the insulation

in case of

sudden changes

in load, grounds,

and

short-circuits.

INDEX
Part I

Power

Staiions; Part II

Powioit

Tuans.misski.v

I'iirl

All-day efficiency
Alternating-current line calculation

examples

II,
,

of..

Alternating-current systems of distribution

Annunciator wire

.....'

Page
44

II,

2\)

II,

,3(j

II,

21

II,

Boiler efficiencies, table

I,

13

Boiler foundations

I,

Boilers

I,

22
10

Cornish

I,

economic

I,

12

Lancashire

I,

marine

I,

multitubular
water-tube

I,
I,

Boilers, firing of

I,

Cable, standard, table

I,

Cable construction, taljlc

Cables
Capacity of conductors for carrying current
Capacity ratios, table
Central station

II,
II,

II,
."

I,

n
n
n
n
23
47
72
70
7
61

I,

I,

7o

Circuits, protection of

II,

73

Conductors

II,

Charging for power, methods of

capacity of for carrying current.

for various conditions, table

Copper losses
Copper wire table
Cornish boilers
Cross-arms
Curtis turbine

Direct-current feeder panels

,
^

II,

II,

7
44

II,
II,

I,

11

II,
I,

56
27

I,

50

II,

11

multiple-series

II,

17

parallel

II,

13

ijcries

II,

11

series-multiple

II,

17

Distribution systems

INDEX

II

Part

Page

Draft

mechanical.
natural
Earthenware conduits

Economic

I,
I,

II,

boiler

I,

Efficiency of transformer
Electric distribution of

II,

power

Electrical plant

I,

36
34
50
39
20
20

I,

Exciter panels

I,
I,

Feed water
Feeding appliances
Feeding poiat

I,
I,

Firing of boilers

Formula, general wiring

Frequency, choice of
Fuel, handling of

Galloway boiler
Gas engines.
Generating station, location of
Generator efficiencies, table
Generators
Governors
Gutta percha

15

I,

23

II,

I,

30
49
23

I,

61

'

I,

11

I,

34

I,

II,

4
38
36
34
10
23
29
20
10
27

II,

26

I,

I,
I,

II,

Handling of fuel
Hydraulic plants
Increase in boiler efficiency, table

India rubber

Inductance
per mile of

II,

II,

Full load ratios, table

I,
I,
I,

II,

circuit, table

67
12
44

II,

Engines, gas
Exciters

23
23

Insulation

II,

Insulators

II,

Iron or core losses....

Lancashire boilers

II,

57
44

I,

Location of generating station.

Loss of power in steam pipes
Loss in pressure in steam pipes, formula for

I,

I,

4
19

I,

18

Manholes
Marine boilers

II,

68

I,

11

Matthiessen's standard

II,

I,

23

II,

Mechanical draft
Mechanical strength of different materials...
Multiple-series system of distribution
Multiple wire system

II,

6
17
18

parallel

II,

21

polyphase

II,

22

II,

INDEX

111

Part

Puge

Multiple wire system

series

II,

three-wire

II,

18

I,

11

II,

2S

Multitubular boiler

Mutual inductance'
Xafural draft
Oil-cooled transforni;'rs

Oil switches

Overhead line^

21

I,

23

I,

41

I,

52

II,

50
50
57

cross-arms

II,

insulators

II,

location of

II,

51

pins

II,

59

II,
II,

00
52

direct -current

I,

50

exciter

I,

50

stresses sustained Ijy

supports for
Panels

output
Parallel systems of distribution
total

voltage regulation of

Powerfactor

Power station

I,

51

II, 13,

21

II,

I,

20
33
63

I,

31

I,

II,

buildings..

Pressure of water,

taljle.

Plant, size of

II,

8
66
45

Resistance, effects of

II,

Resistance of electrical conductors

II,

Riveted hydraulic pipe, table

I,

Safety devices

I,

32
57

Pump log conduit

II,

Regulation of a transformer

Selection of system

I,

Series system of distribution

II,

11

Series-multiple system of distribution

II,

17

Size of plant

I,

Station arrangement

I,

Station records

material for

Steam plant
Steam turbines
Storage batteries
Stresses sustained by pole line
Substations

Superheated steam
Switchboards

I,
I,

13

I,

14

I,

16

I,

Steam engines
Steam piping
arrangement

,s

68
70
25

I,

10

I,

25
44
60
59

I,

II,
I,

I,

19

I,

44

INDEX

IV

System, xelection of
Tables

Part

Page

I,

boiler efficiencies

I,

13

boiler efficiency, increase in

I,

20
12
47
72

boilers, floor space for

I,

cable, standard

I,

cable construction

capacity in Micro-Farads per mi.

II,

of

circuit for three

phase

system
capacity ratios

conductors for various conditions

conductors for various positions
copper wire
exciters for single-phase A. C, generators
full load ratios
generator efficiencies
horse-power per cu. ft. of water per min. for different heads..
inductance per mile of circuit
permissible overload 33 per cent
rate of flow of water, in ft. per min,, per pipes of various sizes.
resistances of pure aluminum wire
riveted hydraulic pipe
temperature effects in spans

II,

25

I,

61

II,

II,

II,

4
39
61
38

I,
I,
I,
.

transinission line calculation

I,

34

II,

26

I,

I,

22

II,

I,

32

II,

62

II,

31

water, pressure of

I,

31

wire, standard

I,

47

Temperature coefficient..
Three-wire system of distribution
Total output panels
Transformer connections

'

Transformer regulation
Transformers

II,

II,

18

I,

51

II,

46
45

II,
I,

efficiency of

40; II,
II,

43
44

oil-cooled

I,

41

water-cooled

I,

42

II,

24
24
25
27
25
30
63
65
63
65
65

Transmission lines
capacity
Turbines

II,
I,

Curtis..

I,

.steam

I,

water

I,

Underground construction
Crompton system

II,

II,

Edison tube system

Siemens-Halske system
French system
Underwriter's wire
voltage
Variation

II,
II,

II,
-

II,
II,

9
17

INDEX
Part

I'aKB

Voltage, selection of

II,

Voltage regulation of parallel systems

Water-cooled transformers
Water-tube boilers

II,

72
-"

Water turbines
Weatherproof wire.
Weight of materials

.'
.

Wire, standard, table

Wiring formula

I,

I-

I,

I,

30

II,

II,
I,

47

II,

30

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Price

STAIR-BUILDING AND STEEL

of

and Owners

_._..$1.00
SQUARE. By Hodgson

and WiUiams.
130 pp.. 1^0 illus.
Only up-todate work on these subjects. Price
$ 1.00
VALVE GEARS AND INDICATORS. By Leland and
Dow.
150 pp., 105 illus.
Two books in one.
Types of valves, gears, etc., fully explained.

Price

---

$1.00

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. By

E. R.

Maurer. 140

For Architects, Builders, Steel

Enables one to
$ 1.00
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. By Thorn and CoHins.
Carries along by easy steps
150 pp., 81 illus.
to complete mastery
Multiplex and Wirepp.. 58 illus.

and

Concrete Workers.
avoid mistakes. Price

less telegraph explained.

$1.00

Price

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

By E. Kenison. 160 pp.,

140 illus.
Complete course in projections,
shade lines, intersections and developments,
lettering, with
exercises and plates.

$1.00

Price

POWER

STATIONS

AND

TRANSMISSION.
By
For Electrical

G. C. Shaad.

Workers.

160 pp., 43 illus.

Up-to-date practice.

Price

$1.00

PATTERN MAKING. By James Ritchey. 150 pp.,

250 illus.
For Wood and Metal Workers and
Molders. Methods of building up and finishing, fully described.
Price
$ 1.00
SURVEYING. By AHred E. PhiHips. 200 pp 133
illus.
For Civil Engineers and Students. All
details of field work explained. Price $1.50
STEEL CONSTRUCTION. By E.A.TUCKER. 300 pp..
,

275 illus.
Covers every phase of the use of
steel in structural work. Based on actual experience, special tests, etc.
For Architects,
Bridge Builders, Contractors, Civil Engineers.

$1.50

Price

BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE. By

E, Nichols

Costly mistakes occur

through lack of attention at proper time,
hurtful to Owner and discreditable to Archi200

pp., 250

illus.

and Builder. Gives thorough knowledge

methods and materials. Price...
$ 1.50
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING AND LETTERING. By
tect

of

Bourne, von Hoist and Brown.

200 PP-, 55 drawings. Complete course in making working
drawings and artistic lettering for architectural purposes. Price
$ 1.50
MACHINE SHOP WORK. By F. W. Turner. 200 pp.,
200 illus.
Meets every requirement of the
shopman, from the simplest tools to the most
complex turning and milling machines.

Price
$ 1.50
TOOL MAKING. By E.R.Markham. 200 pp. ,325 illus.
How to make, how to use tools. Profusely

$1.50

Price

illustrated.

MACHINE DESIGN.

By

C.

L.

Griliin.

200 pp..

W^ritten by one of the foremost

authorities of the day.
E:very illustration

82 designs.

represents a
practice.

new

Price

device in machine shop

_

%\ .50

These volumes are handsomely bound in red art Vellum de Luxe, size 6M x 9H inches. Sent
prepaid to any part of the world, on receipt of price. Rem.it by Draft, Postal Order, F;xpress Order,
or Registered Letter,

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE. CHICAGO