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ENCE 361
Soil Mechanics

Settlement and Consolidation

of Cohesive Soils (Part I)

Overview
Soil is a
nonhomogeneous
porous material
consisting of three
phases

Solids
Fluid (normally
water)
Air

Soil deformation
may occur by
change in:

Stress
Water content
Soil mass
Temperature

Settlement in Cohesionless Soils

Settlement of soils below

foundations is the most

common cause of foundation
failure
Settlement may happen quickly
or over time

Cohesionless Soils
Tends to take place in a
short period of time
Will be covered in ENCE
461
Cohesive Soils
Tends to take place in a
long period of time
Detailed in the next
lectures
Time rate of settlement is
referred to as
consolidation

Other Types of
Settlement
Dynamic forces
Expansive soil
Collapsible soil

ST = S C + S S + S e

Perloff's Method
Variables

q = unit load on
foundation (assuming
uniform loading)
B = major dimension of
foundation
I = combined influence
factor
= Poissons Ratio
Es = Modulus of
Elasticity of the soil

1
S c = qBI
Es

Variables for
Perloffs Method

Poissons ratio s for soil usually varies from

0.25 to 0.49 with saturated soils
approaching 0.49. Poissons ratio for
unsaturated soils usually vary from 0.25 to
0.40. A reasonable overall value for s is
0.40. Normal variations in elastic modulus
of foundation soils at a site are more
significant in settlement calculations than
errors in Poissons ratio. (EM 1110-1-1904)

Perloff Method Example

Solution (using method

presented)

Since method
determines settlement
at corners, divide up
foundations into
quarters, determine
settlement at corners
and add using
superposition

Perloffs Method Example

Use 10 x 10

Foundation

B = L = 10
H = 10
L/B = 1
H/B = 1
= 0.5
From table, I = 0.15

1 2
=
S c = qBI
Es

1 0.52
4 4 10 0.15
= 0.9'
20

Perloffs Method Example

(Using Method in Das 11.2)
= q = 4 ksf
= = 0.5

= 4 (centre of

Es = 20 ksf
We group the

dimensionless
coefficients into one part
for comparison
Method can directly
solve for the settlement
at the centre

1
S e = B
Es

foundation)
m = L/B = 20/20 = 1
n = H/(B/2) = 10/(20/2) =
1
B = B/2 (centre of
foundation) = 20/2 = 10
If = 1 (because foundation
is at the surface)
2

[ I s I f ]

Perloffs Method Example

(Using Method in Das 11.2)
Is:

Thus, Is = F1 = 0.142

1 2s
I s = F1 +
F2
1 s

Substituting,

For m = 1 and n = 1:
F1 = 0.142 (Table 11.1)
F2 = 0.083 (Table 11.2)

1 .5 2
4 10
[4 0 .142 1] =
20
0 .852 '

Second term is zero because

Poissons Ratio = 1/2

1 2
[ I s I f ] =
S e = B
Es

Overview of Primary Settlement and

Consolidation
z

Consolidation is the process

of gradual transfer of an
applied load from the pore
water to the soil structure as
pore water is squeezed out of
the voids.
The amount of water that
escapes depends on the size
of the load and
compressibility of the soil.
The rate at which it escapes
depends on the coefficient of
permeability, thickness, and
compressibility of the soil.

Two questions need to be

answered by consolidation
analysis:
z

How much will the structure

settle?

Generally referred to
as the settlement
question
How long will it take for it to
do so?
z Generally referred to
as the consolidation
question
z

Diagram Demonstrating Consolidation

Diagram from Terzaghi
and Peck (1948)

Consolidation Test
A test intended to

replicate the process of

primary (and secondary)
settlement (distance)
and time (consolidation)
in the field
Necessary to run with
undisturbed specimens,
as disturbance changes
the soil skeleton
structure and thus the
results

Apparatus
z

Consolidometer
z

The consolidometer
has a rigid base, a
consolidation ring,
porous stones, a
rigid loading plate,
and a support for a
dial indicator
Fixed or floating ring

Preparation of Specimen

Procedure
z

z
Consecutive z Times to Record
Data for Each Load
Loads on
z 0.1 min
Specimen
z 30 min

z
z
z
z
z
z
z

.5 ksf
1 ksf
2 ksf
4 ksf
8 ksf
16 ksf
32 ksf

z
z
z
z
z
z
z

0.2 min
0.5 min
1.0 min
2.0 min
4.0 min
8.0 min
15 min

1 hr

2 hr

4 hr

8 hr

24 hr

Record the dial

reading for each
load increment at
completion of
primary
consolidation for
each load (usually
24 hours)
Remove load in
decrements,
recording dial
indicator readings
Conduct a water
content test on
specimen after
unloading is
complete

If p2 = 10p1,
then Cc = e1-e2

Pressure p, tons/ft2

Results for Normally

Consolidated Soils

Non-Laboratory Estimates of
Compression Index

Primary Compression Settlement

z

Primary Compression
Settlement

o +
Cc H

Sc =
log
1 + eo
o
z

(normally consolidated
soils)
Ho = original height of
layer being
compressed
eo = original void ratio

Sample Consolidation Problem

Given

z
z

Clay stratum, normally

consolidated

LL= 45
z 25' thick
z Water Content = 40%
z Specific Gravity of solids
= 2.78
Sand Layer above clay layer
and at surface
z 35' thick
z Unit weight of soil above
phreatic surface = 110 pcf
z Submerged weight of soil
below water table= 65 pcf
z Depth of water table = 15'

Given
z

Building placed on
surface
Increases the vertical
stress in the clay layer
by 1.2 tsf (2400 psf)

Find
z

Average settlement on
building

Sample Consolidation
Problem
z

Given
z
z

Building placed on
surface
Increases the vertical
stress in the clay layer
by 1.2 tsf (2400 psf)

Find
z

Average settlement on
building

Overconsolidation or Preconsolidation
Overconsolidation
complicates the analysis of
primary settlement because
the ground being compressed
acts as if the previous
overburden pressure is still
being applied, irrespective of
current overburden conditions
Requires dividing the
settlement analysis into two
parts
Sometimes referred to as
preconsolidation

The ratio of the maximum

overburden stress a soil has

experienced to the present
overburden stress

c
OCR =

If OCR >1, the soil is

overconsolidated
If OCR ~1, the soil is
normally consolidated
If OCR <1, the soil is
underconsolidated

Effect on Primary Settlement

Cs

Settlement in Overconsolidated
Soils
Formula, o + > c (to the right of F)
c Cc H
o +
Cs H

log +
log
Sc =
1 + eo
o 1 + eo
c
Formula, o + < c (to the left of F)
o +
Cs H

Sc =
log
1 + eo
o

Overconsolidated Example
Given
Soil with void ratiolog pressure as
shown
6' thick clay layer
under sand layer
Two possible
additional loadings:
5 tsf
7.5 tsf

Find
OCR
Settlement for each
case

Overconsolidated Example
OCR = 6.6/0.3 = 22
5 tsf additional load
With overburden: 5 + 0.3 = 5.3 tsf
0.3 < 5.3 < 6.6, thus use

o +
Cs H

Sc =
log
1 + eo
o
Spc = (6)(12)/(1+1.05)(0.078)log10(5.3/0.3)
=3.42

Overconsolidated Example
7.5 tsf additional load
With overburden: 7.5 + 0.3 = 7.8 tsf
6.6 < 7.8, thus use

c Cc H
o +
Cs H

log +
log
Sc =
1 + eo
o 1 + eo
c
Sc = (6)(12)/(1+1.05)((0.078)log10(6.6/0.3)
+(0.42)log10(7.8/6.6)) = 4.75

Multiple Layers
Multiple layers can be handled by
computing the single layer consolidation for
each and summing the displacements
Take care to properly compute or assign
the additional vertical stresses generated
by the surface load for each layer (not all of
the stresses will be the same)
Take care when dealing with
overconsolidated soils to properly
understand the consolidation region for
each layer

Secondary Compression of
Cohesive Soils

Computation of Secondary
Compression
Formula

tf
tf
H
S s = C
log = C H log
t
t
1+ ep
p

p
C = coefficient of secondary consolidation
tf = time at end of secondary consolidation
compression
tp = time at end of time period of interest in primary
settlement computations
ep = void ratio at the beginning of secondary
compression

Example of Secondary Compression

Given
As shown
Primary Settlement Data
Expected time for
primary consolidation ~
13 years
eo = 1 (at beginning of
primary consolidation)
Normally consolidated
clay, Cc = 0.21
Desired life of structure =
110 years
C = 0.02

Find
Secondary
Consolidation
Settlement

Secondary Compression Example

Primary Compression Calculation

o + 0.21 16 12 .75 + .8
Cc H
=
Sc =
log
log
= 6.35"
1 + eo
1+1
.75
o
Compute void ratio ep at end of primary consolidation
o +
.75 + .8
= 1 0.21 log
e p = eo e = eo Cc log
= 0.93
.75
o
Secondary Compression Calculation
tf
H
16 12
110
S s = C
log = 0.02
log
= 1.84"
1+ ep
1 + 0.93 13
tp

Total Compression = 6.35 + 1.84 = 8.19

Time Rate of Consolidation

Overview of Time Rate

Computations
Consolidation is a process
that takes place over time
and is the result of two
processes:
Dissipation of excess pore
water pressures created by
surcharge or new foundation
loads at the surface. This
takes place when the excess
water is drained from the soil
Rearrangement of the soil
particles (soil skeleton) to
reflect new effective stress
conditions created by
foundation or surcharge

Assumptions

Clay-water system is
homogeneous
Saturation is complete
Water in
incompressible
Soil particles are
incompressible
Flow is in one direction
only (in the direction of
compression)
Darcys Law is valid

Consolidation
Model
Sign Convention
Better Reversed

Coefficient of Compressibility

Coefficient of Volume
Compressibility e

av =

p
Porosity Relationship
e
n =
1 + eo
Substituting,
av
n =
p = mv p
1 + eo

Continuity of Flow:

Vw (vb vt )tA
n =
=
VT
dzA
dv
v
n = t = t
dz
z
Substituting,
v
p
u
= mv
= mv
z
t
t

u(z,t): Pressure vs. Distance and Time Variable

Darcy's Law
h
1 u
v = ki = k = k
z
w z
Differentiating,
v
1 u
=k
2
z
w z
2

Equating,
u
1 u
k
= mv
2
w z
t
2

Consolidation Equation
Rearranging,

Coefficient of Consolidation

k u
u
u
=
= cv 2
2
t mv w z
z
2

k
cv =
w mv

Boundary conditions are

the conditions of
drainage at the surfaces
of the consolidating layer
Initial conditions are the
effective stress and pore
water conditions

Key variable in primary

consolidation calculations
Tends to be a constant for a
given soil because the ratio
of k to mv tends to remain
constant

Both of these variables tend

to be directly proportional to
the void ratio of the soil

Drainage Conditions
Speed of the drainage
depends upon the
conditions at the
boundaries of the
drainage
Drainage can be one or
two ways
Theory based on one
way drainage

Distribution of initial pore

pressure can affect time
rate of consolidation (see
diagram at right)

Solution of Consolidation Equation

Solution
Consider the case of
Equation is a second
one way drainage
order, parabolic

Boundary Conditions
differential equation
At top of layer: p = 0
(similar to heat equation)
(free flow)
Solution is an infinite
At bottom of layer:
Fourier series with
p/z = 0 (no flow)
orthogonality and

Initial Conditions
eigenfunctions
p = p = (stress
0
Solution depends upon
induced by applied
both boundary and initial
load, remains
conditions
constant)

Solution

z
p 4 ( 1)

cos (2i 1) e
=
2h
po i=1 2i 1

i 1

( 2 i 1)

cvt
4H 2

Time Rate Computation and Degree of

Consolidation
Time Factor

Degree of Consolidation

tcv
Tv = 2
H dr

S c (t )
ue
U=
= 1
Sc
uo

t = time of consolidation
Tv = time factor for vertical
drainage
Hdr = longest distance of
drainage to pervious surface

Usually depth of layer for

single drainage, half of
layer depth for double
drainage
cv = coefficient of
consolidation

z ( 2i1)
p 4 ( 1)

=
cos (2i 1) e
po i =1 2i 1
2 h

i 1

( 2 i 1)2 Tv
1
4
U = 1 2
e
i=1 (2i 1)2

Expressed as a percentage
Expresses ratio of both pore
pressures and settlement
Allows relating settlement to
time (consolidation)

Tv

Degree of
Conslidation

Time Factor vs. Average Degree of

Consolidation

Assumes uniform
initial pressure

=Tv

Example of Time Factor Calculation

Given
As shown
eo = 1.0
Cc = 0.21
cv = 0.03 ft3/day

Find
Relationship of time
of consolidation
with time factor

Solution of Time Factor Calculation

tcv 0.03t
t
Tv = 2 = 2 =
H dr
8
2130 days

Days
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

Hdr
Cv
Spc

Tv

Percent
Settlement,
Consolidation in.
0
0
0
0.01
10
0.64
0.01
10
0.64
0.02
15
0.95
0.02
15
0.95
0.03
20
1.27
0.03
20
1.27
0.04
25
1.59
0.04
25
1.59
0.05
28
1.78
0.09
32
2.03
0.14
40
2.54
0.19
48
3.05
0.23
53
3.37
0.28
60
3.81
0.33
63
4
0.38
68
4.32
0.42
72
4.57
0.47
75
4.76

8
0.03
6.35

Time Factor Calculation Solution

Coefficient of Consolidation

Logarithm of Time Method

Square
Root of
Time
Method

Accelerating Consolidation Settlement

Rate of consolidation
settlement under natural
conditions is frequently
unacceptable for actual
construction and
structure use

Concept of

Consolidation
Acceleration

Provide a highpermeability path for

the water to escape,
thus reducing the time
for consolidation to
take place

Previous Example: 75%

settlement @ 1000 days
= 2 years 8 months 26
Type of acceleration
days
Sand Drains
Accelerating settlement if
Prefabricated Vertical
sometimes necessary to
(Wick) Drains
complete construction
and use structure

Vertical Drain System

Sand Drain
Installation

Wick Drains
Geosynthetic used
as a substitute to
sand columns;
arrayed in a similar
manner to the sand
drains
Installed by being
pushed or vibrated
into the ground

Installation of
Wick Drains

Questions