Chapter 1: Introducing Indian society

Sociology is the only subject about which everyone knows something and this
previous knowledge is both an advantage and a disadvantage. Advantage in a
sense that one doesnt considers it a hard subject and disadvantage in a sense
that many of the prior knowledge learnt must be unlearnt first because the
things we know though not wrong are most of the time based on a specific point
of view and that view is most of the time based upon the view of a majority.
Sociology offers to show us this world from different viewpoints.
Reflexivity: Sociology can also help us to see ourselves from outside. The ability
to reflect upon one self and to direct our gaze inward which is normally directed
outwards is called reflexivity.
Sociology tells us about our position on the social map. A social map would tell
us where we are located in the society. The social group, religious group,
linguistic or regional group, economic class that one might belong to and their
relationship with each other and how ones life might be affected by them.
A sociological perspective teaches one to draw social maps.
Indian nationalism and colonialism:
It was during the colonial period that national or Indian consciousness took
shape. Colonial exploitation and domination scarred Indian society in many ways
but colonialism also gave birth to its own enemy, nationalism.
Historically, an Indian nationalism took shape under British colonialism. The
shared experience of colonial domination helped unify and energise different
sections of the community. The emerging middle classes began, with the aid of
western style education, to challenge colonialism on its own ground. Ironically,
colonialism and western education also gave the impetus for the rediscovery of
tradition. This led to the developments on the cultural and social front which
solidified emergent forms of community at the national and regional levels.
Colonialism created new classes and communities which came to play significant
roles in subsequent history. The urban middle classes were the main carriers of
nationalism and they led the campaign for freedom. Colonial interventions also
crystallised religious and caste based communities. These too became major
players. The complex ways in which the subsequent history of contemporary
Indian society evolved is something you will encounter in the following chapters

Chapter 2: The Demographic structure of Indian

Society
What is Demography?
It is a systematic study of the population. Demography studies the trends and
processes associated with population including changes in population size;
patterns of births, deaths, and migration; and the structure and composition of
the population, such as the relative proportions of women, men and different age
groups.
The word Demography has a Greek origin. Demos: People, Graphein: Describe
Types of demography:

1).Social Demography: Population studies or social demography enquires into

the wider causes and consequences of population structures and change.
2). Formal Demography: Formal demography is primarily concerned with the
measurement and analysis of the components of population change. Its focus is
on quantitative analysis for which it has a highly developed mathematical
methodology suitable for forecasting population growth and changes in the
composition of population.
All demographic studies are based upon Census or surveys.
The formation of nation states in Europe during latter half of 18 th century i.e.
1790s where states now required quantitative data regarding their populations
and the simultaneous development of the field of statistics helped establish the
need for demography which in turn culminated in the establishment of the
academic field of sociology.
The American census of 1790 was probably the first modern census.
1800s: The practice was adopted in Europe.
1867-72: The Census began to be conducted by British Indian Govt.
Since 1881, regular census has been conducted in India. The Indian census is the
largest such exercise in the world since China doesnt conducts them regularly.
Some Theories in Demography:
1). The Malthusian theory of Population growth:
Thomas Robert Malthus in 1798 in his Essay on the principle of Population
stated that the rate of growth of population will always outstrip the rate at which
the human means of subsistence grow. Rate of growth of population = Geometric
population
Rate of growth of means of human subsistence = Arithmetic Progression
Preventive checks (delaying the marriage, celibacy etc) that must be applied
to the population growth rate are limited and therefore, positive checks like
famine or epidemics were inevitable and were natures way of dealing with the
imbalance between food supply and the increasing population.
So how was this theory refuted:
It was refuted by the growth of European countries where in the first quarter of
the 20th century birth rates declined and the outbreaks of epidemics were being
controlled. The standards of living and the food production rose simultaneously
with the rise in the population.
Criticism of Matlhus theory:
Marxist and liberal scholars criticised Malthusian theory arguing that rise in
population doesnt create poverty but it is the unequal distribution of economic
resources that was the main cause of poverty and starvation.
2).Theory of Demographic transition:
Another significant theory in demographics is the theory of demographic
transition which states that the population growth rate is linked with the overall
levels of economic development and that every society follows a developmentrelated population growth.
This theory states that there are 3 phases of population growth,
i).1st Phase: The net growth rate is low because Birth rate and Death rate are
high.

ii). 3rd Phase: The net growth rate is low because Birth rate and Death rate are
low.
iii).2nd Phase: This transitional phase from a backward to an advanced stage has
very high population growth rates and very low death rates resulting in a
population explosion. This happens due to death rate being brought down due to
advanced methods of disease control, better nutrition etc but it takes society
longer to adjust and alter its reproductive behaviour to suit this current state of
relative prosperity and longer life spans.
This change happened in Western Europe during late 19 th century and early 20th
century (1890s 1910s)
India is also going through this demographic transition as the mortality rates
have been brought down but the birth rates have not been brought to the same
extent.
Common concepts and indicators:
Birth rate: Number of live births per 1000 of the population.
Death rate: Number of deaths per 1000 of the population.
These statistics depend on people reporting the births and deaths that happen in
their family. In India it is mandatory by law to report births and deaths.
Growth rate or rate of natural increase of population: It refers to the
difference between the growth rate and death rate.
Case1:
When growth rate is 0 or near 0 => population has stabilised or reached the
replacement level.
Replacement level: It is the rate of growth required for new generations to
replace the older ones that are dying out.
Case2:
When there is negative population growth => fertility levels are below the
replacement rate. For eg: Countries like Japan, Russia, Italy and Eastern Europe
are experiencing this negative growth rate.
Case3:
Very High growth rate is due to demographic transition.
Fertility rate: It refers to the number of live births per 1000 women in the childbearing age group, usually taken to be 15 to 49 years. Unlike Birth and Death
rates this indicator is crude rate i.e. a rough average.
Total Fertility rate: It refers to the average number of births to a cohort of
women up to the end of the reproductive age period (estimated on the basis of
the age-specific rates observed during a given period)
Infant mortality rate (IMR): It refers to the number of deaths of babies before
1 year per 1000 live births
Maternal mortality rate (MMR): It refers to the number of women who die
during childbirth per 1000 live births.
High IMR and MMR are clear indicators of backwardness and poverty.
Development results in sharp fall in both these rates.
Life expectancy: This refers to the estimated number of years that an average
person is expected to survive. It is calculated on the basis of data on age-specific
death rates in a given area over a period of time.

Sex ratio: It refers to the number of females per 1000 males in a given area at a
specified time period.
Now, all over the world it has been found that there are more females then males
despite of the fact that more male babies are born then female ones. Nature
seems to produce 943 or 952 female babies over 1000 male babies. So why is
there more number of females then males?
Reason 1: Girl babies have more resistance to diseases at infancy then boy
babies.
Reason 2: Women have tended to live more than men in most societies thereby
resulting in, more, older women than men.
However, sex ratio has been declining in India over past few years.
Age structure of population: It refers to the proportion of persons in different
age groups relative to the total population.
Age structure is related to life expectancy and levels of development.
Poor medical facilities=> Shorter life span=>decrease in life expectancy=>
larger population in younger age groups
Better medical facilities=> Longer life span=> Increase in life expectancy=>
larger population in older age groups. This is also referred to as aging of the
population.
Dependency ratio: It is a measure comparing the portion of a population which
is composed of dependents (i.e., elderly people who are too old to work, and
children who are too young to work) with the portion that is in the working age
group, generally defined as 15 to 64 years. The dependency ratio is equal to the
population below 15 or above 64, divided by population in the 15-64 age group;
the ratio is usually expressed as a percentage.
Case 1:
Rising dependency ratio is a cause of worry=>Increase in non-working
population=> difficulty for a relatively smaller proportion of working-age people
to carry the burden of relatively large dependents
Case 2:
Fall in dependency ratio can be a source of economic growth and prosperity=>
large working population and relatively smaller proportion of dependents. This is
sometimes referred to as Demographic dividend or benefit flowing from the
changing age structure. However this benefit is temporary as this large pool of
working population will eventually turn to non-working old people.
Growth of Indias Population:
Between 1911 1921 Population growth rate was -0.03% (due to influenza
epidemic or the Spanish flu (a global epidemic which exterminated 5% of Indias
population at that time) during 1918-1919)
Between 1961-1981 Population growth rate increased to 2.22%. Since then the
annual growth rate has decreased but it still remains one of the highest in the
developing world.
The main reasons for decline in death rates after 1921 are,
Levels of control over epidemic diseases and famines
Why Birth rate has not declined like death rate in India?
This is because the birth rate is a socio-cultural phenomenon that is relatively
slow to change. By and large, increased levels of prosperity exert a strong
downward pull on the birth-rate. Once infant mortality rates decline, and there is

an overall increase in levels of education and awareness, family size begins to

fall.
In India some states like Kerala and Tamilnadu have brought the total fertility
rates (TFRs) below 2 and 1.8 respectively while some states like UP, Bihar have
very high TFRs of 4 (meaning an average women produces 4 children which is
way above the replacement level)

Age or population pyramid:

A population pyramid, also called an age pyramid or age picture diagram,
is a graphical illustration that shows the distribution of various age groups in a
population (typically that of a country or region of the world), which forms the
shape of a pyramid when the population is growing. [1] It is also used in ecology to
determine the overall age distribution of a population; an indication of the
reproductive capabilities and likelihood of the continuation of a species.

It typically consists of two back-to-back bar graphs, with the population

plotted on the X-axis and age on the Y-axis, one showing the number of
males and one showing females in a particular population in five-year age
groups (also called cohorts). Males are conventionally shown on the left
and females on the right, and they may be measured by raw number or as
a percentage of the total population. Population pyramids are often
viewed as the most effective way to graphically depict the age and sex
distribution of a population, partly because of the very clear image these
pyramids present.

Population pyramid of India in 2015

Population pyramid of India in 2100

The demographic dividend is a window of opportunity provided to us by the

transitional phase in the age structure. For this dividend to yield results we will
have to generate sufficient employment opportunities for our young workforce,
increase the level of education and develop their skills.
Declining sex ratio in India:
Sex ratio is an indicator of gender balance in the population. In India sex ratio
has declined from 972 in 1901 to being 933 in the 20 th century.
The main cause of worry is decline in child sex ratio. It has fallen from being 972
in the year 1961 to 927 in the year 2001.
Age specific sex ratios began to be computed in 1961. Highest overall sex ratio is
in Sikkim (986) and lowest is in Punjab (793).
Reasons for decline:
- MMR has gone down so death of women at childbirth cannot be the reason of
falling sex ratio in India. So decline in the child sex ratio is the main culprit here.

-Decline in child sex ratio is mainly due to reasons like female infanticide,
selective abortion, and neglect of girl child. This problem of low child sex ratio is
the worst in the prosperous regions like Punjab, Chandigarh, and Maharashtra
which proves that poverty and ignorance are not responsible for this social
problem of selective abortion.
Govt has passed PCPNDT Act 1996 and strengthened it further in 2003 but a law
is not of much use until a change in social attitude is affected through mutual
effort.
Literacy:
Literacy is as prerequisite to education is a tool for empowerment.
The more educated the population the more is the awareness of the
opportunities available.
Education can lead to health awareness.
Literacy rate for women is 22% less than that of men. Historically disadvantaged
section sof the society like STs and SCs have a lower rate of literacy. The
inequalities in the literacy rate are specially important because they tend to
reproduce inequality across generations. Illiterate parents are at a severe
disadvantage in ensuring that their children are well educated, thus perpetuating
existing inequalities.
Rural-Urban Differences:
The vast majority of population in India has always lived in villages but the
number of people living in urban areas has increased gradually.
This has happened due to,
1). Agriculture which used to be the largest contributor to the economic
production, now contributes only 1/4th of the GDP. Rural people are now engaged
in non-rural farm sectors like transport services, business enterprises or craft
manufacturing.
2).Mass transit and mass communications are now bridging the gap between
rural and urban areas
3). The flow of rural-to-urban migration has also been accelerated by the
continuous decline of common property resources like ponds, forests and grazing
lands. These common resources enabled poor people to survive in the villages
although they owned little or no land. Now, these resources have been turned
into private property, or they are exhausted.
4). Sometimes the city may also be preferred for social reasons, specially the
relative anonymity it offers. For the socially oppressed groups like the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes, this may offer some partial protection from the
daily humiliation they may suffer in the village where everyone knows their caste
identity. The anonymity of the city also allows the poorer sections of the socially
dominant rural groups to engage in low status work that they would not be able
to do in the village.
The population policy of India:
The population policy took the concrete form of the National Family Planning
Programme. The broad objectives of this programme have remained the same
to try to influence the rate and pattern of population growth in socially desirable
directions.
The National Family Planning Programme was renamed as the National Family
Welfare Programme after the Emergency, and coercive methods (forcible
sterilisations of poor people) were no longer used.

Chapter 3: Social Institutions: Continuity and

change
Three institutions central to Indian society,
1). Caste
2). Tribe
3). Family
Caste in the past:
English word caste is a borrowing from Portuguese word casta meaning pure
breed. The word refers to a broad institutional arrangement that in Indian
languages is referred to by two distinct terms, namely,
Varna
Jati
What is Varna?
Varna (colour) is a 4 fold division of the society into Brahmins, kshatriyas,
vaishyas and shudras. It excludes a significant section of the population
composed of outcastes, foreigners, slaves and others, sometimes referred to as
panchamas or fifth category.
What is Jati?
Jati is a generic term referring to species or kinds of anything, ranging from
inanimate objects to plants, animals and human beings. Jati is the word most
commonly used to refer to the institution of caste in Indian languages.
Relationship between Jati and Varna:
Varna
1).Broad all-India classification
classification
2).The four Varna classification is common
local classifications
to all India.
region. It has

Jati
1). Regional or local sub2).

the Jati hierarchy has more

that vary from region to
many castes and sub-

castes.
Age of the caste system:
It is estimated to be 3000years old. Caste system had different meanings in
different times. In later Vedic period between 900BC- 500BC the caste system
was really the 4 varna system and consisted of only 4 major divisions. These
divisions were not very rigid and were not determined by birth. Movement across
categories was quite common. It is only in the post Vedic period that caste
became the rigid institution that is familiar to us from well known definitions.

Features of caste: Prescribed rules wrt castes found in scriptural texts,

1). Caste is determined by birth and is not a matter of choice.
2). Caste groups are endogamous i.e. marriage restricted within caste
3). Specific rules regarding food and food sharing
4). Hierarchical system of caste wherein all the castes are arranged as per their
rank and status
5). Segmental organization: The division of castes into sub-castes and further
division of sub-castes into more sub-castes.
6). Castes traditionally linked to occupations. A member of a particular caste
could only practice a certain pre-specified occupation.
A combo of 2 set of principles = Caste
What are those principles based on?
1). Difference and separation: Each caste is supposed to be different from and
is therefore strictly separated from every other caste. Many of the scriptural rules
of caste are thus designed to prevent the mixing of castes rules ranging from
marriage, food sharing and social interaction to occupation
2). Wholism: Different and separated castes do not have an individual existence
they can only exist in relation to a larger whole, the totality of society consisting
of all castes.
Hierarchy: Each individual caste occupies not just a distinct place, but also an
ordered rank a particular position in a ladder-like arrangement going from
highest to lowest.
Hierarchical ordering of castes is based upon distinction between purity and
pollution. Higher castes are pure while lower castes are polluting in nature.
Colonialism and Caste:
Scholars have agreed that all major social institutions and specially the
institution of caste underwent major changes during the colonial period. Initially,
the British administrators began by trying to understand the complexities of
caste in an effort to learn how to govern the country efficiently. Some of
these efforts took the shape of very methodical and intensive surveys and
reports on the customs and manners of various tribes and castes all over the
country.
The most important exercise undertaken by the British to collect info on caste
was the census.
1860s: Census began to be conducted
1881: Census became a regular ten yearly exercise
1901: This census conducted under Herbert Risley was done to collect info
on the social hierarchy of the caste. This effort had a huge impact on
social perceptions of caste and hundreds of petitions were addressed to
the Census Commissioner by representatives of different castes claiming a
higher position in the social scale and offering historical and scriptural
evidence for their claims. Such exercise to count caste and officially record
caste status made granted caste a new lease of life and the previous fluid
and less rigid, caste, now became a rigid identity.
The land revenue settlements and related arrangements and laws served
to give legal recognition to the customary (caste-based) rights of the
upper castes.
The GOI Act 1935 gave a legal recognition to the lists or schedules of
castes and tribes that were to receive special treatment from the

government. This is how the terms Scheduled Tribes and the Scheduled
Castes came into being.
Caste in the present:
Caste considerations had inevitably played a role in the mass mobilisations of
the nationalist movement. Efforts to organize depressed classes and particularly
the untouchable castes predated the nationalist movement, having begun in the
second half of the nineteenth century.
Protests against untouchability were started by MK Gandhi and Babasaheb
Ambedkar in 1920s.
By the time Independence was on horizon there was a broad agreement across
the nationalist movement in favour of abolishing caste distinctions.
The post-Independence India instead of abolishing the caste, reflected a
contradictory scenario wherein,
On the one hand, the state was committed to the abolition of caste and explicitly
wrote this into the Constitution. On the other hand, the state was both unable
and unwilling to push through radical reforms which would have undermined the
economic basis for caste inequality.
In the decades immediately after Independence, the state did not make sufficient
effort to deal with the fact that the upper castes and the lower castes were far
from equal in economic and educational terms.
Caste in employment:
The development activity of the state and the growth of private industry also
affected caste indirectly through the speeding up and intensification of economic
change.
Urbanisation and the conditions of collective living in the cities made it difficult
for the caste segregated patterns of social interaction to survive. Though modern
educated Indians attracted to ideas of individualism and meritocracy began
abandoning caste practices but caste proved resilient too. The middlemen
recruiting for the companies tended to recruit members from their own caste. So
the prejudice against the lower castes or untouchables remained in the cities,
though not as extreme as in the villages.
Not so porous boundaries:
Thus, caste has proved to be strongest in the cultural and domestic spheres.
While some boundaries may have become more flexible or porous, the borders
between groups of castes of similar socio-economic status are still heavily
patrolled. For eg:- For example, inter-caste marriages within the upper castes
(eg., brahmin, bania, rajput) may be more likely now than before; but marriages
between an upper caste and backward or scheduled caste person remain rare
even today.
Caste and politics:
Caste remains central to electoral politics in India. There has been emergence of
explicitly caste-based political parties since 1980s.
Sanskritisation: (term given by M.N Srinivasa) It refers to a process whereby
members of a (usually middle or lower) caste attempt to raise their own social
status by adopting the ritual, domestic and social practices of a caste (or castes)
of higher status.
The patterns for emulation chosen most often were the brahmin or kshatriya
castes; practices included adopting vegetarianism, wearing of sacred thread,
performance of specific prayers and religious ceremonies, and so on.

Sanskritisation usually accompanies or follows a rise in the economic status of

the caste attempting it, though it may also occur independently.
Dominant caste: (termed by M.N Srinivasa)
It is a term used to refer to those castes which had a large population and were
granted landrights by the partial land reforms effected after Independence.
How some castes became dominant?
The land reforms after independence took away the rights from the erstwhile
claimants i.e. the upper castes (absentee landlords- they lived in cities and only
exacted rent from their land owned in the countryside) and gave them to the
intermediary castes like Yadavs in UP, Jats in Punjab, Haryana and Western UP
etc who themselves did not worked upon these lands but in turn depended upon
the lower caste i.e. untouchables for tilling and tending to these lands. Thus,
these intermediate castes became the dominant castes in the country side and
played a decisive role in regional politics and the agrarian economy.

Caste paradox of recent times:

One of the most significant yet paradoxical changes in the caste system in the
contemporary period is that it has tended to become invisible for the upper
caste, urban middle and upper classes.
How these groups benefitted?
In particular, the upper caste elite were able to benefit from subsidised public
education, especially professional education in science, technology, medicine
and management. At the same time, they were also able to take advantage of
the expansion of state sector jobs in the early decades after Independence. In
this initial period, their lead over the rest of society (in terms of education)
ensured that they did not face any serious competition.
For this group, it now seems that caste plays no part in their public lives, being
limited to the personal sphere of relgious practice or marriage and kinship.
For the so called scheduled castes and tribes and the backward castes the
opposite has happened. For them their caste is the only lifeline left to them in
todays times. Due to the lack of inherited social or educational capital and due
to the fact that they must compete with upper caste group they cannot abandon
their identity.
The juxtaposition of these two groups a seemingly caste-less upper caste group
and an apparently caste-defined lower caste group is one of the central aspects
of the institution of caste in the present.
Tribal communities:
What is a tribe?
Tribe is a modern term for communities that are very old, being among the
oldest inhabitants of the sub-continent.
Tribes in India have generally been defined in terms of what they were not.

Tribes were communities that did not practice a religion with a written
text;
did not have a state or political form of the normal kind;
did not have sharp class divisions;
and, most important, they did not have caste and were neither Hindus nor
peasants.
The term was introduced in the colonial era.
Classification of tribal societies:
1). Permanent traits: Region, language, physical characteristics, ecological
habitat
Region: The tribal population of India is widely dispersed, but there are also
concentrations in certain regions. About 85% of the tribal population lives in
middle India, a wide band stretching from Gujarat and Rajasthan in the west
to West Bengal and Orissa in the east, with Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh and parts of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh forming the heart of
this region. Of the remaining 15%, over 11% is in the North Eastern states,
leaving only a little over 3% living in the rest of India.
North Eastern states have the highest concentrations of tribal societies.
Ecological characteristics: The ecological habitats covered include hills,
forests, rural plains and urban industrial areas.

Language: In terms of language tribes are categorised into 4 language groups,

Indo-Aryan
Dravidian
Austric
Tibeto Burman
Size: The biggest tribes are the Gonds, Bhils, Santhals, Oraons, Minas, Bodos
and Mundas, all of whom are at least a million strong.
2). Acquired Traits
Classifications based on acquired traits use two main criteria mode of
livelihood, and extent of incorporation into Hindu society or a combination of
the two.
Mode of livelihood: Tribes can be categorised into fishermen, food gatherers
and hunters, shifting cultivators, peasants and plantation and industrial workers
Degree of assimilation in the Hindu society: Assimilation can be seen either
from the point of view of the tribes, or (as has been most often the case) from
the point of view of the dominant Hindu mainstream.
From the tribes point of view, apart from the extent of assimilation, attitude
towards Hindu society is also a major criterion, with differentiation between
tribes that are positively inclined towards Hinduism and those who resist or
oppose it.
From the mainstream point of view, tribes may be viewed in terms of the status
accorded to them in Hindu society, ranging from the high status given to some,
to the generally low status accorded to most.
Mainstream attitude towards tribes:

The isolationist side argued that tribals needed protection from traders,
moneylenders and Hindu
and Christian missionaries, all of whom were intent on reducing tribals to
detribalised landless labour. The integrationists, on the other hand, argued that
tribals were merely backward Hindus, and their problems had to be Indian
Society addressed within the same framework as that of other backward classes.
This opposition dominated the Constituent Assembly debates, which were finally
settled along the lines of a compromise which advocated welfare schemes that
would enable controlled integration
National Development vs Tribal development (imp)
The imperatives of development have governed attitudes towards tribes and
shaped the policies of the state. National development, particularly in the
Nehruvian era, involved the building of large dams, factories and mines. Because
the tribal areas were located in mineral rich and forest covered parts of the
country, tribals have paid a disproportionate price for the development of the
rest of Indian society. This kind of development has benefited the mainstream at
the expense of the tribes. The process of dispossessing tribals of their land has
occurred as a necessary byproduct of the exploitation of minerals and the
utilisation of favourable sites for setting up hydroelectric power plants, many of
which were in tribal areas.
The loss of the forests on which most tribal communities depended has been a
major blow. Forests started to be systematically exploited in British times and the
trend continued after Independence. The coming of private property in land has
also adversely affected tribals, whose community-based forms of collective
ownership were placed at a disadvantage in the new system.
Examples: The most recent such example is the series of dams being built on
the Narmada, where most of the costs and benefits seem to flow
disproportionately to different communities and regions. Many tribal
concentration regions and states have also been experiencing the problem of
heavy in-migration of non-tribals in response to the pressures of development.
This threatens to disrupt and overwhelm tribal communities and cultures,
besides accelerating the process of exploitation of tribals.
The industrial areas of Jharkhand for example have suffered a dilution of the
tribal share of population. But the most dramatic cases are probably in the NorthEast. A state like Tripura had the tribal share of its population halved within a
single decade, reducing them to a minority. Similar pressure is being felt by
Arunachal Pradesh.
Tribes today:
Forced incorporation of tribal communities into mainstream processes has had its
impact on tribal culture and society as much as its economy.
Because the interaction with the mainstream has generally been on terms
unfavourable to the tribal communities, many tribal identities today are centred
on ideas of resistance and opposition to the overwhelming force of the non-tribal
world.
Two broad sets of issues have been most important in giving rise to tribal
movements. These are issues relating to control over vital economic resources
like land and specially forests, and issues relating to matters of ethnic-cultural
identity.
The two can often go together, but with differentiation of tribal society they may
also diverge. The reasons why the emerging middle classes within tribal societies

may assert their tribal identity may be different from the reasons why poor and
uneducated tribals join tribal movements. As with any other community, it is the
relationship between these kinds of internal dynamics and external forces that
will shape the future.
Family and kinship:
The structure of the family can be studied both as a social institution in itself and
also in its relationship to other social institutions of society.
In itself a family can be defined as
nuclear or extended.
It can be male-headed or female-headed.
The line of descent can be matrilineal or patrilineal
The composition of the family and its structure changes and these changes can
be understood in relation to other changes in society. The family (the private
sphere) is linked to the economic, political, cultural, and educational (the public)
spheres.
The changes can happen accidentally like during war and sometimes these
changes are brought about, as when young people decide to choose their
spouses instead of letting elders decide or when same sex love is expressed
openly in society. Both history and contemporary times suggest
that often change in family and marriage norms are resisted violently.
Nuclear Family: A nuclear family consists of only one set of parents and their
children.
Extended family: An extended family (commonly known as the joint family)
can take different forms, but has more than one couple, and often more than two
generations, living together. This could be a set of brothers with their individual
families, or an elderly couple with their sons and grandsons and their respective
families. The extended family often is seen as symptomatic of India.
The diverse forms of the family:
With regard to rule of residence
Matrilocal (Where married couples live with womans parents)
Patrilocal (where married couples live with mans parents)
With regard to the rules of inheritance Matrilineal societies pass on property from mother to daughter but daughters
do not exercise control over it
Patrilineal societies do so from father to son.
Patriarchy structure exists where the men exercise authority and dominance
Matriarchy structure exists where the women play a similarly dominant role.
However, matriarchy unlike patriarchy has been a theoretical rather than an
empirical concept. There is no historical or anthropological evidence of
matriarchy i.e., societies where women exercise dominance.

Chapter 4: The Market as a Social

Institution

What will we learn from this chapter?

The markets are themselves social institutions, and are connected to other
aspects of the social structure, such as caste and class, in various ways.
There is a social and symbolic significance attached to consumption of things
that goes far beyond its immediate economic purpose.
The mode of exchanging or circulating goods & services is rapidly changing due
to liberalisation of Indian economy and globalisation.
Market is both an economic and social institution.
Sociological perspectives on Markets and the economy:
Adam Smith was apolitical economist during 18 th century in England and he
wrote a book titled The Wealth of the nations.
In this book he defined a market economy being made up of a series of individual
exchanges or transactions which automatically creates a functioning and ordered
system. Each person looks only to their own self-interest, but in the pursuit of
this self-interest the interests of all or of society also seem to be looked after. In
this sense, there seem to an unseen force at work that converts what is good for
each individual into what is good for society. This unseen force was called the
invisible hand by Adam Smith.
He argued that,
Capitalist economy is driven by individual self-interest and works best
when individual buyers and sellers make rational decisions that serve their
own interests.
Smith supported the idea of a free market, that is, a market free from all kinds
of regulation whether by the state or otherwise. This economic philosophy was
also given the name laissez-faire (ley-zey, fehr) a French phrase that means
leave alone or let it be.
As per sociologists markets are socially embedded meaning markets are often
controlled or organised by particular social groups or classes, and have specific
connections to other institutions, social processes and structures.
The weekly market as a social institution can be illustrated by tribal market in
Dhorai, a village located in the deep hinterland of North Bastar district in
Chhattisgarh. The layout of the market symbolises the hierarchical inter-group
social relations in this region. Different social groups are located according to
their position in the caste and social hierarchy as well as in the market system.
The wealthy and high-ranking Rajput jeweller and the middle-ranking local Hindu
traders sit in the central zones, and the tribal sellers of vegetables and local
wares in the outer circles. The quality of social relations is expressed in the kinds
of goods that are bought and sold, and the way in which transactions are carried
out. For instance, interactions between tribals and non-tribal traders are very
different than those between Hindus of the same community: they express
hierarchy and social distance rather than social equality.
A study of Nakarattar community of Tamilnadu during the colonial period shows
how its banking and trade activities were deeply embedded in the
social organisation of the community. The structures of caste, kinship, and
family were oriented towards commercial activity, and business activity was
carried out within these social structures. As in most traditional merchant
communities, Nakarattar banks were basically joint family firms, so that the
structure of the business firm was the same as that of the family. Similarly,
trading and banking activities were organised through caste and kinship
relationships. For instance, their extensive caste-based social networks allowed

Chettiar merchants to expand their activities into Southeast Asia and Ceylon. In
one view, the economic activities of the Nakarattars represented a kind of
indigenous capitalism.
Certain communities have carried out trade from a very long time and have
become synonymous with trade like Baniyas of North India. There are many
caste groups which have entered trade and claim Vaisya status in the process of
upward mobility
Reason for caste based specialisation in trade
One of the reasons for this caste-based specialisation is that trade and
commerce often operate through caste and kinship networks, as we have seen in
the case of the Nakarattars. Because businessmen are more likely to trust others
of their own community or kin group, they tend to do business within such
networks rather than with others outside and this tends to create a caste
monopoly within certain areas of business.
Colonialism and the Emergence of new markets:
The advent of colonialism in India produced major upheavals in the economy,
causing disruptions in production, trade, and agriculture like the demise of
handloom industry due to the flooding in of manufactured textiles from England.
In colonial era India began to be more fully linked with the world capitalist
economy. Now it became a consumer of manufactured goods and a source of raw
materials.
Many Europeans entered into trade and alliances with the existing merchant
communities. The changing economic scenario provided a platform for many new
communities to enter this arena like Marwaris. The existing ones reoriented
themselves to the changing economic scenario and continued with their trade
practices.
The Marwaris became a successful business community only during the colonial
period, when they took advantage of new opportunities in colonial cities such as
Calcutta and settled throughout the country to carry out trade and money
lending. Like Nakarattars they also thrived on their extensive social network
which created relations of trust necessary to operate their banking system.
Marwaris transformed from small migrant traders to merchant bankers to
industrialists post independence.
Understanding Capitalism as a Social system:
What Karl Marx thought about capitalism?
He considered capitalism as a system of commodity production or producing for
the market, through the use of wage labour. He emphasised that the economy
does not consist of things (goods circulating in the market), but is made up of
relations between people who are connected to one another through the process
of production.
Labour = commodity (Under capitalist modes of production)
Labour must sell their labour power which in turn gives rise to two classes,
1) Capitalists = Who own the factories
2) Workers = Who sell their labour to capitalists
The capitalists profits by extracting the surplus value from the labour by paying
them less.
Commoditisation and consumption:
Commodification: It occurs when things previously not traded in market
become commodities. A commodity need not be a thing, it can be a service

Examples of Commodification:
Labour or skills
Sale of body-parts for transplant
In India, Marriage bureaus have commoditised the whole process of
arranging marriages which previously was done by families only.
Education
Another feature of capitalist society is that Consumption becomes more and
more important, not just for economic reasons but it has a symbolic meaning
associated with it.
The term status symbol coined by Max Weber points to the value attached to the
relation between the things people buy and have Vis a Vis their social status.
Moreover, consumption is just one aspect of lifestyle.
Sociologists study consumption patterns and lifestyles because of their cultural
and social significance in modern life.
Globalisation: Interlinking of local, regional, national and international
markets:
The change in economic policy from one of state-led development to a more
liberalised one has ushered in a new era of globalisation in India.
What is Globalisation?
The term globalisation includes a number of trends, especially the increase in
international movement of commodities, money, information, and people, as well
as the development of technology (such as in computers, telecommunications,
and transport) and other infrastructure to allow this movement.
Globalisation is due to Liberalisation of Indian economy that was started in
1980s.
Integration: A central feature of globalisation is the increasing extension and
integration of the markets around the world meaning that changes in one part of
the globe may have a profound impact somewhere else far away.
For instance, Indias booming software industry may face a slump if the U.S.
economy does badly (as happened after the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade
Centre in New York), leading to loss of business and jobs here. BPO (like call
centres) and software services industry are major avenues through which India is
getting connected to the global economy.
Under globalisation, not only money and goods, but also people, cultural
products, and images can become commodities themselves.
Example: An example is the marketing of Indian spirituality and knowledge
systems (such as yoga and ayurveda) in the West.
Culture can also become a commodity.
Example: Pushkar Mela an annual traditional cattle market held in Rajasthan can
itself become a commodity for sale in market like a foreign writer mentioning
about Pushkar Mela in his guide book of India for foreign tourists. SO here the
Pushkar mela has become a commodity for tourism market.
What is Liberalisation or marketisation?
It is the removal of controls in order to encourage economic development or
the use of markets or market-based processes (rather than government
regulations or policies) to solve social, political, or economic problems.

What does liberalisation include?

the privatisation of public sector enterprises (selling government-owned
companies to private companies);
loosening of government regulations on capital, labour, and trade;
a reduction in tariffs and import duties so that foreign goods can be
imported more easily;
Allowance of easier access for foreign companies to set up industries.
removing government controls over wages and prices
Reason given for Marketisation:
The advocates of marketisation say that these steps will promote economic
growth and prosperity because private industry is more efficient than
government-owned industry.
Reasons given against Liberalisation:
Those against liberalisation argue that
Liberalisation and globalisation have had, or will have, a negative net
impact on India i.e. the costs and disadvantages will be more than the
advantages and benefits. Some sectors of Indian industry (like software
and information technology) or agriculture (like fish or fruit) may benefit
from access to a global market, but other sectors (like automobiles,
electronics or oilseeds) will lose because they cannot compete with foreign
producers.
Example: Indian farmers are now exposed to global competition as import of
agricultural goods is allowed. Moreover, liberalisation is against subsidies and
support price mechanism designed to protect farmers. So these support
measures are reduced or have been withdrawn due to marketisation which has
led to farmers living in poverty and not being able to compete against the
imported goods.
The privatisation or closing of Public sector enterprises has led to a loss of
employment and has led to growth of unorganised employment sector which is
not good for workers as it doesnt provide the same benefits and security as an
organised sector employment does.

Chapter 5: Patterns of social inequality and

exclusion

What we will learn from this chapter:

1). Role of institutions like family, caste, tribe, market etc in creating and
sustaining inequality and exclusion
For most of us who are born and live in India, social inequality and exclusion are
facts of life. This everydayness of social inequality and exclusion often make
them appear inevitable, almost natural to us.
Hard work alone is not enough:
It is true that hard work matters, and so does individual ability. If all other things
were equal, then personal effort, talent and luck would surely account for all the
differences between individuals. But, as is almost always the case, all other

things are not equal. It is these non-individual or group differences that explain
social inequality and exclusion.
Social Inequality:
Patterns of unequal access to social resources are commonly called Social
inequality.
In every society, some people have a greater share of valued resources like
money, property, education, health, power etc than others.
Social inequality is produced by the society in which we live in and does not
depend upon indigenous qualities or differences between the people.
These social resources can be divided into 3 forms of capital:
1). Economic Capital material assets and income
2). Cultural Capital educational qualifications and status
3). Social Capital in the form of network of social contacts and associations.
One type of capital can be converted to another type of capital.
For example, a person from a well-off family (economic capital) can afford
expensive higher education, and so can acquire cultural or educational
capital. Someone with influential relatives and friends (social capital) may
through access to good advice, recommendations or information manage to get
a well-paid job.
Social stratification It refers to a system by which categories of people in a
society are ranked in a hierarchy. This hierarchy then shapes peoples identity
and experiences, their relations with others, as well as their access to resources
and opportunities.
3 principles on which social stratification depends:1). Social stratification is a characteristic of society, not simply a function of
individual differences. Social stratification is a society-wide system that
unequally distributes social resources among categories of people.
2). Social stratification persists over generations. That is, children assume the
social positions of their parents. Within the caste system, birth dictates
occupational opportunities. A Dalit is likely to be confined to traditional
occupations such as agricultural labour, scavenging, or leather work, with little
chance of being able to get high-paying white-collar or professional work.
3). Social stratification is supported by patterns of belief, or ideology. No system
of social stratification is likely to persist over generations unless it is widely
viewed as being either fair or inevitable. Like caste system.
Social exclusion and discrimination is not only limited to differential access to
economic resources but extend to caste, ethnicity, religion, language, gender
and disability.
People often harbour prejudices against other people or groups.
So what is a prejudice?
Prejudice It refers to preconceived attitudes, opinions and notions held by
members of one group towards another. A prejudiced persons preconceived
views are often based on hearsay rather than on direct evidence, and are
resistant to change even in the face of new information. Generally prejudice is
used in a negative sense where it involves negative pre-judgement.
What is a stereotype?
Whereas prejudice involves attitudes, stereotypes on the other hand are
cognitions or beliefs. These are general statements which are applied to

everyone belonging to a particular caste, group, religion, ethnicity etc. Like in

India some colonial stereotypes are where some races are considered martial
while some others are considered cowardly and effeminate.

What is discrimination?
Discrimination is behaviour based on stereotypes and prejudices. Discrimination
can be seen in practices that disqualify members of one group from opportunities
open to others, as when a person is refused a job because of their gender or
religion.
Social Exclusion: It refers to ways in which individuals may become cut off from
full involvement in the wider society. It prevents individuals or groups from
having opportunities open to the majority of the population.
Social exclusion is systematic and involuntary (against the wishes of the
excluded). Prolonged exclusion produces a reaction wherein excluded groups
stop trying for inclusion. Like Dalits might build their own temples or convert to
other religion to escape the exclusion handed to them from upper class Hindu
communities.
The caste system as a discriminatory system:
The caste system is a distinct Indian social institution that legitimises and
enforces practices of discrimination against people born into particular castes.
These practices of discrimination are humiliating, exclusionary and exploitative.
As per scriptures the social and economic status were supposed to be sharply
separated but in actual historical practice economic and social status tended to
coincide meaning the high castes were almost invariably of high economic
status, while the low castes were almost always of low economic status.
At present, though these distinctions are not very rigid meaning occupational
change is not as difficult as was in previous days but still majority of privileged
and of high economic status sections of the society tend to be overwhelmingly
upper caste while the disadvantaged (and low economic status) sections are
dominated by the so called lower castes.
Untouchability:
Untouchability is an extreme and vicious aspect of caste system wherein strict
social sanctions are prescribed against the members of the caste located at the
bottom of the purity-pollution scale.
There are 3 main dimensions of untouchability, namely,
1). Exclusion
2). Humiliation subordination
3). Exploitation
Other low caste members also face discrimination and humiliation but the worst
kind of humiliation is reserved for Dalits.
For example: Being prohibited from sharing drinking water sources or
participating in collective religious worship, social ceremonies and festivals.
The performance of publicly visible acts of (self-) humiliation and subordination is
an important part of the practice of untouchability.
For example: Common instances include the imposition of gestures of
deference (such as taking off headgear, carrying footwear in the hand, standing

with bowed head, not wearing clean or bright clothes, and so on) as well as
routinised abuse and humiliation.
Untouchability also includes economic exploitation mainly in the form of unpaid
or under-paid labour or confiscation of the property.
Untouchables have been referred to by very derogatory names over the past
centuries. There use today is a criminal offence. Mahatma Gandhi had
popularised the term Harijan (literally, children
of God) in the 1930s to counter the pejorative (means expressing disapproval)
charge carried by caste names.
However, the ex-untouchable communities and their leaders have coined
another term, Dalit, which is now the generally accepted term for referring to
these groups. In Indian languages, the term Dalit literally means downtrodden
and conveys the sense of an oppressed people.
State and Non-State initiatives against caste and tribe discrimination:
The Indian state has had special programmes for the Scheduled Tribes and
Scheduled Castes since even before Independence. The Schedules listing the
castes and tribes recognised as deserving of special treatment because of the
massive discrimination practiced against them were drawn up in 1935, by the
British Indian government. After Independence, the same policies have been
continued and many new ones added. Among the most significant additions is
the extension of special programmes to the Other Backward Classes (OBCs)
since the early 1990s.
Reservations have been introduced to compensate for past and present caste
discrimination. It involves setting aside of some seats in different spheres of
public life like Govt jobs, educational institutions, PSUs, Central and State
legislatures etc
Number of laws have been passed to end, prohibit and punish caste
discrimination especially untouchability.
1). Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850- It disallowed the curtailment of
rights of citizens due solely to change of religion or caste. The 1850 Act was used
to allow entry of Dalits to government schools.
2). Constitution of India adopted in 1950 contained Article 17 which abolished
untouchability.
3). Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act
of 1989 - This Act revised and strengthened the legal provisions punishing acts
of violence or humiliation against Dalits and adivasis.
4). Constitution Amendment (Ninety Third Amendment) Act of 2005 It
became a law on 23rd Jan 2006. This amendment is for introducing reservation for
the Other Backward Classes in institutions of higher education.
Despite of above acts, untouchability has still not ceased to exist and is very
much a part of our society. Discrimination against tribals, Dalits, adivasis is
prevalent even today which proves that state action alone cannot usher in a
social change.
Dalits themselves have been increasingly active on the political, agitational, and
cultural fronts.
From the pre-Independence struggles and movements launched by people like
Jotiba Phule, Iyotheedas, Periyar, Ambedkar and others to contemporary political
organisations like the Bahujan Samaj Party in Uttar Pradesh or the Dalit

Sangharsh Samiti of Karnataka, Dalit political assertion has come a long way.
Dalits have also made significant contributions to literature in several Indian
languages especially Marathi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Hindi.
The Other Backward Classes (OBCs)
Certain castes were not subjected to untouchability but had to face
discrimination. These were the service and artisanal castes occupying the lower
rungs of the caste hierarchy. Such castes other than STs and SCs who suffered or
continue to suffer from social disadvantages have been categorised as Other
Backward Classes or OBCs.
OBCs form a much diverse group. Why?
Like Tribe OBCs are also defined by what they are not. They are neither part of
the forward castes at the upper end of the status spectrum, nor of the Dalits at
the lower end. Since caste has penetrated into other religions as well so there
are members of other religions too that belong to backward class and have same
traditional occupational identification and worse socio-economic status.
First Backward Classes Commission headed by Kaka Kalelkar: It was
appointed by first govt of independent India to look into the issue of welfare of
OBCs. It submitted its report in 1953
The Second Backward Classes Commission headed by B.P. Mandal was appointed
in 1970s. In 1990, central government decided to implement the ten-year old
Mandal Commission report.
The large disparities between the upper OBCs (who are largely landed castes and
enjoy dominance in rural society in many regions of India) and the lower OBCs
(who are very poor and disadvantaged, and are often not very different from
Dalits in socio-economic terms) make this a difficult political category to work
with. However, the OBCs are severely under-represented in all spheres except
landholding and political representation (they have a large number of MLAs and
MPs). Although the upper OBCs are dominant in the rural sector, the situation of
urban OBCs is much worse, being much closer to that of the Scheduled Castes
and Tribes than to the upper castes.
Adivasi Struggles
Adivasis - literal meaning is original inhabitants. The term was coined in 1930s
as a part of struggle against the outside forces such as colonial govt,
moneylenders and outside-settlers.
They are categorised under Scheduled tribes and are recognised by Indian
Constitution as specially marked by poverty, social stigma and powerlessness.
Where are Adivasis located?
Today only NE states have large tribal populations. In other Indian states there
are only pockets of tribal concentration.
Historical overview of situation of Adivasis
The current situation of Adivasis in which they live in abject poverty can be
traced to the patterns of resources extraction started by British government and
followed on subsequently by the Indian government.
From the late 19th century British govt imposed restrictions on the usage of forest
resources by the adivasis population by reserving the tracts of forest land for its
own use. This lead to impoverishment of adivasis as they were solely dependent
on forests for their sustenance forcing them to either use forest resources

illegally (for which they were prosecuted as thieves and encroachers) or migrate
in search of labour.
After independence, the situation didnt become any better. Why?
1). the government monopoly over forests continued. If anything, the
exploitation of forests accelerated.
2). the policy of capital-intensive industrialisation adopted by the Indian
government required mineral resources and power-generation capacities which
were concentrated in Adivasi areas. Adivasi lands were rapidly acquired for
new mining and dam projects and millions of adivasis were displaced without any
proper compensation or rehabilitation.
In post-Independence India, the most significant achievements of Adivasi
movements include the attainment of statehood for Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh,
which were originally part of Bihar and Madhya Pradesh respectively. In this
respect adivasis and their struggles are different from the
Dalit struggle because, unlike Dalits, adivasis were concentrated in contiguous
areas and could demand states of their own.
Environmental conflict sites: Narmada, Singrauli, Tehri, Hirakud, Koel Karo,
Suvarnarekha, Nagarhole, Plachimada, Kalinganagar
Struggle for Womens Equality and Rights
Apart from the obvious physical and biological differences between men and
women, social differences also exist between them.
Women today are discriminated on the basis of their gender in every field today.
Despite having matrilineal societies like Khasis of Meghalaya that have existed
for centuries, women are seen as being unfit to be designated as inheritors and
heads of the families. In many African countries, women have shown themselves
to be successful traders and farmers but still after all these examples before us,
women discrimination exists.
What will we learn here?
How gender inequality came to be recognised as inequality in the Indian context,
and the kinds of responses that this recognition produced.
The womens question arose in India due to Middle class reform movements
in the 19th century.
Why these reform movements were termed as Middle Class reform
movements?
They were termed so because of being lead by the leaders from the newly
emerging western educated middle class.
These leaders were inspired by,
the democratic ideals of the modern West
By the deep pride in their own democratic traditions of the past.
Examples:
Anti-sati campaign led by Raja Rammohun Roy (middle class social
reformer) in Bengal. Rammohun Roys ideas represented a curious mixture
of Western rationality and an assertion of Indian traditionality.
The widow remarriage movement in the Bombay Presidency where
Ranade was one of the leading reformers. Ranade (upper caste reformer)
used the writings of scholars such as Bishop Joseph Butler. At the same
time, M.G. Ranades writings entitled the The Texts of the Hindu Law
on the Lawfulness of the Remarriage of Widows and Vedic
Authorities for Widow Marriage elaborated the shastric sanction for
remarriage of widows.

Jyotiba Phule (he was from a socially excluded caste) attacked on caste
and gender oppression. He founded Satyashodhak Samaj. His first social
reform efforts were for women and untouchables
The social reform movement in Islam was led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan.
He wanted girls to be educated, but within the precincts of their homes.
Like Dayanand Saraswati of the Arya Samaj, he stood for womens
education but sought for a curriculum that included instruction in religious
principles, training in the arts of housekeeping and handicrafts and rearing
of children

Now, it is often said that the social reform movements for women were lead by
male reformers and that ideas of women equality are alien imports meaning
imported from West or outside of India but this argument can be easily refuted if
one is familiar with works of women authors like Tarabai Shinde (a maharashtrian
housewife) who wrote Stree Purush Tulana in 1882 and Begum Rokeya
Sakhawat Hossain who wrote Sultanas Dream in 1905.

Something more about Sultanas Dream:

This remarkable short story is probably the earliest example of science fiction
writing in India, and among the first by a woman author anywhere in the world.
In her dream, Sultana visits a magical country where the gender roles are
reversed. Men are confined to the home and observe purdah while women are
busy scientists vying with each other at inventing devices that will control the
clouds and regulate rain, and machines that fly or air-cars.
Women equality as a part of the nationalist vision:
During 20th Century many women organisations arose and women began taking
part in the national movement.
In 1931, the Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress issued a
declaration on the Fundamental Rights of Citizenship in India whereby it
committed itself to womens equality.
The declaration mentioned that Women shall have the right to vote, to represent
and the right to hold public offices.
Social change whether on womens rights or any other issue is never a battle
won once and for all. As with other social issues the struggle is long, and the
womens movement in India will have to fight to defend hard won rights as well
as take up new issues as they emerge.
The Struggles of differently-abled
The differently abled are not disabled only because they are physically or
mentally impaired but also because society is built in a manner that does not
cater to their needs. One of the leading activists and scholars of disability in the
Indian context, Anita Ghai, argues that this invisibility of the disabled can be
compared to the Invisible Man of Ralph Ellison.
The very term differently abled is significant because it draws attention to the
fact that public perception of the disabled needs to be questioned.
Indian Attitude towards differently-abled:

In a culture that looks up to bodily perfection, all deviations from the perfect
body signify abnormality, defect and distortion. Labels such as bechara (poor
thing) accentuate the victim status for the disabled person.
The common perception views disability as retribution for past karma (actions)
from which there can be no reprieve. Disability is, thus, seen as a characteristic
of the individual. Moreover, the popular images in mythology portray the
disabled in an extremely negative fashion.
Poverty and disability:
There is a close relationship between disability and poverty. Malnutrition,
mothers weakened by frequent childbirth, inadequate immunisation
programmes, accidents in overcrowded homes, all contribute to an incidence of
disability among poor people that is higher than among people living in easier
circumstances.
Disability increases isolation and economic strain on the family.
The Persons with Disability (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights
and Full Participation) Act of 1995 is one of the key enactments, which
provides for education, employment, creation of barrier free environment, social
security etc. The Act extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu
and Kashmir. The Government of Jammu & Kashmir has enacted "The Persons
with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights & Full Participation)
Act, 1998".
Recognition of disability is absent from the wider educational discourse. This is
evident from the historical practices within the educational system that continue
to marginalise the issue of disability by maintaining two separate streams one
for disabled students and one for everyone else.
Chapter 6: The Challenges of Cultural diversity
What we will learn from this chapter?
Some of the tensions and difficulties associated with cultural diversity
What precisely does cultural diversity mean, and why is it seen as a
challenge?
Why Diversity presents challenges?
Diversity => Differences and not inequalities. India is a nation of great cultural
diversity meaning people with varied religion, caste, creed, language and race
live here. When people with such diverse backgrounds are a part of a bigger
nation then difficulties are bound to arise due to conflict or competition between
them.
Sometimes cultural differences are accompanied by social and economic
inequalities which further complicates things because measures to address the
inequalities or injustices suffered by one community can provoke opposition from
other communities. The situation is made worse when scarce resources like
river waters, jobs or government funds have to be shared.
Cultural communities and the Nation-State:
What we will learn from this topic?
Why is it so important for people to belong to communities based on
cultural identities like a caste, ethnic group, region, or religion?
Why is so much passion aroused when there is a perceived threat, insult,
or injustice to ones community?

Why do these passions pose problems for the nation-state?

The importance of Community identity:

Every human being needs a sense of stable identity to operate in this world. We
are able to answer questions like,
Who am I? How am I different from others?
Because of the way we are socialised or taught how to live in the society by our
family and our community. Our community provides us the language (our mother
tongue) and the cultural values through which we comprehend the world. It also
anchors our self-identity.
Ascriptive identities: Identities determined by accidents of birth and do not
involve any choice on the part of the individuals concerned are called Ascriptive
identities. For eg: Community identity which is based on birth and belonging
rather than some form of acquired qualification or accomplishment is a form of
Ascriptive identity.
Perhaps it is because of this accidental, unconditional and yet almost
inescapable belonging that we can often be so emotionally attached to our
community identity.
Overlapping Circle of community ties gives meaning to our world and gives us a
sense of identity, of who we are.
For e.g.- I reside in my village and as per historical records all the villagers have
one common ancestor whose progeny gave rise to families that ultimately grew
into a whole village. Therefore, all villagers belong to the same community.
Hence, when I say to someone that I belong to that village and to that family I
feel a sense of emotional attachment with people residing there and the village
itself. This gives me an identity and helps other people to identify me from the
crowd of hundred other people. People would identify me as a resident of that
village community. If by any chance this identity of mine is threatened in any
way I would surely do anything to protect it.
Similar is the case with people belonging to other communities.
2nd Feature of Ascriptive identity
They are universal meaning everyone in this world (exceptions are always
there) is loyal and committed towards their respective Ascriptive identities like
loyalty towards motherland, towards mother tongue, towards family, towards
faith etc.
Thus, the conflicts involving communities (like nation, caste or religion) are very
hard to deal with because each side in such conflicts think that it is right and
construct matching but reverse mirror images of each other. It may take decades
before reaching some common ground in such identity conflicts.
Communities, Nations and Nation-States
What is a Nation?
In simplest terms, a nation is a community of communities.
As per Max Weber, a state is a,
body that successfully claims monopoly of a legitimate force in a particular
territory
A Nation is easy to describe but hard to define because it is hard to come up with
any specific characteristics that a nation must possess. For every possible
criterion there are exceptions and counter-examples.

For example: there are many nations that do not share a single common
language, religion, ethnicity and so on. On the other hand, there are many
languages, religions or ethnicities that are shared across nations. But this does
not lead to the formation of a single unified nation of, say, all English speakers or
of all Buddhists.
One criterion that comes closest to distinguishing a nation is a state.
Nations are communities that have a state of their own.
New Development: One-Nation one-State; One-state one nation is a new
phenomenon.
One-state One-nation
In the past it was not true meaning that a State could represent various nations
like Soviet Union which itself recognised various nationalities.
State
Nation 1

Nation
Nation

Nation 2

Exception to One-State Onecriterion

Nation 3

One-Nation One-state
Also, a single nation could have people of different nationalities like in Jamaica
there are more non-Jamaicans then the Jamaicans themselves. So this criterion
also has its exceptions.
Nation
People from different
States

Conclusion: In short, today it is hard to define a nation in any way other than to
say that it is a community that has succeeded in acquiring a state of its own.

Today, the nation is the most accepted or proper justification for a state, while
the people are the ultimate source of legitimacy of the nation. In other words,
states need the nation as much or even more than nations need states.
What is the difference between a state, a nation and a nation-state?
A nation-state differs from a "state" or a "nation" for a couple of important
reasons:
A nation refers only to a socio-cultural entity, a union of people sharing who
can identify culturally and linguistically. This concept does not necessarily
consider formal political unions.
A state refers to a legal/political entity that is comprised of the following: a) a
permanent population; b) a defined territory; c) a government; and d) the
capacity to enter into relations with other states.
Additional sources to refer:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467746/politicalsystem/36702/National-political-systems#ref416908

What is an assimilationist policy?

Such policies are aimed at persuading, encouraging or forcing all citizens to
adopt a uniform set of cultural values and norms. These values and norms are
usually entirely or largely those of the dominant social group. Other, nondominant or subordinated groups in society are expected or required to give up
their own cultural values and adopt the prescribed ones.
What is an integrationist policy?
They insist that the public culture be restricted to a common national pattern,
while all non-national cultures are to be relegated to the private sphere. In this
case too, there is the danger of the dominant groups culture being treated as
national culture.
Now, question arises as to why states tend to favour such policies?
States try to establish political legitimacy by adopting nation building strategies
and how do they pursue nation-building, by resorting to either Policies of
integration or Policies of assimilation.
Community identities like language, religion, caste, race etc can act as basis of
nation-formation so already existing states treat them as rivals.
For example: An area having Sikh or Muslim or Hindu or any other such
(community identity) majority might demand separation from an already existing
Indian state but it is not necessary that this will happen. So if Indian state
deliberately tries to homogenise such identities by replacing them with a singular
national identity, it will be termed as act of suppression on the part of Indian
state and this very act of suppression will lead to intensifying of the very
community identity it set out to exterminate.

Conclusion: Allowing cultural diversity is a good policy which fosters national

unity. This diversity if nurtured will further the cause of national unity.

Cultural Diversity and Indian Nation-State

The Indian nation-state is socially and culturally one of the most diverse
countries of the world.
It is the third country with largest Muslim population after Indonesia and
Pakistan.
As discussed above, to an already existing state different community
identities are like rivals so what is the case of Indian Nation-state?
India has ruled out as assimilationist policy since the very beginning. However,
some sections of Hindu community have expressed their demands for an
assimilationist model.
Why Indias policy is not an integrationist one?
India doesnt follow an integrationist policy. In an integrationist policy religion,
language, caste and such identities are restricted to private sphere however
despite of being a secular state, different community identities like religion, race,
caste etc have been explicitly recognised by the state and have been provided
with a strong constitutional protection.
Hence, India can be considered as a very good example of a state-nation.
Regionalism in the Indian context
Why regionalism exists in India?
1). Diversity: Regionalism in India is rooted to its vast diversity in religion,
culture, language and tribes.
2). Geographical Concentration: Populations with different community identities
are found in majority in specific areas of India and the neglect of such regions in
terms of development foments regionalist sentiments.
Language coupled with the regional and tribal identity and not religion has
therefore provided the most powerful instrument for the formation of ethnonational identity in India.
Redrawing of the boundaries of Indian States on the basis of linguistic
considerations has been the biggest contributing factor to the unification of this
vast diverse land unlike Sri Lanka and Pakistan which were divided due to their
neglect of linguistic demands.

The Nation-state and religion related issues and identities

The most controversial of all aspects of cultural diversity are related to religious
communities and religion-based identities.
Such issues can be categorised into 2 heads,
Secularism- communalism set: Questions of secularism and
communalism are about the states relationship to religion and to political
groupings that invoke religion as their primary identity.
Minority-majority set: Questions about minorities and majorities involve
decisions on how the state is to treat different religious, ethnic or other

communities that are unequal in terms of numbers and/or power

(including social, economic and political power.
Minority Rights and Nation-building
Indian nationalism has always been marked by inclusive nationalism and
democratic vision.
Inclusive nationalism:
Inclusive nationalism recognises diversity and plurality. It doesnt discriminate
between minority and majority. Instead of following an exclusionist agenda it
follows an inclusive one wherein everyone is equal despite of their race, religion,
caste, creed, language or any other such identity markers.
So that the majority group doesnt assume, that their culture, religion or
language to be the nation-state, inclusive nationalism has been constitutionally
embedded.
What is a minority in a sociological sense?
The notion of minority groups is widely used in sociology and is more than
a merely numerical distinction it usually involves some sense of relative
disadvantage. Thus whenever the word minority is referred to, the
wealthier sections amongst it are excluded.
The sociological sense of minority also implies that the members of the
minority form a collectivity that is, they have a strong sense of group
solidarity, a feeling of togetherness and belonging. This is linked to
disadvantage because the experience of being subjected to prejudice and
discrimination usually heightens feelings of intra-group loyalty and
interests
Thus, statistical minorities like all people born on 29 th February are not minorities
in sociological sense.
Why (even rich) religious minorities require protection?
There can be anomalous instances where a minority though well-off economically
but is a minority in other terms like a religious minority like Parsis or Sikhs.
Such minorities require protection because of the demographic dominance of the
majority. They are politically vulnerable and always under threat, meaning a
dominant majority, after winning elections can use state machinery against such
minorities and might suppress their identity.
Thus, recognising the fact that unsatisfied and suppressed minorities can form a
potentially explosive situation for the entire nation, the makers of the
constitution provided them with many safeguards to protect their rights and their
distinct identity from the majority and dominant groups.

Communalism, Secularism and Nation-state

What is communalism?

Meaning of word communal something related to community as different from

an individual. This original meaning is neutral but when the word is used in South
Asian context then it means something else.
It means an aggressive political ideology linked to religion which considers
others religion to be inferior, illegitimate and opposed to ones own.
The key point here is the attitude towards those holding beliefs in other kinds of
identities, including other religion-based identities.
One of the key claims of the communalism is its claim that religious identity
overrides everything else. Whether one is poor or rich, whatever ones
occupation, caste or political beliefs, it is religion alone that counts. All Hindus
are the same as are all Muslims, Sikhs and so on. This has the effect of
constructing large and diverse groups as singular and homogenous.
It rules out the possibility that Hindus living in Goa might have a lot in common
with Sikhs living there than the Hindus living in Kashmir.
A commonly cited justification of communal rioting is to avenge the deaths or
dishonour suffered by their co-religionists elsewhere or even in the distant past.
Indian history is plagued with many communal riots but at the same time Indian
history provides evidence of a tradition of religious pluralism, ranging from
peaceful co-existence to actual inter-mixing or syncretism (fusion of different
systems of belief). So it is upon us what we wish to learn from it.
What is Secularism?
Western context:
It means the separation of church and state.
Indian context:
It implies equal respect to every religion like in India a public holiday is declared
for every religions major festivals.
In case of India, complications arise due to the Indian states simultaneous
commitment to secularism as well as the protection of minorities. The protection
of minorities requires that they be given special consideration in a context where
the normal working of the political system places them at a disadvantage vis-vis the majority community. But providing such protection immediately invites
the accusation of favouritism or appeasement of minorities.
Opponents argue that secularism of this sort is only an excuse to favour the
minorities in return for their votes or other kinds of support. Supporters argue
that without such special protection, secularism can turn into an excuse for
imposing the majority communitys values and norms on the minorities.

State and Civil society

A state can turn in to an authoritarian state if state-structure i.e. the legislature,

bureaucracy, judiciary, armed forces, police and other arms of the state becomes
insulated from the people. To keep an eye on the state and to protest against its
injustices or supplement its efforts Non-state actors and institutions become
important.
What is civil society?
Civil society is the non-state and non-market part of the public domain in
which individuals get together voluntarily to create institutions and
organisations.
It is based on active citizenship where citizens pursue social issues. It
consists of voluntary associations, organisations or institutions formed by
groups of citizens.
It includes political parties, media institutions, trade unions, nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), religious organisations, and other
kinds of collective entities.
What is the main criterion for inclusion in civil society?
The main criteria for inclusion in civil society are that,
The organisation should not be state-controlled, and
It should not be a purely commercial profit-making entity.
Example: Thus, Doordarshan is not part of civil society though private television
channels are; a car manufacturing company is not part of civil society but the
trade unions to which its workers belong are.
The most significant example of civil society action
The RTI agitation: Beginning with an agitation in rural Rajasthan for the release
of information on government funds spent on village development, this effort
grew into a nation-wide campaign. Despite the resistance of the bureaucracy, the
government was forced to respond to the campaign and pass a new law formally
acknowledging the citizens right to information. Examples of this sort illustrate
the crucial importance of civil society in ensuring that the state is accountable to
the nation and its people.