Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BYZANTINE EMPIRE
57 full-color plates
For more than a thousand years the
Byzantine Empire preserved and extended the treasures of Christian civilization.
Today
its
scattered through
is
many
lands,
and
it
WORLD
in
architecture,
sculpture,
and other
mosaic,
manuscript
arts.
Due
painting,
illustration,
attention
is
With 57
GREYSTONE PRESS
NEW YORK
f-
BYZANTINE EMPIRE
BYZANTINE ART IN THE MIDDLE AGES
ANDRE GRABAR
Mosaic
in the
GERMANY
IN
CONTENTS
List of Plates (5).
Acknowledgements
(7).
Map
PART
(8-9).
I:
13
32
III.
TECHNIQUES
47
IV.
54
I.
II.
PART
II:
II.
(726-843)
85
THE UPSURGE AFTER THE ICONOCLAST CRISIS AND THE MAIN STAGES
ART HISTORY TO THE FALL OF BYZANTIUM
98
102
IN
III.
IV.
Enamels
V.
(119).
(132).
(189).
Mural painting
(150).
Manuscript-painting
(167).
Sculpture
132
(187).
silks (190).
TURY
193
APPENDICES
Chronological Table (206)
205
Index (220).
LIST OF PLATES
i
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
12
13
14
15
16
1
18
1
20
2
22
23
24
25
26
Two
enamel. Venice
Alexius v Murtzuphlus miniature. Vienna
Council of the Byzantine Church miniature
military saints
19
20
The Emperor
21
22
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
63
64
65
66
67
68
....
87
88
89
90
91
27
28 St. Mark the Evangelist: miniature.
29 - Mosaics in the apse. Monreale
30 - Birth of Mary mosaic. Daphni
92
93
94
Florence
111
112
31
-Mural
Ochrid
mural painting. Nerez
- The Archangel of the Annunciation. Kurbinovo
- St. Elizabeth fleeing with the infant St. John. Cappadocia
Emperor Constantine and St. Helena: miniature. Parma
- Prayer in Gethsemane and Judas hanging: miniature. Paris
- Moses receiving the Law on Sinai: miniature. Rome
-The Prophet Nathan: miniature. Paris
- The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus miniature. Rome
- The Crucifixion and the Dividing of Christ's Garments miniature. Paris
-The Healing of the Man Sick of the Palsy: miniature. Florence
paintings.
32 - Burial of Christ
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
4
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
113
114
115
116
117
118
135
136
137
138
-The
Denial of
St. Peter:
miniature.
69
70
139
140
Parma
141
.
142
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
56
icon.
Athens
166
183
184
185
186
LIST OF PLANS
3 4 5 6 7 1
103
Daphni
105
Kapnikarea, Athens
Holy Apostles, Salonika
St. Sophia, Mistra
Palace of the Despots, Mistra
106
104
107
108
109
MAP
The Byzantine Empire
in the
Middle Ages
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The
following libraries and museums kindly allowed reproduction of the works represented in the
on the following pages:
plates
45, 159
67, 162
The
plates
Mme.
186
65,
Palatine Library,
Parma
Treasury of
Mark's, Venice
St.
184
20
140
19, 44,
68,
160
139
Vatican Library
64,
135,
137
on the following pages were taken and kindly made available by:
Florand
Mme.
Hassia
J.
Powell
M. and Mme.
Thierry
185, 186
The
other plates, taken by Mile. D. Fourmont, belong to the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Paris.
The
drawn by M. A. Khatchatrian.
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE
In the spelling of names Latinized forms have generally been preferred to those from the Greek.
IN
PART
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
BYZANTINE ART
ii
I.
THE GEOGRAPHICAL
The aim of
art,
this
book
is
and
mean
Individuality of
medieval
Byzantine art
We
shall often
be writing of the
Byzantine art during the period which stretches from the end of
antiquity to the eve of
modern
Western
art
We
Ages had
its
own
characteristics,
which
it
is
and
useful
fair to
turning to
its
origins only
we
where
crisis
When
one
tries
to
is
may
(330-726). It
artistic life
of Con-
Middle Ages.
artistic
its
Geographical spread of
Byzantine art
islands,
artists
were active
is
not
all
false,
but
remember
it
requires
more
precise
13
Byzantine territory
itself and
it
influenced in matters
of art and culture did not remain the same between 726 and 1453.
From the end of antiquity to the period of the foundation of
Constantinople, and again in the sixth century under Justinian and
his successors, the art
art
Successive
reductions
of
Byzantine Empire
which was
to
remain the
basis of Byzantine
Roman
far as the
established everywhere
It
also
dis-
in the
in the
Levant, the Lombards reduced her Italian possessions and the Bulgars crossed the
where Slav
Danube and
infiltration
Iconoclast''
emperors
the beginning of the ninth centuries was to have stopped these invasions,
and
to
same
mind
(in
order to
Minor
stake),
frontier district,
a questionable one
if
title
we
where the
fate of the
empire was at
and
artistic activities.
We
14
Amorian and
Macedonian
dynasties
in the
increased as
Bulgaria, Dalmatia
Territories
from
back
to the
mother country
were not
territories
to
being brought
be maintained.
of the
Byzantine Empire
XHth
the
Xth
to the
century
A terrible
by the Turks in 1071 and the development of the Slav kingdoms in the Balkans in the twelfth century
prevented Byzantium from holding on to them. So one can say that,
defeat of the Byzantine armies
from the
fall
Roughly speaking,
it
all
Dalmatia and the lower Danube, and on the other the southern
extremity of the Greek archipelago, as well as the western part of
its
coastal regions,
and Antioch
up
to
in the south.
territorial
state
made
Armenia'. But for the study of art the passage to and fro of
less short-
15
was invariably
in displacing
them
politically
whether
practised,
it
who
it
tried,
and such
artistic
Byzantine
Christians
state.
The main
established in foreign
Christians converted
Syria,
its
by Byzantine
countries
missions. This
period under review, the territory of the Byzantine Empire increased only occasionally and then for a short time,
it
did however
of all the Balkan countries, and of the whole of Russia. This time
was the
field
background
it
to the
is
reality,
is
one sphere
and compensates
for
so
Influences
of religious
conquest on spread
of art
important vehicle
political
power of the
We
this fact,
which
is
an important one
for ap-
in this
book we
shall only
countries of Eastern
16
Europe
for another
volume in
this series.
It is
common measure
territorial extent
had
it
(1081-1185,
185-1204).
it
districts
Iconium.
In 1204, diverted from
its
real aim,
Fourth Crusade
This
state,
bordered by a
whole
series
territory of continental
Greece and
its
islands;
it
did not
resist
In
Reconquest of
Constantinople
is
by emperors of Nicaea
perhaps due in
which
One may
at that period
dimmed by
was exclusively
religious,
art,
and the forced withdrawal of the Greek clergy and of those who,
by the means at their disposal and their influence, were the tradiople
works
that
is
to say, the
its
a century
very striking
is
when
Western
art in the
been studied,
Maintenance
of Byzantine
artistic tradition
under
Latin domination
it is
several causes.
this
The absence
Greek countries
activity
probably due
is
to
district
made
the spot
only in
princes lasted
(i.e.,
much
(Chios), or in
by the Venetians
European
tribution of
art
was
felt
particularly in military
of Byzantine
art on art
of
Orthodox countries
was
to
war with
when
the princes
who
reigned
The
princes of these states, which lasted for varying lengths of time (such
for these
Constantinople
their
own
itself
possessions. In
show of imperial
18
or of imitating
tradition
it
was necessary
to display.
Plate i Cf.p-3 4
Two
military saints. Detail of an icon, xith-century enamel. Treasury of St. Mark's, Venice.
'9
Plate
20
ca.
from a miniature.
62
21
Plate 4 - Descent
into
22
Barbara
this last
to Constantinople
state,
and
when
its
sub-
new
territories
by Byzantine
whom
behind
missionaries,
art
tium, during the Palaeologian period this part was reserved to the
and
Slavs,
Western world,
it
and
for the
religious qualities
Influence
movement
art on
to the
art
and
for their
of Byzantine
st
tenth
twelfth
said
In short, during
Byzantine
art, in
this late
in the past,
was
far less
case
when
permanent and
this
same
missions,
and
this later
conquest
in Sicily
is
its
However,
effects
this drive
if one takes
all
into
the countries
art attracts
Certain of
In the
in the throes of
powers of assimilation,
its
artistic
peculiarities,
when
it
geography of Byzantium
its
profits
it is
own development.
from
this contact.
23
is
very limited
when
the fourteenth
and
fifteenth centuries
Byzantium
herself
and her
Balkan
the
period
when
but
daily contacts with the countries of the Levant, or with the important
contributions
made by
24
this
cities
Of these
sea,
cities
was enough
make
to
the Byzantine
cities
of
this the
art,
had
their place
and
was
which allowed
this
cities
Ages was
much more
reduced to large
populous city in
which was a
to a lesser degree
The
where the
favoured from
villages.
all
and
this
Roman
cities
had nearly
all
been
Artistic primacy
of
Constantinople
rise
of the trading
Pisa,
The
least
was no
less
important, at
dications
we have from
in-
Artistic role
of certain
Byzantine convents
established in Constantinople
itself.
were numerous and well endowed, the most important among them
it or not, members of
and of the great Byzantine families often came
spend the end of their lives there. It would be difficult to dif-
ferentiate
between the
religious art
produced outside
their enclosures.
Of
and
course in the
25
and
the buildings
all
who was
'Manual of
Panselinos,
Painting',
P.
22
Mount
such as
Athos,
it
all
was
a fourteenth-century painter
life,
monk. The
who
frescoes
for us to see.
enjoyed a great
Troglodyte monasteries of Gappadocia are too rustic for us to exclude a priori the theory that painters outside the small community
of
monks were
monks
certainly took
all
and, above
all,
the style
and
Difficulty
classification
The
scarcity of
any attempt
to distinguish
to middle-class
direction
art critics
like,
between
prevent
between a court
by various
art,
efforts to distinguish
and workshops.
It is
of course quite
that
it
province. But
when one
more or
is
'aristocratic' or 'popular', or
that of another
gratuitous statements.
and
Thus works of
rustic
works are
origin.
to reflect
many
Now
and that
it is
each
to
to
interest.
we
may
to expect
make
social
this difficult
art of the
in this direction,
This
last
point
is
and
works themselves.
essential,
medieval Byzantine
art, especially
partly
is
its
due
it
to the art
The
ethnic uniformity of
art.
Let us
and judicial
continuity were for centuries ensured by the imperial power and
that of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and that economically, too,
during this period Constantinople was the heart of the whole
devoted to architecture) that
political, administrative
uniformity to Byzantine taste and to the need that may have been felt
particularly the of
belonged Byzantium
for art.
in
field
religious art,
to the
in
realm of
way
attempts to
tell
it
margin of
to
fruitless to
us about the
man who
his intervention
nuances of style.
It
is
would
Distance between
image and
reality
rather
also
be
life,
men and
to the
27
class or the
when
from
reality. It
is
easier to
expressed by
is
reality.
reality.
They remain brief and vague, and impress one by the very
as slow to reflect
life:
Western
art.
This conception of
artistic
and the things which support that life, explains what we were
saying earlier on that Byzantine art is difficult to integrate into the
historical and geographical background. It touches lightly on what
is accidental, including the fate of the individual and even events
which are of interest to society. It had its proper role and went its
own way. This is a feature to which we will return later. Very
life
an individual
to
religious
history.
Relations between
Christian faith and art
about them.
One
is
faith.
This
created
is
the es-
art,
important changes
ritual
its
is
during the reign of the Iconoclast emperors. But after the end of
official
were reflected in
28
art.
fields
which
is
Church. As
to the heresies
but
neither the Paulicians, the Bogomils nor the doctrines of John Italus
modified in any
etc.
way
Nor were
field,
may
possibly
the Transfiguration on
details
e.g.
the
we
images of
three fights, symbols of the three persons of the Trinity in the halo
number of alterations
tradition.
there
is
will
details, as
Catholic
that the
art,
Similarly,
we can
fluences derived
Of
from Latin
course,
art
more or
territory,
notably
the
us. It
break with
Rome
in
1054.
difficult
But, after
all,
at
any
rate,
there
is
next to
They
ignore totally the break between the Greek and Latin churches.
The
Christian art of
**** d Islam
probably a
tacit one, to
was on a
29
When
all is
said,
in
life itself.
all
little
this art
that con-
cerned the faith and administration of the Church. In Constantinople people perhaps suffered rather from an excess of interest in
theology,
faith.
this fact,
characteristic.
is
and
ecclesiastical events;
react at all
We
Byzantium from an
and
its tastes,
earlier period,
its
procedures,
by medieval
its
techniques
perceptibly modifying
its
formulas. Later
characteristics of Byzantine
with
works of
art,
we
THE FOUR
TRADITIONAL
PERIODS
However, to
work between the four
stimulus.
this
traditional periods
titles
Iconoclasm up to the
its
alone.
These
particularities
and
they are not even exclusive to this or that period, but each period
30
had
is
its
own way
is
what
The
images
at the
religious works.
Greek
this
the
same
time.
at
the most
obvious that the limits which separate these periods are not
strict ones. It is in
only in the
the
title
first
consequence practical to
last third
Comnenus, and
to
prolong
up
it
to
1204.
The
greatest
to
it
was
also
come were
During the
fifty
Empire of Constantinople
way for
and particularly
in painting this
was
Greek Empire. In
to
be another and
final renovatio
form of
same time faithful to established usages and yet rather
and probably better adapted to the demands of a more
the
different
advanced age.
3i
II.
To
to
define
it is
to
add
to
done
i.e.,
as during the
much
the
art.
not, however,
artistic activity
mean
and
his
immediate
art
everywhere and at
all times.
importance.
THE
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD
Thus during the Iconoclast period one whole field, the representation
of religious figures, was suddenly abandoned. But secular painting
and all aspects of decorative art, iconical and aniconical, were able
to continue
and there is nothing to prevent us from thinking that
there was any decrease in the volume of artistic activity in this field.
It has often been thought that the abandoning of iconographic representation must have favoured the sector of secular and decorative
art which was called upon to replace it. Unfortunately the works of
this period were systematically destroyed later and the texts which
speak about them were written by enemies of the Iconoclasts. This
falsifies our information on the subject. In any case, it would appear
everywhere, during
this
its
which
The
it.
All these
32
monuments.
It is impossible,
The Orthodox
of the
knowing
we
as little as
artistic activities
On
hand
the one
do, to recon-
of this period.
this
period
is
represented
ORTHODOX
VICTORY
for
imagine
its
Architecture
scope and
is
all
movable works of
kinds.
in a
There was
good
position
its
mainly represented by
religious buildings.
Again a
ARCHITECTURE
fair
less
of a tradition to be maintained.
to
keep up
is
illustrated
last centuries
by the
of antiquity
I,
Religious buildings.
The
richness
of their
interior decoration
all
He was
and
by sovereigns such as
Romanus Lecapenus, Constantine ix Monomachus, and Manuel
and John Comnenus. Less wealthy, the Palaeologi did their best
to
remain
twelfth centuries
provinces.
in St.
There are
still
patronage of the
and
at times
in existence, here
churches of Constantinople
gifts
and
basileis,
bene-
there,
and
especially
PLATE
P.
68
votive crowns,
33
valuable ones which belong to the fourteenth and even the fifteenth
centuries.
19,
67
vessels,
and encased
the
Middle Ages.
more
often with
where sermon
them
series
writers, hagiographers
libraries
OBJECTS OF
WORSHIP
sizes, in different
materials,
amulets.
We
of religious
ceased
the
its
art.
all
enormous production
and
also the
reputation which these objects enjoyed, one need only go over the
lists
When
Techniques
and materials
of religious
34
art
monuments, one has the strong impression that one is dealing with
a complex and coherent whole, of which one knows all the important
aspects. If there was a field in which the Byzantines demanded the
participation of art at all times, in all its forms, and made use of all
its
techniques,
was the
it
level,
village artisan.
privileged, since
all
it
religious field.
piety
artist's
artistic
means of course
that
men
crafts-
etc.),
enamellers,
goldsmiths,
mosaicists,
fresco-
There is even
work with figures, which
Byzantium at the beginning of
we
made
new
art industry
objects.
Compared with
of art,
less
able recession
when compared
than at
technical variety,
less
There
is
all
artistic interest
particularly
which
known
and again
in the fourteenth.
Even
them on a considerable
teriors.
if
we can be
scale
ARCHITECTURE
is
still
as Tekfur-
many
Palaces
buildings
jects,
and
build
palaces have
styles,
SECULAR ART
notice-
role played
and a
is
fewer works
As
seems poor
least,
and with
knew how
to
APPX. PL. 14
and, in
the mosaics of the Royal Palace in Palermo, their echo has been
PLATE
P.
39
preserved.
35
DECORATIVE
MINOR ART
Apart from
this,
we only
silk materials,
possess a few
vases in crystal
sectors in
Art devoted
to the
emperor
which secular
Ages. In the
first
Middle
basileus
It is
and
by scenes of
basilissa,
p.
20
uscripts,
known
Illustrations in
scientific
and
books
where
their
man-
in antiquity
scale.
Then
in a small
chronicles
in a fossilized state
re-copied because
fulfil
field
during the Middle Ages was infinitely more restricted than that
of religious
When
art.
that
artistic
It
was
activities
and Thessalonica
and
crafts
Xth
to
XHth
century
and embossed
with figurative
(solid
artistic glassware,
silks
It is established
eleventh century.
One
36
its
variety,
On
the other
Small sculpture
XHth
in the
century
by the Crusaders
in
204
We
this decline,
neighbouring countries
in Latin Europe
as
may have
tium
and
from Byzantium
itself.
artistic activities
Constantinople in 1261,
Monumental painting
churches only(?)
(frescoes
maintained
centuries.
BYZANTINE ART
AFTER THE
RECONQUEST
OF CONSTANTINOPLE
and mosaics)
its
never succeeded
it
and eleventh
itself practically
was
new impetus
reserved
for
icons
painting techniques
pictures in manuscripts,
became much
paintings with
rarer
We
ter-
the heirs of
Byzantium
of this
all
new
must
finally note
an important negative
fact:
monumental
BYZANTINE
SCULPTURE IN
THE MIDDLE
AGES
37
what has sometimes been said, the Byzantine Church never pronounced itself against statuary and it is
certainly not to any official order that one can attribute the absence during the Middle Ages of any plastic figuration work of
importance. It is interesting to remember that Byzantium continued
sculpted effigies of emto practise a certain form of statuary
Middle Ages. Contrary
perors
to
far longer
in 726
It
which was
in 843, statuary
had no
place,
art
which
and
in particular
it
should be studied in
One
must,
This absence
is all
38
first
are) of Byzantine
the major
medieval
art.
the
though they
among
and foremost.
ssmiwasww*m?^i;;RWW'rw!
160.
scene.
Mosaic
in 'Roger's
Chamber'
in the
^M*m;
Cf.p.35
39
Plate 6 -
40
Two
saints.
Mosaic
at Hosios
Lucas
34
Rome. Miniature,
41
42
Plate 9 - Decorative painting on a page of the Canons of the Gospels, xith century.
(MS. Grec 64). Cf.pp. 34, 179, 181.
Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris
43
X:v^t-; a* *-j44
ng mythological
subjects paimed
whh
Xltl)
Plate
- Christ on a Byzantine
45
.**'
Plate
46
12 - St.
John the
.iJWtS?
^3m?.W3
Evangelist. Miniature in a book of Gospels, xivth century. Cf. pp. 34, iyg
III.
TECHNIQUES
They nearly
common
to all of the
different
way by each
all
and
in a
to
this,
Constantinople
Prestige of
Constantinople in
techniques
was able
More
normal
activities
of a
of art and
luxury trades
luxury trades were preserved here than elsewhere, and this contributed to the reputation
made on Byzantine
in
prestige can be
mosaicists
by Damascus
and enamel by
eleventh century a
all
The Byzantines
stone-carvers
who
ARCHITECTURE
masons or
much
made
masons who built
and did
monuments of that period (Muslim religious architecture) were far more skilled in the use of baked bricks for building
and decoration. The Byzantine buildings also compare unfavourably
with the monuments in rough or carved stone, built by their Western,
Muslim and Transcaucasian contemporaries.
the Iranian
47
PAINTING
As soon
as
we
works executed
to similar
Byzantium. As
exist outside
tines
at any rate up to the twelfth century, are by far the most skilful
and the most beautiful. The same can also be said of their manuscript paintings, which were often not only beautiful but also the
most
faithful
The
technical superiority of
all
has been recognized in Western Europe and the Near East by both
Mosaics
Christians
proved steadily
be
artists
or
The
to
to the difficulty of
it
skill
which they
and
twelfth
reflect. It is
same
countries, that
learned in the
artists
works.
else-
artists
and
their
(reds,
browns, cobalt
and dark blues), and showed them how, by making use of these
colours,
It
Romanesque
painters
had done
most
far greater
in the past.
artists
remained
by
48
colours,
fixatives)
had not
altered,
at the
these
small
end of antiquity
pictures
as they
were
were
during the Middle Ages the parchment was prepared in the same
:
way
(a fine coating
same
garment
scale
folds, light
style,
it
was
excelled,
art of
all
passed
modelling the
draperies.
LUXURY TRADES
and
silver
it is
not possible
On
hand the
filigree threads which sometimes line Byzantine works of gold and
silver during the Middle Ages are the finest which exist, and they
are of a peculiar type. Byzantine filigree work is recognizable by the
way the gold threads are plaited and adapted to the ornamental
motifs and to the object which they decorate, and also to the pearls,
cabochons and enamels which surround them. The filigree pieces of
the Ottonian gold- and silversmiths are the most closely related, as
where
this
the other
Filigree
and
silversmiths,
little
Incrustations
of one
the other,
silver
scenes.
The Italian
may be, do not come up
stantinople.
made by Byzantine
49
craftsmen.
on the bindings of
PLATE
P.
venerated icons
we
on the frames of
and gold
Raised work of
this
leaf,
chased
and
scenes.
icon and gave the impression of relief on solid metal. This technique
was more
but apparently
It
was
it
we have mentioned,
possible
influence.
Pre-eminence of enamel
cloisonne on gold
it
and it allowed
create very beautiful works. From the Middle Ages on
them
to
much
artistic
techniques,
chrome
paste.
transparent,
The depth
and the
it
was done
imitated
it
in the
The immediate
is
semi-
which should be
origins of this
enamel work
and
also
perhaps because so
few of the works are dated. Certain of the oldest pieces use cloisonne
enamel
side
partitions.
by
side with
ground-moulded
may have
earlier
in this book,
i.e.
means of obtaining a
predicted) so as to allow
it
to
go beyond
its
made
compared
figures,
which was
and
enamel
50
pieces
side.
West.
The glowing
and
it
work can be found in the painted decoration of Byzantine manuscripts. This same influence on local miniaturists was also exercised by Limoges enamels. The enameller's art
as that of gold
flourished as
silver
much
made
of a
this different
method of fixing
colours
and then
But
this
with enamel.
Champleve method
other
craftsmen
who made
inscriptions
which
On
the other
(the
earliest
It
on
il-
Precious illuminated
textiles
silks
away
He
with frauds.
silver-
emperor.
mosaic or
inscriptions
for the
hand
literary texts or
textiles
imperial palace
no
possessed the
is
51
on a
scription
textile
to
Heraclea on
of Saint-Josse, Pas-de-
silk
made
summary
This
tine art
the
of the
was based
main
is
artistic
use of
what was
their service.
intended to prove
qualities of Byzantine
this
work
is
major
due
fact: that
one of
to the presence of
technicians
crafts
now
much emphasis
which could
stifle
creative instinct.
in the
is
i.e.
There
is
weavers.
The
less
why
important
reasons
made by an
taste,
all
that
is
to
colours, the
the experience
individual.
One
of the
is
more than elsewhere, and for obvious reasons, was maintained in the work produced
by artisans who specialized in different techniques. These same
techniques, because of their scarcity and the expense of the materials
of which they made use, revealed new aesthetic values in the relationships between shapes, materials and colours. The extreme
due to the prestige of this tradition, which here
distinction of Byzantine
5*
cities for
many
to these aesthetic
who were
generations.
trained in the
by which
skilful
is
techniques employed
meant both
the quality of
53
IV.
the
ideas
result of intellectual
effect
on
readers that
we
will
it
We
number of monuments
this
problem,
prevents us at
present from taking these into consideration, despite the very real
Influence of Byzantine
monarchical though^
influence
As soon
as
we
start considering
at least in theory,
influence in every field, one can imagine a priori that Byzantine art
reflected
54
in general
and
theories
practical activities,
figurative
do indeed
One
sees at
exist
any
me
and
its
his subjects
and the
this po-
successful role
he
field
of study.
The disappearance
its
mosaics and
paintings
and
lack even
all
its
from a
made to Byzantine
work
less
life
an
Owing
From
essential role
to the lack of
to the insufficient
centuries.
But
as
wc
ihafl
during
What
is
certain,
had of the
is
IMPORTANCE
OF RELIGIOUS
CONCEPTS
IN
ART
55
Latin rule.
It
was
artistic activity
and there is
form of a
in the
Iconoclast emperors.
The period treated in this work starts precisely in this era, when
more than a century a religious idea proclaimed by the emperors
for
start to
What
this
They
idea which
decide
RELIGIOUS
FUNCTION OF
PRACTICALLY
ALL BYZANTINE
WORKS OF ART
56
how
art
won
was
the day
to
art
on a
far
had
to
plications
when
came
to influence
Byzantine medieval
in practice. It
is
a general and
painted works, deal with Christian subjects and were used for
Christian worship. In this art religious ideas, as understood in
Byzantium
in the
to
be precise one
Christian ideas played a vital part, whereas others did not find
their
way
into art.
As
to the latter,
one
is
the end of the ninth century, nor the final breach with
find the slightest reflection in the arts of
that
Greek Orthodoxy in
centuries,
to
show
Rome in
Byzantium.
1054
One can
say
on
and fourteenth
and Greek Orthodox confronted
when Latin
Catholics
Whether one
is
is its
lack of special-
monastic or parish
churches,
or
even
to
private
absolute,
on
Absence of specificity
in the architecture or
decoration of places
of worship
to these
in the inter-
world between the end of antiquity and the Middle Ages. But apart
57
from the
aesthetic originality
of Byzantine
artists
t Jr
to the
as to other
of Byzantine
works> But on the other hand this met hod should
J
the
taste, allows us to
to
nature of the
are examining.
They
are
is
etc.
much
to
artistic
work.
We
realize this
is
in
artist
who undertook
to create a church,
the artist
58
may have
one
is
exactly
to the
fall
Byzantine
example, in
for
of Byzantium, were
is
above
all
artists,
due
in painting,
medium
of the Byzantines
them
(cf.
number of
One
it
was here
p. 121).
RELIGION AND
PAINTING
of Byzantine
to the great
more than
style
which
tactile
this art
made
use of
metries, a stability
eye
is
made
to
To
compared with
trends:
balance, an overall
apparent
SPIRITUAL
OF
ARCHITECTURE
BASIS
tension, of all
is
'Microcosm' churches
sixth
59
had
this
up
and
to the
shape).
Religious ideas
this
this type
of religious construction
Byzantine images
by experiencing the
by observing the
We
effect these
rigid system
have come to
this
con-
whereby, when
it
also
a question of
is
way
in
which they
same idea
in their
own way,
the microcosm
domes and by a
its
God and
his faithful subjects in the cosmos, as well as the events of the In-
made human
carnation which
The most
architecture
important fact in
this
less in
architecture
arts,
Byzantine territory and the frequent contacts of the Greeks with the
Latins
with
had flourished
which
which
their
was maintained
in
many changes
to a far
more complex
60
its
way
by the Greeks
in particular
re-
Greek models.
with
all
Trend towards
antiquity
under Palaeologi
history.
This movement towards a Greek revival seems to have been important at the beginning of the Palaeologian period. As in the case
movement towards
and
movement
early fourteenth
in the
same
direc-
Clerical reaction in
XlVth
century
servative
for
re-
turn to the grand style of the eleventh century. This movement, with
its
whatever
its
object.
At
on
all aesthetic
remained
static,
research,
rather like a
its
highest point,
6l
which
from the beginning of the thirteenth
century onwards, was very different from that of the Byzantine
was
definitely in decline
Universality
allied to the
of art
Church
PLATE
P. 2
Orthodox
and even after the fall of the empire of
Constantinople, the Byzantine Church was responsible for a certain
Byzantine universality. Thus the fate of Byzantine art followed that
of the Church, not that of the state. This was of course due to the
close bonds which linked art with worship; moreover, since art
ignores linguistic barriers, it spread further and had a more immediate impact than any literary work whatever could have had.
It was largely because art was in the service of the Church of
Constantinople, which during that period entirely dominated all
peoples.
During
its
this period,
Mount
may seem
no
Athos, that
we
find in
it
surprising
to obtain unity
when we remember
Roman
with the
the
many
attempts
made
at the
of Florence in 1439. But on the Greek side these acts were the work
of the emperors of Constantinople,
The
ecclesiastical
and
who were
clergy,
and
that
followed by only a
is
why
they had no
longevity which
it
The conservatism
after the
it
acquired from
'universality'
and the
Church.
paid for
its
of Byzantine
We shall see that the tiny portion of this art which tried to keep outside the
INFLUENCE
OF LITURGY
ON ART
Amongst
But these
links with
62
at that period
known as liturgical
Plate
13 -St.
at Hosios
Lucas
Cf. p.
34
63
64
Plate
15
-The
ca.
(detail),
65
Plate
Cf.p.
66
i6-Two
34
saints.
Mosaic
in the
convent of
Nea Moni on
- Binding
34> 50, 189
Plate
PP-
in silver gilt
with raised
relief
Venice.
Cf.
67
Plate
18 - St. Peter.
of St. Mark's,
68
Enamel on a chalice
pp.33, i89
Venice. Cf.
offered
The Archangel Gabriel. Detail of a miniature with portrait of the Emperor Nicephorus
Botaniates, middle of xith century. Bibliotheque Rationale, Paris (MS. Coislin yg). Cf.pp. 173, 175
Plate 19
69
Plate 20 - The Mother of God, Pentecost: mosaics in the apse and the
Hosios Lucas in Phocis, ca. 1000. Cf. p. 34
70
dome which
precedes
it
at
pictures,
cal year
in
and
to their use,
its
founder,
but no
less direct,
less
is
present, as for
But
umental
influence
art.
is
Though
less
of primary importance in
marked than
we
mon-
all
and
Liturgy and
monumental art
scope.
each
we
east,
i.e.,
a bench which rests against the wall of the apse, where the
bishop.
the one on
and wine, during the part
it is
known
side, is
and
known
as
Temple
diakonikon, and was
biblical
sacristy.
not discover a
by the
forming
who
officiated
iconostasis, called
The
as
interior
7*
centre.
building with a central plan and a dome, but this merely em-
they could.
It is creations
we
where the
chambers
certain
Modest proportions
of medieval Byzantine
This
is
vestibules of the
because
it
services.
distinguishes
it
religious buildings
Byzantium
72
it
was
this
by a square plan, or one very close to it, with vaulting and a central
dome, which was the one most often chosen of the various models.
The conditions under which this transfer took place have not yet
been cleared up. This
the lack of
when
not so surprising
is
monuments and
this process
took place.
plausible to us rests
sanctuaries,
cities.
and the
city
extra
muros,
were sub-
depending on the
mind
bears in
texts
The
when one
Rome and
district,
elsewhere. But
factor.
Some
and
abandonment of the
basilical
shape
them
to
its
own and
its
on the
liturgical functions,
add-
on
the abandon-
same tendency,
if it
This explains
why
baptismal
which imposed
rite
it
relics
73
period
when antique
religious edifices
medieval churches.
which alone of
an ideological factor may have influenced the success
interest to
is
From
Symbolism of
was compared
the microcosm
microcosm,
to a
its
universe, as conceived
who
and
lived at
ideal functions
saw
domed
basilicas.
Church B; Pirdop,
and they
afford in our
prolonged period
(sixth-seventh
with a
dome
that
centuries).
It
was
difficult
to
was coming
to
basilicas. It
would be
the process which from the sixth century onwards gave Byzantine
churches the appearance they were to have during the Middle Ages,
its
essential characteristics
through similar
stages,
in this region.
General use of
this
its
system of vaulting
topped by a central dome, meant not only that the builders had
74
to
had
to
remain on a
craft,
knowledge
for this
building a
dome
To
it,
dome
Technical problems
^
ing
in
number or the
The fact that technical difficulties
this.
major reason
why
is
'colossal'
monuments
his
including the
basilicas erected
after
Roman
by Constantine and
West and
had a great
effect in the
If during the
Roman
scale to churches.
But precisely
this ex-
when
it
was desired
to put
up
One
has
who
brick dome.
The
Sophia collapsed
original
after a
dome and
few years.
It is rightly
suspected that a
For
my
part
am
dome
Church B
at
of Pirdop did
not stand up for very long either. Finally, in the case of St. Eirene,
built a little later,
we
75
attain
solidity
collapse.
vaulting
came
into play
first
Macedonians.
The
ard up to the
of Byzantium.
One might
fall
also ask
for
possess the
Sophia. Should
this that in
Constantinople
qualified
we must
under the
last
ly
by one
fact
upon Greek
architects
We know
that
when, shortly
the scale of the largest vaulted churches of the sixth century, which
and
Apostles.
first
We
must
also
add
eleventh centuries put up churches far larger than those they built
76
in their
own country
for
St.
Sophia in Kiev.
Once they got away from their attempts to imitate the colossal scale
of the Romans, which Justinian had continued to do, they built
churches on a scale commensurate with what circumstances required.
Where we have texts to help us we can see that these churches were
designed for communities of monks and nuns whose numbers were
small and who had no need of large buildings. This also applied to
Mount Athos, particularly before the fall of the Empire, despite the
fame of the Holy Mountain. This example and those of other 'holy
mountains' such as Mount Olympus in Bithynia, Mount Parnassus
in Boeotia,
etc.
can
tell
us
much about
Churches of
#0f
communities
the
own church,
to the practice
On Mount
if
own
its
church.
Roman
laid
is
down
no evidence that
less strictly
at
all
matters
St.
ularly in
vestibules,
actual church.
The development of
77
the
INFLUENCE OF
There
HUMANISM ON
BYZANTINE
MEDIEVAL ART
is
activities
am
thinking of
humanism
artistic
works during
that
classical
artistic
is
to say
an
Greece language,
:
artists
were attracted
to the
down
and gaining inand sculpture the imprint of the classical tradition. This was one of the
invariable factors in medieval Byzantine art and a source of inspiration which the Greek artists of that period knew how to
cultivate systematically and with greater understanding than their
fellow artists of the West did at that time.
There were, however, periods more or less favourable to these
adaptations of ancient art which did not manifest themselves in the
same way in all fields of artistic activity. Thus the first important
classical movement dates from the tenth century and continued on
to the eleventh. It was a period when the court was very receptive
to 'humanist' ideas, which were especially encouraged by the
distant ancestors,
spiration
78
and that
in copying, imitating
their
own
paintings
is
brought back to
Natural as
in
its
this
ideas,
one
may
is
life
One
astonishing.
learns at the
classical age.
last
to teach the
After this
Byzantine
first
human
Christian antiquity
face,
Character of
imitations from the
antique during
XHth
century
perfect balance
is
on a
in these
theoretical education.
motifs lifted
bent
ics at
In
They
works whole
Limbo in
the mosa-
Daphni.
many
being touched up
is
monuments we
often
after
we have
only isolated motifs and elements, which decorated but did not
79
this
later,
from the end of the twelfth century onwards and particularly during
the reign of the Palaeologi, in the thirteenth and fourteenth
The Greek
contribution
(Xllth-XIVth
centuries)
centuries.
to
The
art
it
more
lively,
sensitive
lyrical or personal.
its
In order to produce a
to nature
The
costumes, personifications
and
The
to
Any
with
its
light
and jagged
architectural landscape,
its
this,
vela suspended
is
Pompeian
painting. This
because the
is
called
all this
art
of the Palaeologi was far from being a simple return to the art of
the
first
Church of Christ
in
Chora
(Kariye Camii)
humanism of
felt.
monuments of
the period
its
its
frescoes
initiated
in Constantinople
plate
p.
92
house
80
art. It
contains no
we
is
a hot-
tium.
echoing a period of
distress; instead
We ought to end this rapid survey of the ideas from which Byzantine
art
drew
inspiration
its
by
SECULAR ART
is
the imperial court luxury trades were practised, such as the weaving
Prestige art
at imperial court
silk
kinds,
Ages, but
it
shown
in a light dictated
by doctrine. In
this field,
Middle
Empire
to contribute to the
these arts
first
Iranian, then
As well
Relationship with
world penetrated
is
perhaps
difficult to
Byzantium. In
this field it
and the
arts
this,
the
testify,
When
one
is
81
it
is
art
One of the reasons for the richness of this repertory and its intentions
stems from the variety of ideas which Byzantine work was called
upon
to represent.
Some
of art.
82
PART
II
A HISTORICAL GLIMPSE
83
NOTE
minimum
to a
classification.
works of art
we
We
typical
have chosen a
them
separately.
This
in turn look at
i.
ornamental
ii.
and
art;
portant stages in
its
history
up
to the fall of
Byzantium;
iii.
iv.
painting, sculpture
arts
84
It
first
decree against icons, and had the picture of Christ which was over
the door of the Imperial Palace destroyed.
and open
The deep
causes of this
by the government of the empire of Constantinople against images do not concern us here, nor do the external events of history. Nowadays some historians tend to minimize
official
struggle
One would
when
set against
wrong
HISTORICAL
SUMMARY
OF THE
UNFOLDING OF
THE 'QUARREL
OVER IMAGES'
the
(who were
to forget, in
at stake,
and the Iconoclast policy of the emperors. This policy drew them
closer to their subjects in Asia Minor, who were in the forefront of
the battle
to the
and
Christians in Asia
Minor
to
Muslim
attacks.
drew them
closer
resistance of the
may
in
general concede that the Iconoclasm of these emperors was not the
is
above
all
all
we must
definite
85
mained
re-
and above all Theophilus. It was only after his death that
Theodora definitely restored the use and cult of icons.
The Iconoclasts would have no place in the history of art if their
activities in that field had been limited only to the destruction of
images. But this was not so. Firstly their prohibition extended only
to religious images, and not to all images. They were even accused
Michael
11
his wife
THE
ICONOCLAST
BASILEIS
members
of their families.
On
effigies, figures
their coins
of themselves and
is
who
many
as
reigned
this sense
they
went even further than their predecessors, and this clearly emphasizes
the demarcation line between what the emperors thought
it
permis-
issues
One
of the
first
also learns,
clasts,
still
even aviaries
images
in churches
basileus,
Michael
in.
one could
Decoration oj secular
Orthodox
find trees,
that
is
to say, birds
among
plants. In
one public
Iconoclasts. It
figures,
example
(for
in Aquileia
example in
86
by
Plate
Kilise,
Cappadocia, 1060.
(detail)
Mural painting
in the rock-cut
church
ot
Karabas-
87
Plate 22 - Hezekiah, king of Judah, on his sick-bed. Detail of miniature from a psalter,
xth century. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris (MS. Grec 139). Cf. p. 170
88
first
half of
in Paradise.
Mural
painting,
100.
89
Plate 24
90
-The
Ascension
(detail).
Mosiac
13 I
91
TE
r". 3 2 o
92
repr aching
c/r?o
Ma,y n
seein S
Plate 27
The
93
Plate 28
St. Mark
Medicea-Laurenziana, Florence.
94
Xth
century. Biblioteca
tine
model belonging
to the
same
tradition). In the
same way
we
paia as
case.
At any rate one learns that the hostility of the Iconoclasts extended
only to religious images and except in this domain they allowed and
even encouraged the representation of personages, those of the imperial period
secular art
been treated in
traditionally
beginning of the
to the
Iconoclast period.
The
last
and buildings.
He
also
had a
taste for
luxury
We
emperor
Theophilus
him
thus see
filling his
palace
philus
worn by
caliphs in
to
outdo them
known
is
initiative of Theophilus
for reasons
of what
were
like,
all
these
but there
Arab
rulers.
If,
pictures of
the Silk
it,
the fragment of
silk
Museum in
gift
a lion, today in
textile
of the
Iconoclast period
decorated with
Mozac
in Auvergne,
we
95
The
picture of the
it is
mounted
merely an
were
common
and to the
of the human and animal figures which we
ornamentation and
admire on these
at that time
know
style
textiles
Roman and
Iranian-Sassanid
decoration
on carpets in relief
prising richness.
The monumental
relief,
made by
Byzantium
One
finds similar
at the
ornamental carpets
crisis,
but incorporated
and architectural
pottery. It
is
it
would be
their contemporaries
influence. It
to
is
far
imagine them
more
consistent
art
what was
already there, apart from figurative religious images. Except for the
problem of
icons,
which they
numerous
rejected, they
art. It
do not seem
to
have
in the sculptured
first
96
and Iranian
motifs.
We do not have
to
basis
Byzantium
icons, that
scenes in
and the
saints appear.
saints or
What counted in
the practice of the arts was not the learned doctrines of the two
Some ended up by
official legislation
accompanied by
violence.
lives,
and the
saintly
to separate
had always
existed,
make
themselves
felt
strongly
side.
as martyrs
crisis (at
firmed in 842), whereas within the empire the decisions of the councils
97
II.
IN
was necessary before there could be a return to the use and veneration
of images.
effect
of churches.
The 'Macedonian
renaissance''
In actual fact the great period of Byzantine art only began with the
advent of the
Basil
first
(867-886)
emperor of the
this
so-called
Macedonian dynasty,
and techniques of
figurative painting
for the
moment
activity
under the
movement was
From
Xth
the height
of the
it is
first
of Constantinople
by the Crusaders
and
military
went through a
difficult
period and
important changes of
definite
07
zikert in
Armenia by the
Seljuk Turks
and the
loss
of the greater
part of Asia Minor, which was never wholly reconquered; there was
98
who were
rise
of great
Comnenian dynasty
(Alexius
i,
1081-1118), the
and changes
in the political
and
social structure of
had
and thus we cannot consider
works of the Macedonian and Comnenian periods in two
the empire were part of its history. But so far as one can see they
arts,
separate chapters.
or
less
was
The
from
religious, military
reflected in
and
social history
by reference to events
which are hardly, if at all,
arts
relief,
everywhere identical.
The
object of this
for sale.
It
was
to
basis
was evolved
to say
remaining
in the
in miniatures.
be able to work
style,
sense
its
new approach
work of the
99
and sculpture;
this consisted
From 1204
to the return
of the
Byzantines ( 1261)
into symbols.
This was the stage which had been reached when in 1204, after the
celebrated sack of Constantinople, the Crusaders
made
it
for
more
than half a century the capital of a Latin Empire. Apart from a few
miniatures
we have no
Macedonia)
as well as in Serbia
and
Then with
and
shortly afterwards
in Mistra, the capital of a Byzantine province south of the Peloponnese, but also in other parts of the
either Byzantine or
mark of
it is
this art
which we
call
its
all
architectural
monuments
in
stability
100
us to
do
so
and in
this
way
it
will
is
is
one of the
so far
Due to the volume of surviving works, their variety and the numerous
painting
changes, we have been forced to present figurative art
and sculpture
and decorative
IOI
ARCHITECTURE FROM
THE NINTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
III.
GENERAL
resent
for
is
us
is
religious ones.
The main
less
But
regard
it is
also
Byzantium followed
artistic activities it
encouraged.
this
architecture.
But
stantinople,
is
its
and
this
gap
greater
a considerable handicap to
all
in
who
study Byzantine
art.
In the
their
mosaic lead us
same
its
to picture
like the
churches of the
in the West,
made
where
use of the
roofing.
But in
same
religious
plans,
BYZANTINE
What
CHURCHES
Byzantine churches are built of brick and rough or cut stone. In the
are
the
definitely used
more
often than the large bond. Generally speaking, the choice between
brick
and stone
district
Asia Minor
102
it
in
- Fener
Isa, Istanbul
But
it is
and stone
Simultaneous use
of brick and
stone
is
easily explained
to
reasons of
The
effect. It
when
the
this
103
and
discs
rosettes
tiles
(rows of
decorate facades.
As has been
made
building easier, as
The reduced
size
it
were applied
to
domes and
were
of a provisional
stones) of
that
wooden framework
to
is
to say,
set.
the mortar
and barrel
until the
moment
techniques and
them by their predecessors. In its essential characteristics their art was a continuation of that which
flowered in Byzantium from as early as the fifth and sixth centuries.
Thus one can see that two general types of plan and elevation
to
104
\s
fact
we
Daphni
point of view the two types differ: there are very few medieval
from an
earlier period.
surmounted by a dome
this
we have
The vast
are in a
way
really
for
on
In the ninth
this
is
to
Basilicas
form was
still
same way
as the various
countries
and
in the neighbouring
wooden
roofs
were
built or re-built.
Here
some examples the cathedrals of Serres, Trikkala and Mesembria, the monastic church of St. Nicon at Sparta (foundations only),
Pliska (foundations) and the island of St. Achilles on the lake of
Prespa (the last two were founded by the Bulgar kings). So it occurs
that in more than one Byzantine town of the Middle Ages the oldest
church was a basilica, whereas the others were smaller, of cubic
shape with a dome. Arta in Epirus, Kastoria in western Macedonia
and Mesembria on the Black Sea are intermediate examples between both types: they are later and smaller medieval vaulted
are
basilicas.
They
appx. pl.
105
Kapnikarea, Athens
basilica; their
reduced
size
and
fall
into several
dome
flanked by four
it
jutting-out
cornices, pilasters
06
who
same place and the same period churches with none of the
that type
among
buildings of
(cf.
St.
John
deprived of
less
all
none the
mean
Nor
is
it
as 'Oriental',
appearance
(see
above)
type might be, they could depend only in small part on the study of
monuments, and here we do not wish to go beyond what we can
actually see.
Thus
if
classify
one
is
going to adhere to
it is
reality
is
monuments one
far
more
after the
107
6-
St. Sophia,
Mistra
and continue
CONSTANT
FEATURES OF
BYZANTINE
ARCHITECTURE
to influence us as
works of
art, it will
be
still
exist
sufficient to
make a few remarks about the most usual features of this architecture
in general. To those mentioned above we must add a final one that
is
of interest as
it
deliberate intent.
methods,
dome
like the
medieval
all
the es-
the constant
mark of Greek
this
Middle
The uniformity
had a particular
able to define
significance in
its
08
contemporary
eyes.
Without being
nature,
little
A 5"m.
109
The
this
latter building
disappeared
no doubt
as to
by a dome.
its
Now
essential characteristics. It
the
verse. In Constantinople,
when
this
basilica in
in
about 900
that
is
Byzantium
interior walls
still
in the
It is
and the
architects'
of Byzantine
to this
architecture
symbolism.
can distinguish
between
them
to
are taller
barrels of the
domes
as time
advances, between the dates just mentioned) But all these indications
.
when monuments
who
invented something
builders
and
walls,
new and by
and others by
same
and
we
find in
at Skripou in
no
Plate 29 - Mosaics
in the apse at
Monreale
in Sicily, ca.
148. Cf. p. 14
III
112
at
ca.
W|flW*"*\
,.
<m^i
:,
ft^fw-4
IBsi
/
KLffi
wT&kJ
^Hgv/
^St
<1
>l
v<
**
it
#r
'^_
^ V;
**-.-'
H|V^
P^"
;'
.3;j$v*.
Br'
>
'SHH^jflU'
3*
V^
/
SHPP?
..
iDlllllltM
'll'
--
,^ |te
Plate
^n> mwi,
1^3
at Nerez,
Macedonia (Yugoslavia),
Plate 33 -The Archangel of the Annunciation. Kurbinovo, Macedonia (Yugoslavia), end of xnth
century. Cf.p. 154
114
"5
Plate 34 -
St.
docia, beginning
ming
Il6
St.
St.
Eustace in Cappa-
St.
117
Rationale, Paris
118
It is
countries
tuaries,
the Western
all
Romanesque
solid
sanc-
architecture,
way modified
To enumerate
all
the
essential
time.
to serve
no purpose
in a
book such
most
MONUMENTS
as this.
art
in the
i,
only
known CONSTANTI-
monastery of
Today
pierced in
its
walls.
NOPLE
in ruins,
originally a superb
it
Fener Isa
plan
i, p.
103
openings of
outdoor
times.
the
this
fine
openings. In this
galleries.
But
number of
examples are
still
to
be found in
St.
Catherine and in
Still
in Istanbul, in the
Romanus
1,
was
Myrelaion
which Emperor
"9
proportions.
One can
is
which
its
is
dome
it,
by four cradle
buttress
vaults,
it
sym-
each joined
one exterior wall of the church. These four vaults together form
the arms of a
why
more or
less
symmetrical
cross,
which
is
the reason
square or rectangle.
Churches of
the Pantocrator
in Constantinople of this
We may
same
type,
Comnenus
family. In Constantinople
it is
Two
centuries
of Christ
in
this
Chora
is
Isa).
But once
barely percep-
Chora and
arms of a
cross spring
but in
the south church of the monastery of Lips an angled corridor supports the
is
dome on
devoid of
three sides,
all collaterals.
and
in the
However, there
As
in the
known
since
monuments. But
it
was practically
120
the thirteenth
on
in Constantinople
were
mentioned
at
built
This
is
just
this
sanctuaries.
new
in Istanbul
In Thessalonica nearly
all
Thessalonica were
new
They belong
foundations.
The
series
Churches of
Thessalonica
and
entirely to the
Catherine (about 1300), the Holy Apostles (13 12-13 15) and
St.
edifice
is,
or gallery.
We have had
we can
see
it
On
plan
5, p.
107
secondary domes, which with their roofs look like a series of pyramids.
121
The
galleries of St.
The church of
It is
St. Elias in
by
little
chapels.
is
often found
this
imposing building
this is correct,
to the
on Mount Athos.
have sought
to date
flat
niches
this
massive structure
P.
90
Virgin)
Sophia,
St.
somewhat
different.
alterations,
the large
several interior
Parthenon dominated
in the lower
finest
still exist.
4, p.
106
es
and
outside,
cross
upon which
all plastic
of the dome.
to
Muslim
The churches
122
reflections of contemporary
architecture.
in Athens are without side galleries, except for the
century ?)
proper.
monument on
little
the Acropolis.
by
fluted
of this
little
building
lies
as used to
not in
its
the charming
PL.
be thought. The
commonplace
As
105
an elegant arcade in
twelfth century
3, p.
interest
plan
its
ar-
facade.
(the
classical
connection.
places, Eleusis
APPX. PL. 6
APPX. PL. 5, IO
on the island of
Theodore
but
in Mistra
this is
The church
at the place
all
known
as Patleina has a
to that in the
dome on squinches
poorly represented by
monuments of the
late
whole area was then in the hands of the Franks and Catalans, or
even of the Venetians, so that the finest and oldest churches, as for
123
On
dismemberment of
to the
the
rank
number
is
its
sanctuary must
own
also
liturgical use.
have played
felt
its
of
size
is
St.
St.
Theodore
(i
290-1 295)
and Pantanassa
Founded
and a narthex,
(1428).
domes,
this
and short
basilica,
three naves united together forming a square, and only three columns
in each row) the roofs are dominated by a central dome, around
;
which are grouped smaller and lower domes. The Hodigitria has
galleries that stretch as far as the apsidioles. In these two churches
124
whereas
and others
The
first
on
its
which emerge
in the
way
that
form of small
barrels,
the
and
roofs in the
afford the
form of a
cross.
The
domes
this
method, typically
by the
special
importance
to the external
the prac-
of earlier centuries.
is
just as
plan
6, p.
108
its
are churches
on the
classical
supports. In fact, instead of four pillars or four columns, the architects chose
two
pillars
dome
small, supported
on
compartments of the choir) and two columns. This system had the
advantage of opening up the area reserved for the
repetition of the
same design
faithful.
The
domes on a
The enthusiasm
we spoke of above,
125
referring to the
monuments
in Constantinople
and Thessalonica.
city,
new and
It
not additions to
when
it
churches, at Mistra one sees what has already been noted in the
church
is
completed by new
mausoleums,
refectories
built
on
chapels or
iepicuresgud
some
critics
which are
it
all the
generally or limits
it
However,
this.
known
Western
art
at
Mesembria
at
(see
We
must add an
probably have the same Western origin. The quest for the picturesque
is
emphasized by the
stone
effects
common
Middle Ages,
126
monumental
art of Constantinople.
is
came
known as
the despotate
state
still
by the
Religious buildings
of Arta
many
all
Demetrius
St.
the tenth
St.
Basil
and
St.
APPX. PL. 2
Theodora.
Arta everything
rustic.
The
reasons:
to
more
is
less
The
It
Parigoritissa,
was
also
the difference;
less
skilful
Byzantine architecture.
chaist.
provincial
there was
art practised
feels
more
infiltrations
into
APPX. PL. 7
But
As in
this architectural
this older
form
is
church, the
no longer understood
at
Arta where,
little
the roofs are reduced to a single horizontal line one loses the ad-
many
basilicas,
so
pillars).
Some,
like the
Kato-
replace the
wooden
the essential
inscribed cross
roofs
facades, especially
in
on
that found
in Sicily.
is
very
alike.
The same
art
is
also
Kastoria
(in
127
One
Macedonia.
feature
common
to all churches
of this area, which also stretches northwards into the region of what
Churches of
north-eastern Greece
is
is
their archaism.
They
(for
example
still
and the
col-
The basilica
could either have a transept or not; it could have a wooden roof
or vaults. It was in the thirteenth century that the wooden roof was
laterals
types.
We
how
in
many towns
era or
APPX. PL.
was
Serres,
and how
it
went back
of
its
to the paleo-Christian
as at
this
re-built in
attachment
to archaic
all
to their distance
from Constantinople
forms spreads to
imagines,
which
On
traditions
were
hand in
Greek Macedonia, even when it was in the hands of Bulgars and
Serbs, and as far as the town of Mesembria on the Black Sea, religious
easily joined to those of Latin inspiration.
the other
Greek Macedonia
ca and Constantinople.
go back
The
immediately
and rotundas
and
that
to the period
is
to say, they
On
all
128
Thus
it
now seems
to
cathedral of St. Sophia in Ochrid was built after the Byzantine re-
conquest of Bulgaria;
it
secondary features,
its
is
at
Nerez near
The
latter
Greek
cities
bria,
wore
its
all its
little
town
as
Mesem-
until lately
still
Mesembria
huge
basilica in ruins,
form of a
John,
St.
and central dome. The Pantocrator and the Archangels have a tower, as at Mistra. Everywhere the facades are
scribed cross
and
rosettes in
reliefs,
churches at Mesembria
St.
rows of discs
this decor.
Three
The town of
Mesembria must have experienced a period of great prosperity in
the fourteenth century, following a less favourable one, to have been
able to add so many artistic sanctuaries to the two earlier churches.
The ceramic
The
all
Ceramic sculptured
facades of
XlVth
XHIth and
centuries
Roman-
129
The examples
to
decoration
SECULAR
ARCHITECTURE
It
was
it first
unlike
incompletely. It
is
the
at
Con-
new
palaces
No
technical
under the
Comneni has come down to us. These palaces had the peculiarity
of being more closely linked than was the great antique palace before
to churches,
Martyrs.
We
know
had a
first
floor
this.
many
same
130
Serai,
it
Known by
its
Turkish
name
of Tekfur
and
facade
is
inside
it
APPX. PL. 14
The
mansions at Mistra
ruins,
of
remain
at Mistra;
which have
at least
windows of each storey giving out on to one of the long walls and others
on to the corridor or terrace that ran along the other wall. The exterior
aspect of this building greatly resembles that of the tribunal of
and
appx. pl. 13
probable in
by passing
fashions,
131
IV.
During
this
period
it
was
IN 1204
created their most remarkable works. This form of art, which reached
first centuries of our era, underwent a
from the fourth century onwards, particularly in the im-
The mosaic
decoration
of the domes and vaults of St. Sophia and other sanctuaries built by
Justinian in the middle of the sixth century, remained in the same
tradition.
in
On
Nuovo
the
immediately
Iconoclasm. But
least,
it
ap-
a more
Two
main
dome
subject Christ
St.
Enthroned
The
latter has as
all his
is
to say the
up again a tradition of
had been interrupted for a long time.
The same impression is produced by the contemporary mosaic at
the Byzantine artists did here was to take
132
St.
is
PLATE
P.
90
Ascension, remarkable for the play of colours and golds and for the
expression on
tles,
some of the
faces
is
One
also obvious.
has only
to observe the
the figures
because the
artists
The
latter
is
too small
concave surface.
Similar circumstances are probably responsible for the lack of
stability,
St.
Sophia in
it
and
four-
as well as the
of her (of which only one survives) with the small group of mosaics
the
In
St.
sal
fall
this colos-
Only
recently
we have been
peror Alexander,
who
reigned for
less
An
Em-
Mono-
machus and Zoe. Another panel with John Comnenus and Irene
(around 1118-1122) accompanied by their son Alexius is a later
form of art, but also belongs to the same category of votive imperial
portraits. Returning to the tenth century, we must also note in the
cathedral of St. Sophia two groups of mosaics of very high quality.
First
the
Emperor Constantine
his
Mary with
the
had founded
33
osios
ucas
we
his
year iooo
art is far
by craftsmen of
particular
we
removed from that of the mosaicists of St. Sophia. In
are far from all that in St. Sophia recalled Hellenic art, including
the subtle colouring of the works which originated in the capital. It is
a harder
on
folklore.
This
may be
it
it is
One
thing
is
certain, that
From
the point of view of shape they could have been derived from
134
St.
at
"tt<"f(hf*e (yf
^m^i ',^ m,
;,:
-.-
/Ix4El!Il!J ^ "
Law on Mount
^^
'
Cf.p. 16 9
135
136
(MS.
169
to the
137
1/
c^^rr^wpco-t^HV^oujb
Plate 40 - The Crucifixion and the Dividing of Christ's Garments. Miniature in a book of the
Gospels, middle of xith century. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris (MS. Grec 74). Cf. pp. 174, iy 5
138
u <fv<M cajcr;
^bLp~fi o
<r-
K* ^X*
f<^**
Man
Plate
|<tmJi
Cf. p.
in the Gospel.
175
*39
<7
I40
St. Peter.
Miniature
in a
Palatine Library,
BPHBPPWWII WHii
iiii
iWN IPPH.W t h
mv
in a
book of Gospels,
ca.
141
OJUL
Nationale, Paris
142
St. Basil,
The
art of Hosios
Lucas can
also in
central Italy,
dome
(see
above
John the Baptist and the Prophets, who have today disappeared;
on the large pendentives which supported the dome the first events
of the Gospel were commemorated by important liturgical feasts
the Annunciation, the Nativity, the Purification and the Baptism,
is
plate
p.
93
we
and
all
categories,
The most
saints
its
Bishops, Apostles
and Martyrs.
pression these
same
The
is
art of the
from Hosios Lucas, and one has no connection with the other.
However, the three works are related from certain points of view,
particularly in regard to their iconographical
143
and of Christian
subjects
treated in mosaics.
Decoration of church
of\\ew Monastery'
on CA/iw
New Mon.
we
find there.
There
mosaics and that of the miniatures painted in 1066, in the Constantinople convent of Stoudion
in
the British
monuments of
Paris
the
and
less
more
and
we
beneath frown-
individual appearance.
feels
stiff rigidity;
and
finds
its first
The
subjects
monk
outstanding expression.
in
The
scheme.
forces,
evangelical cycle
144
corresponds essentially to
that
of the
feasts.
on Chios,
Finally,
Saints,
we have
and
last
at a place called
The
is
too, as
third
road.
As
at
Daphni
is
Mosaics
would
is
mosaics on
example of
much
We
can,
and naked
of the faces
figures
and move-
which with
less
St.
Sophia in
all
of which, apart from Daphni, our only knowledge comes from works
produced
later,
(for
example, the
145
there
is
no reason
its
classical reliefs. If
figures
draped in
light garments,
and
their
of
an
earlier Christ.
The
artists
find the
part of the walls of the nave, as well as certain places in the narthex.
The
as
is
usual in
cycle of important feasts, but one strays further afield than at Hosios
p.
1 1
Lord and from the Childhood of the Virgin, which are in the
narthex the Last Supper, the Washing of the Feet, the Betrayal of
:
Judas, the Prayer ofJoachim and of Anne, the Blessing of the Virgin
by the
Priests,
the Presentation of
Mary
in the
Temple.
It is true
that a few scenes from the Passion do figure in the narthex of the
two other mosaic-decorated churches. But there are less of them,
146
and
as to the cycle of
Childhood
came
it
occurs only at
Daphni and
development of cycles of
frescoes
as a
which
later.
and
no
to a
less
and very
similar,
ideal
The luminous
to
stress their
an ideal of beauty
religious thought: a
we must
Kingdom
of
harmonious
God on
the
The later development of Byzantine mosaics can only be studied outside the Byzantine lands.
There
exist
of
Mosaics
in
non-Byzantine
countries
all
Com-
nenian period (about 1080 to about 1200) are outside Greek countries
the Latin type. For us these mosaics must take the place of those
It is
very
and
The
difficult to distinguish
Byzantine.
to the
Mosaics in
Mark's, Venice
St.
St.
H7
Holy Apostles
in Constantinople,
con-
is
and the
have a form of
less
style
we
St.
vaults
It is true that
in other
elements are mixed up with motifs of Western origin, but these only
add a few
Even much
reflects
later, in
more
which belongs
to the
Gom-
and during the fourteenth, the Doges of Venice were to renew their
orders for Byzantine mosaics. These new works, no less interesting
but of a different inspiration, were meant for the decoration of an
external vestibule on the north side of the church and a chapel used
for christenings.
We
decoration
in basilica
of Torcello
On
work of the
Palaeologi.
still
has two
The Madonna
in the apse,
who
rises
against the
gold background of the wall and the vault, bearing her Infant in her
The immense
an astonishing
iconographic value
is
very great, as
it is
the last
148
basileis
signs of
arts. It
was
in
sanctuaries,
some within
Mosaics
in
Sicilian churches
their
Virgin
is
little
known
as the
The church
at Cefalu,
oldest
it
style.
built
dome with
PLATE
P.
PLATE
P.
91
the
subjects to be
jects
grouped in
this
this
way around
and the
vast
149
and from
this
Norman
models in Constantinople.
it
in Sicily
was
also a
more popular
concessions
made
and
it
would be
of
In the galleries of
St.
Comneni
these
continue to attribute
same
galleries,
later.
This remark-
profound
sensibility in the
art
is
an
first
Palaeologi.
MURAL
PAINTING
money had
to
150
first
St.
is
moving impression of
certain
and heads.
figures of bishops,
an Ascension in the
PLATE
P.
and a few other scenes from the liturgical cycles. A lovely frieze of
flying angels adds an elegant touch to this severe, but nevertheless
more supple art than that of Hosios Lucas (around 1040). The
Sophia in Kiev are similar but
frescoes at St.
It is
less
well preserved.
we have
XHth-century frescoes
in Byzantine-influenced
and peripheral
countries
Although
as a general rule
we
St.
we must mention
The
work only
the frescoes of
importance.
provinces
and
aesthetic
On
Europe.
style
and of
I
artists
particularly
is
(see
below) in
Macedonia.
The mural
That
is
151
ining the ensemble of these frescoes from the ninth to the twelfth
centuries inclusive (see below).
But even more than on these provincial works one would wish for information on the important paintings which served as examples for
the others. In order to
fulfil this
located in Constantinople
have been
and another near the church of the Forty Martyrs. But as no trace
remains of twelfth-century mural paintings in Constantinople, we
must content ourselves with works of exceptional quality that artists
of great talent created using the same techniques outside the capital
high quality
donia.
An
example of painting
is
church at Nerez
Art of Nerez
first
to
1 1
it
little
was founded by a
all
one ad-
faces
an intense
The
it
was necessary
which
fill
artist
to give
them an
air of
that
noble
is
scenes
The
vitality,
commemorated by
part
to
p.
114
of
all
a Descent
from the Cross and Pieta. One is immediately struck by the persuasive
when
young and
representing expressions of suffering, movement and
ethnical types. The pathetic themes of childhood and of
strength of this art
152
way
old,
and
different
suffering
and attempts
by
each actor in a scene. But when looking at this painting as a whole
one realizes that the dominant feature of this art lies in the rhythm
displays great sensitivity
lines
is
blobs,
both being expressed with the same economy. The art of Nerez,
which better than any other work informs us of Byzantine aesthetics
to the Byzantine
add the
human themes of poignant emotion and the play of mime and
tradition of expressing the irrational but also attempts to
familiar movements.
quality
is
in
n 98-1 199.
at
of possible observations
Vladimir
all
the figures
St. Demetrius,
It
Paintings in
is
thus
particularly of the
more
faces
art,
limited.
The
It is
another work
human
beings
However,
full
of goodwill.
in a period
when
at the village of
The
same workshops
latter
is
filled
p.
Kurbinovo about
offer us a
plate
adapt themselves
baroque version of
new
piles
linear develop-
of moving folds,
art of the
Comneni.
!53
It is not,
There were
also frescoes
made
in
Cyprus
at the
Were
Macedonian
painters brought to
Comnenian
CHARACTERISTICS
OF ART OF
BYZANTINE
EXPANSION
style
work
in
Cyprus ?
essential
more
facts
enabled us to study
slavia.
likely
to the
It is
detail,
and Yugo-
geographical distance
seems to have affected neither the nature nor the qualities of the
often
cases also, as in Sicily for example, the princes took the initiative
without
difficulty.
One must
an
Whether one
characteristics,
it is
fulfils
right that
we
having
own
region.
We
art of
its
own
neither of these
to their
mean
art peculiar
provinces proper and of the period which stretches from the end
154
of Iconoclasm to
to distinguish
204.
Up
to the present, a
more
systematic effort
condemns
is
in
advance
said below
on
p.
all
illustrated manuscripts
(see,
however, what
181
in
Italy).
Generally speaking,
it is
to a
artistic activities
PROBLEM OF
REGIONAL
SCHOOLS
attributed with
background
more or
less
to
veracity
due
to
chronology or to
for instance,
by describing
distinction
iest,
still
The
numerous
ficiently
centuries.
We
to give us
Paintings in rock-cut
churches
of Cappadocia
information on painting as
it
district
155
which was well outside the important imperial centres and bordered
on Semitic and Iranian territories, where Christian artists were very
Cappadocia was then a
and monasticism. It was there that the famous fathers of the Greek
St. Gregory of Nazianzus also called the Theologian, St.
Gregory of Nyssa and St. Basil all taught and where the latter
church,
century)
destructive wars
all
The
great
re-settlement of a
been forgotten.
Taken
as a whole, however,
it is
some
and others more recent; whereas certain distinctive characteristics seem to belong to work done in a particular workshop
or in a particular valley, other elements seem to have been imported
from outside. It is all this taken together which defines the painting
these monastic grottoes. This art has several different aspects,
older,
of the district
that
is
means, of shapes
is
it
alone.
aniconical:
either simulta-
crosses
and
iconographic scheme.
is
inscriptions
It
(St. Basil,
entirely, or
was correct
Archangelos
fol-
156
which
of rock paintings
The
in
plate
p.
Mary.
style.
Whereas he
them simply
as ninth-, tenth-
which inspired
it
many
may have
been.
paleo-Christian
we
district,
Among
whatever the
their style
and that they were influenced by the contemporary art of Constantinople. The prestige of the models which came from the
Byzantine capital prevailed over earlier regional traditions, but was
far from eliminating them; in style all these paintings, despite the
tied
by a
57
valley of Peristrema.
observe
also
original subjects
which
reflections of all
and
stylistic
separated
porary
EASEL
PAINTING
it
or rather,
slightly later.
art
texts
Church icons
were the
first
to suffer
158
was
Plate 45 - Christ
(detail). Ivory,
188
59
relief,
ofxith century. Treasury of St. Mark's, Venice. Cf. pp. 188, 189
160
Plate 47 - Enamelled
cross of
Pope Pascal
(detail),
p.
go
l6l
162
Cf. p.
190
163
^ 3^^N
r
^s&sy^i,
Plate 50 - Mary
164
ig8
at
Kariye Camii,
51 - Procession of Angels celebrating the Liturgy in Heaven. Mural painting in the church of
the Virgin 'Peribleptos' at Mistra (Sparta), xivth century. Cf. p. 196
Plate
165
Plate 52 - Nativity.
century. Cf. pp. 195,
166
Mural painting
99
in the
to
to
it
we
shall return
later.
One branch
separate from
monumental
who
art.
at all times
MANUSCRIPTPAINTING
art,
which
In Byzantium
centuries
book
is
itself
that
is
first
and
fifth
this
directly concerned.
all
to
On
first
owned by the Bibliotheque Na(MS. Grec 20) we find Christ praying at Gethsemane and (in part) Judas hanging. Sketched rapidly with light
strokes, these are true and lively pictures with a frank and expressive
period.
Psalters
tionale in Paris
PLATE
P.
Il8
style.
Patriarchs of Constantinople.
The
St.
it is
wrong
artists
who
il-
probable that
this
copy of these
oldest
psalters
art.
An
original
monastic
work of this
and at times
verges
elegance and the ease with which the manuscript-painters of the late
ninth and early tenth centuries adapt and imitate antique models,
differently.
This
is
167
strip
Roll of Joshua
plate
p.
64
roll
is
victorious
frieze
this
problem that
whether
it is
still
strips
showing military
subjects.
is
The
to discover
Nicander's treatise
plate
p.
42
effort in
this
Other
illustrated manuscripts
MS. Grec
510),
and of the
first
(MS. Grec
way show
is
that
all
its
1) all
in their
imitation of the
the artists
who were
en-
168
to
each
like nearly
Hezekiah on
his sickbed,
by an
artist
of the
fifth
PLATE
p.
88
On
PLATE
P.
I36
PLATE
P.
I35
another page are fine examples of the heads to which Byzantine art
MS. Grec
so often returned,
in thoughts'.
first
ings.
1,
sixth-century
models
even
more
closely
than
the
to fifth-
and
manuscript
Mount
same landscape.
It is
a remarkable fragment of
was unable
Law, and
that
we
possess to the
movement of Moses
receiving the
and harmony
MS. Grec 139.
qualities of balance
In the Paris
faithful to the
or probably given to
of the
first
is
him
Ps
copy of
The
Macedonians, but
particularities.
Basil
Gregory Nazianzus
as always
its
and
origin,
and one
own
and
notices
169
artists.
The
cycle of images
is
a very broad one and includes, side by side with biblical and evangelical subjects,
among them
Our
plate
is
known examples of
of the earliest
plate
p.
41
It is
probably one
defeating Maxentius at the Milvius Bridge thanks to the intercession of Christ. In front of him, enclosed in a luminous circle, the
painter put the cross with which he was to triumph, to which were
was available
in Constantinople a
few decades
after the
end of
it is
it
volume copied
volume:
seems more
for Basil
(a)
origins.
likely to us that
were compiled on
This
is
suggested
style
depth, skies with clouds, the play of light; (b) schematic scenes,
both large and small, where the entire action takes place on a
single surface; (c) symbolic
of
classical
human
models
face,
which
varies
the inter-
(d)
(MS. Grec
139) to the
is
of
combined
What
the
in a
work which
is
see
when
The
variety of styles
and
170
fairly
passively.
It is
which succeeded
uscript paintings
style
we
find
man-
contemporary
in creating a
True Byzantine
style
of manuscript-painting
at end of Xth century
mark of this
source. This
is
the
and
man-
Paris MS.
uscripts
two
fine
Mount
Gospel on
Athos,
Stravonikita,
Tetra
are of a related style, equally classical but with a specifically Byzantine flavour.
The
is
shown
in certain illustrated
man-
uscripts
11
both executed
for
PLATE
P.
137
series
life
of David, the
number
commemorated
by the
liturgical year,
was meant
to cover the
whole year. As
Men
etc.)
These paintings, dating from shortly before the year 1000, must
have had iconographic prototypes executed about a century earlier.
this is that,
great reputation.
171
name
all
is
needed
the
to execute the
more
numerous
illustrations of the
menology.
by the
It
is
dif-
same artist were no more related to each other than to other paintings
same manuscript. We are most probably dealing here with
the work of a group of artists who shared the work, while obeying
in the
The
style
these paintings
and
same
mature
style
of
of
another in Paris,
MS. Grec
64.
Mount
Mount
Sinai Gospels
still
classical
manuscript-painting
to
contemporary Byzantine
taste.
The modelling
is
human
and
landscapes; the
human
adapts
itself to
them. Art
and the
structures
which
figures
rise
and
behind
adopted
place, but
first
is
scale
is
translated
hills
is
nevertheless a
The
luxurious ornamental
172
let
as paintings,
us continue to
examine
closely at
is
as in the
eyes.
The
ascetic ideal
is
beginning to assert
in a
PLATE
P.
PLATE
P.
PLATE
P.
65
reproduced here.
is
But the voluminous forms have not yet been given up, as was to be
the case later. This is equally true of the beautiful picture of St. John
also
reproduced
184
and which dates from around the year iooo. The painting,
despite its monumental aspect, has the dimensions of an icon or of a
here,
painting
it
Byzantine
contemporary
position
69
when we come
costume in order
to
touch. Preoccupied
uses court
by these decorative
effects,
them priority over the drapery: the archangel's blue coat with its gold
palm-leaf decoration completely hides the plastic shape of the body.
Most
illustrated
even mention
all
number
it is
is
that their
Illustrated Byzantine
manuscripts of Xlth
and
mention
much and
we
shall
them. However,
when
XHth
centuries
73
same
characteristics. This
intense activity,
and seems
of related works
series
we
see the
is
to
fit
and
means
that
products
we know
best
style.
we must
to specialize in a certain
MS.
Grec 74) which has on each page more than one graceful and brilFrom this extensive collection we have chosen a
liant picture.
plate
p.
138
this art,
which
and the
streaks
'lights'
inspired
golden partitions.
art
is
19.352), there
MS. Grec 74
and
23
berini
the
To
to the British
MS.
different.
Museum
Psalter
vi.
art,
as the
work of epigones of
evidence to support
174
p.
139
What
is
plate
this hypothesis.
the
more
MS. Grec
The
74.
and
to their traditional
do
accessories, furniture
and
and a few frescoes prove this. It seems as though the impetus of the
Macedonian renaissance ceased around the middle of the eleventh
century, which was also a time of troubles and political uncertainty
in
MS. Grec 74
Archangel on
Museum
than
PLATE
P.
69
PLATE
P.
I38
Psalter dating
The
first
of the
renovatio
classical traditions.
new
as well as in
Daphni
MS. Grec 74
145).
(p.
way
as the
one James, a
monk
at the convent of
Kokkinobaphos, not
far
from
175
Constantinople.
(Two
known, one
copies are
in the Bibliotheque
The same
applies to
Parma
Mount
Sinai).
5)
The
patronage. Here
its
we
mentioned show
it
more favourable
in a
The
prehensive fashion.
light
and
in a
is
more com-
evident every-
more apparent,
PLATE
P.
I40
is
constructed
Parma,
(Ev.
as for
and
draped
In
Palat. 5).
is
(p.
all
140):
the
scene
is
we have just
of
is
St.
Peter
Denial
the
manuscripts each
even
painting,
This
is
due
to the
the
same
is
between the
dif-
ferent figures
where dramatic
intensity
is
stressed to
suffering
and death.
paintings
We find
the
we have
seen, the
same tendency
in our manuscript
P.
I40
mask
is
Our
176
shown with
skilfully contrasted
with the
common
faces of
as
many
which
and
inspired;
it
it
thirteenth centuries,
Palaeologi.
first
Iconoclasm, as were
all
is
him
in person)
The reappear-
all
the
more
so as the art
make
subjects.
But the
style
and was
also
when
of the
and
is
to the
one
Greek images
men and
dition of
new elements
buildings
to their representations of
the
when
demands
the subject
it,
and
there
is
a richer form
sitivity
life;
and
and
the gestures
this
same increased
sen-
of
(see
One
Palaeologi
is,
sion of volume
and
space.
Comnenian
From
this point
limits laid
down
period.
177
Increased importance
of ornamental decor
We
must
art.
Whereas
in the
to follow the
said earlier, certain art critics think that the beginning of abundant
ornamental decoration goes back to the Iconoclast period (726843). But this theory cannot at present be corroborated owing to
and
it is
its
historical interest
is
man-
is
It
was
eleventh
paid
same importance
as
and
much
From
is
is
itself.
MS. Grec
frame in the Vatican Barber. Gr. 285), and not as an integral part
of the painting in the manuscript, as was to become usual in the
eleventh and particularly in the twelfth century. In the gospels the
decoration
is
first
In other manuscripts ornamental compositions form chapterheadings or vignettes at the beginning of a book or of a chapter.
178
itself,
and
with
a decorated capital
its
play of
down
letter,
strokes
and
Thus
an
initial
more or
and the
less
developed
title
in capital
its
display of
various signs which, although necessary for the reader, also have a
We
evangelist taken
this type,
it
an
PLATE
p.
46
initial
(Paris
MS.
also
The theme
Byzantine book
of
illustration, after
flat bas-reliefs
having
first
Theme of
ornamental rugs
It is in the art
Khirbet
that
we
el
Omayyads
(the palaces of
Qasr
Mosque
to those in
and
of the
most
at
el
Heir,
Kairouan)
closely related
when
there. This
is,
Muslim
art
we must immediately
great
in their
age
crisis.
many ornamental
first
origin
of Justinian
which helped
(first
to revive
half of the
and Iranian
sixth
century),
are
also
79
1,
the Paris
well as in marble
reliefs in
Macedonian renaissance
first
of ornamentation.
From
first
itself felt in
classical
in use in Constantinople as
the
makes
and Iranian
much
origin,
may have
not directly from the East, but as part of the motifs which composed
the Byzantine ornamental repertory of the sixth century. However,
Muslim works which for their part made use at that period of decor
of Iranian origin and which came to Byzantium through trade, may
have contributed
ornamentation.
to the contribution of
We
Muslim decor
in
palm-leaf decoration.
The
P.
40
Sophia.
decoration
This
PLATE
St.
is
the small
marginal images
MS. Grec
64),
and
are of
classic origin.
around a fountain
as seen
or in circus games
imagery of the
180
last centuries
all
of antiquity.
which
in antiquity
were in general
use, also in
elements
pavement mosaics)
decor reserved for manuscripts, and even expainting,
to
little
secular
make
preserved
Comnenian
were only
illuminated
This
is
at
any
also true ot
initials
ments
may
mentioned, but
Comnenian
it
to the drolleries of
more or
less
it is
the counterpart
many
considered as
Byzantine works of
were
for the
we have
only taken
most part,
if not entirely,
conceived in Constantinople.
it
works of art of the period were created or at any rate the models
However,
like the
this rule.
We know
and elsewhere,
Paintings in Greek
manuscripts in Italy
as at Salerno
181
The most
is
a collection of
and coming
another
33).
The
Pierpont
manuscript
curious
Morgan
decorated
with
attribute to
The
the
(MS. Gr.
same
as in those of Constantinople.
Greek manuscripts
less
is
not
we
also find
Italy: Carolingian,
shops in
and even Arabic. The paintings of these Greek workItaly are thus on the border-line of Byzantine art proper.
But the
truly Italic
workshops in the
and the
first
flourish of
It is sufficient to
frescoes at Castelseprio,
their
immediate Byzantine
Rome and
it
was
practised in the outlying provinces of the empire (see our observations above
southern Italian
Western
art,
away from
on the
frescoes of
it.
this
suggestive fact, let us simply say that the relative isolation of the
182
Plate 53 - Christ's Miracles. Mural painting in the church of the Virgin 'Pantanassa' at Mistra,
xivth century. Cf.p. 1Q5
183
84
Plate 55 - Icon of the Last Judgement (detail: Resurrection of the Dead, Weighing of Souls, Fate of
Sinners). Mount Sinai, xnth century. Cf. p. 203
Plate 54 PP-
St.
Cf
173,203
185
86
(detail),
Modern
made in
art historians
is
silver, figurative
owe an
SCULPTURE
do with
The
price of the
of course in none of these arts did the machine ever replace the
artisan.
In other words these forms of art should be placed on the same level
as painting,
Middle
Ages.
Monumental
time when in
West
it
we
are considering,
it.
It
and
is
we
its
see
lasting strides.
any examples
absence cannot be
art,
from
the techniques that could be used for the creation of sacred images.
The
Istanbul
Museum
in the air,
effigies
by
to
heaven. These
St.
a statue in the
reliefs
tempted
side
reliefs
close to the
in Venice)
bas-reliefs of the
St.
rising to
of churches such as
Demetrius at Vladimir
etc.;
they were
however limited
it
may have
development,
related to the
been,
187
Italy,
the West
although
this is
is
in
Romanesque
period.
bronze or
more
use,
and other
often to vases
and even
objects of ecclesiastical
to icons themselves.
Nearly
still
plate
p.
60
type
an image in
is
the Archangel
and secular
all
still
relief (repousse) in
Michael (Treasury of
small masterpiece of
Mark's,
St.
In
Venice).
Ivory objects
too,
bronze
reliefs
earliest times
number of
we
up
we
is
But
it
In
reliefs.
Scenes and
from the
circus, of
It
seems that
it
was in the
The
ease
century and
later,
style altered
without
this
with religious subjects, the most famous being triptychs with images
of saints in prayer before Christ.
in the
188
The
Rome
are the
most beautiful in
this series,
Whereas the
reliefs
of late classical
art,
on
plate
p.
159
his consort.
the ivory of
Romanus n and
Romanus n
is
of an original
style,
visions.
garments
one of the greatest successes of tenth-century Byzan-*
Christ
serious
is
tine Christian
humanism.
art, closely
OTHER
BYZANTINE
LUXURY ARTS
linked to
the glow
Archangel in Venice
(see
above
PLATE
P.
I$0
work of
incredible delicacy
cabochon
It is
one of these
chalices,
among
we reproduce
in our plate as
ENAMELS
PLATE
P.
68
an admirable
century. But
to
into
Development of
cloisonne enamel
189
it
became
possible to vary
one that was extremely successful because of the glow of the colours,
which no other technique of painting was able to equal. It could be
by mosaics
rivalled only
and by stained
glass,
to
have known,
on contemporary Byzantine painting and were of particular importance as regards manuscript-painting, probably in the latter half
of the eleventh and in the twelfth century. Byzantine enamels
silver,
Thus
St.
Pala d'Oro in
Mark's, Venice
dress, altar-cloths
filigree
is
work,
numerous enamels
and
as well as
still exist.
is
many
transformations in
The enamels
way
as to
at
form a
by
row are
later
Comneni
in
is
an
GOLD WORK
190
is
at present
Museum.
all
we
Byzantines,
silver or
shall
Italy (Monte Sant' Angelo in Apulia, St. Paul 'outside the walls' in
Rome) and at Suzdal in Russia are the best examples of works cre-
The
cutting of semi-precious
Cutting of
semi-precious stones
etc.
The
The
Glyptics
the application to
Byzantines
fallible tact.
One
work of Byzantium
and decorated
ceramics. At present there are certified tenth- and eleventh-century
pieces made by these techniques in the museums of Istanbul, Sofia,
the Louvre and Baltimore. Both these techniques were used to
produce fine pieces of monumental decor or were applied to the
furniture and the floors of churches, as well as to small and large
icons, whose colours are nearly as bright as those of enamel. The
arts,
which played an
was during
Constantinople workshops
worked
DECORATED
SILKS
human
figures. It
one
may
is
fairly
speak of
emperors
who were
hostile to
191
dynasty
textiles
sovereign,
these silks
were
Muslim
versions.
encourage the
classical style;
tine art,
series
However,
knew how
to
combine Oriental
An
emperor
is
shown
(Rome and
this is
ture of the
Triumph of Constantine.
It is in
a pic-
192
As we have
and
sculptors
state the
families of Constantinople
Slav, Bulgar
it
why
to earlier
of architecture, which
is
was
during
this
more
fully
artists
of this
we should note
that
new
mon-
On
one funeral
SCULPTURE
vm
little
smaller
The
see, for
little
trial
and twelfth
upon an era of remarkable
the end of the Latin period in Con-
193
and probably
stantinople
monument
in the Byzantine
Museum
in
Athens). But this only seems to have been a single blaze with no
future, as with
MANUSCRIPTPAINTING
The
mural paintings
(see
below)
some rather ordinary, such as the Gospels (Paris MS. Grec 54),
and others more inspired, such as the theological works of John
Cantacuzenus (Paris MS. Grec 1242]. Manuscript paintings do not
seem to have achieved the success that they had at the time of the
Macedonian renaissance or even under the Comneni. But on the
other hand the book illuminations of the Palaeologi are very varied
and in some cases appear to be more independent of Byzantine
tradition than all other types of artistic works.
Thus the
Some
series
of
(National
when
Skylitzes could
have been
il-
elements.
is
paintings
and Dimna,
which the Greeks had copied since the tenth century at Salerno
(see above, p. 182). The second copy of the Paris Job (MS. Grec 135)
is dated 1368 and must have been copied at Mistra. It is all the more
interesting to note that the art of these illustrations entirely follows
book of the
Generally
194
it is
secular
and princely
art,
and
aspects
secular art,
to
closest
Palaeologi departs
more
often
Byzantine tradition.
The religious
on the
other hand, remained faithful to this tradition. But this basic traditionalism did not prevent the Byzantines from creating a
of
shown
new version
in style
lems of
that
how
is
this art
itself.
PAINTING
mural
and above
MURAL
in the series of
RELIGIOUS
its
works themselves.
and
which the
best
let
added
to the
middle of the
century
in Constantinople
fifteenth century.
we may
13 15-1320)
Of those
PLATE
P.
166
PLATE
P.
183
known
Lesnovo and
close together,
and by the constant effort to portray volume and space. An iconographic and religious programme far vaster than ever before in
Byzantium corresponds to these general tendencies in decorative
195
effect.
feasts
p.
164
as the
of
all
more than
number of
rites
subjects;
celebrated in each
church. Thus one finds pictures which show, with surprising mystic
realism, the Infant Jesus laid out
leaning over
Him and
who seem
stylets (the
to
be
plate
p.
65
Byzantine iconographers of
at least transferred
on
this late
etc.
The
light
on the dogma of
the sacrament of
since the
numerous
in
Wisdom. By
definition
possible to suggest
its
196
it
is
invisible,
appearance as
it
but
it
revealed
in the
Divine
might be thought
itself
momentarily
Lamb,
Well of Knowledge,
Fathers of the Church inspired by God, the Tree of Jesse), and the
prayer,
first,
the intention to
might concern
their faith.
The
accent here
much
is
placed on
Conception of church
as illustrated book
to teach the faithful
further. In a
it is
An
enumerate
their
all
artists. First
of
all
we must
Greek
artists
As has already been said, few of the mural paintings of this period
have been preserved; but by adding to them the manuscript
paintings of the twelfth century one realizes that the century of the
fertile in artistic
part heralded the paintings of the Palaeologi. It was then that some
forms which one already tends to associate with the art of the Palaeologi, especially in its earliest
realistic additions
197
Sicily,
way
and the
for
two
detailed narrative
that
is
to say,
left
Due
frescoes at Milesevo
but
this
hy-
artists' studios.
St.
without
it is
is
methods and
198
fine strokes of
laid
from
task,
The
all ages.
who knew
PLATE
P.
164
plate
p.
166
having
little
Thus one
finds
owe
To
need
to
go back
antiquity
(the
examples of
to
dome
this.
We
of
St.
find
had no
late
inspiration
Sofia
Museum) by
;
seventh-century mosaics
at St.
compare the
figures
on a background
compare
compare the throne of the Virgin at StaroNagoricino and the thrones of the consuls on ivory diptychs and lastly
by twelfth-century illuminations
for example, the fourteenththe sixth century
modelled on certain
St.
illustrations of the
sermons of
St.
Gregory of
many
cases
one
199
dome
bach in
of
Contacts with
the
West
Mark's in Venice.
St.
The
Bagawat (fifth century) the Romanesque dome of LamAntioch, and the thirteenth-century calottes in the vestibule
at
last
Some
of the
first critics
artists
European
art,
it
be a
to
common
advanced
as
at a time
when only a
and
the
new
established ;
period
first
this
number of Palaeologian
when no one knew of the
appeared.
Now
and
Italian
be
to
works of
this
spring from a
back
style first
small
in particular
when
common
development. At
an
this
art
which in
Italy
found
inter-
studios.
crafts.
This also applies to gold and silver work and other luxury
There even
and
art,
it exerted on certain works in Byzantine counand nothing is less surprising, given the blossoming of art at
time in Western Europe and the deep penetration of Westerners
this
200
204.
religious painting
is
not explained
solely
art.
its
essential features
certainty
Essential independence
f Palaeologtan
pointing
r
rom
tne
West
it
to
say here that, as opposed to Italian painting, from the middle of the
had a pictorial language largely inspired by classical models and was at the same time capable of
imitating nature and of creating a new monumental art. Later this
art did not develop in the same direction as that of Italy, by gradualthirteenth century
ly
improving
onwards
this imitation
it
down and
then
put an end to the enquiries that led to works such as Sopoani, and
even to
already
St.
Clement
less lively.
The
and
all
of the
skill
and
artists
show
effect,
from the
new academism,
more
this
academism
creations
and
first
as-
ments of the
the
numerous
The
achieve-
new
of the Pantanassa
is
new
one of the
satisfactory works,
effect
details.
last
masterpieces, preceded by
201
Although not
itself
apparently forbad
all
con-
life.
certain,
it is
of
Hesychast monks
on painting
all
The
for
its
continued ability to apply the formulas of its great past with method
and
respect, but
in routine.
EASEL
PAINTING
It
in
Byzantium.
It
icon-painting
blossomed
easel painting
as
The production
new custom of installing
from the nave in every church and is called the iconostasis or templon
for up to the thirteenth century movable icons were probably not to
be found there.
have given
The
two different
saint of the
show
202
and
less
sizes
often the
life
feasts
Some
surviving
examples of these icons date from the tenth and eleventh centuries,
but before the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they are rare.
We
painted on the
lid
of a
wooden
reliquary,
which shows
St.
PLATE
P.
184
PLATE
P.
l86
John
Chrysostom.
to present the
two types
illustrated here
descriptive paintings.
details of a Last
'85
203
APPENDIX
205
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
300
Roman Empire
500
Reign of Justinian
itself
from Western
(527-565).
Byzantine Empire loses a part of the Balkan peninsula, colonized by Slavs (vith century).
(From the rxth century part of these territories were regained; at the same period there was a
gradual conversion of the Slavs to Christianity.)
600
After embracing Islam, the Arabs seize Egypt, Syria and northern Mesopotamia from the
Byzantine Empire (about 640-750).
For their part, the Bulgarians instal themselves at the gates of Byzantium (vuth to xth century).
700
Iconoclast government in Byzantium (726-843), with an interval between 780 and 813.
Seventh Oecumenical Council of the Universal Church, held at Nicaea on the outskirts of
Constantinople, re-establishes the use and worship of religious images (787).
800
1000
northern
stantinople (1054).
Loss by Byzantine Empire of a great part of Asia Minor, following crushing victory by Seljuk
Turks at Mantzikert (1071).
Comnenian dynasty ( 1 08 1 - 1 1 85 )
1 1
00
1200
Angelus dynasty
( 1 1
85-1 204)
Italians
and
Byzantine despotate of Morea (Peloponnese) with Mistra as capital (middle of xivth century
to 1460).
New
impetus and conquests in Byzantine territory by states of Serbia and Bulgaria (end of
second half of xivth century).
Osmanli Turks progressively take over the Byzantine and Slav possessions in Balkans and Asia
Minor (1 350-1 402).
Turks take Constantinople by assault (1453).
End of Byzantine Empire.
xii th to
206
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HISTORY AND CIVILIZATION
Plates:
Baynes, JV.
Le monde byzantin,
Brihier, L.,
3 vols.
(Paris
Rice,
Ebersolt, J.,
(Stuttgart 1959).
Hussey, J. M., Church
ARCHITECTURE
Studies:
and Learning
in the
art: general
de batir chez
les
Byzantins
(Paris 1883).
Ebersolt, J.,
Monuments
d'architecture byzan-
and
Plates:
al., Les monuments chretiens de
Salonique (Paris 1 9 1 8 fT. )
Ebersolt, J. and Thiers, A., Les eglises de Con-
Diehl, Ch. et
Studies:
Ainalov,
don 1961).
Dalton, 0. M., Byzantine Art
(Oxford 191
1 ;
0.
Dalton,
and Archaeology
reprint New York 1961).
1925).
Manuel
Diehl, Ch.,
2nd
ed. 1925-26).
stantinople
l'art
byzantin
(London
General Studies:
Mosaic
Byzantine
0.,
(London
Decoration
1948).
(Paris 1936).
Huyghe,
Con-
191 2).
L'Empereur dans
Grabar, A.,
tine, 2 vols.
(Moscow
de
(Geneva 1953).
byzan-
la peinture
1947).
1963).
Mathew,
G.,
Byzantine
Aesthetics
(London
Monographs:
1963).
Millet, G.,
1930
Millet,
les
Slaves (Paris
Rice,
(London
Kunst, 2
208
1959)Buchtahl,
und byzantinische
1914-18).
Altchristliche
vols. (Berlin
H.,
Psalter
Demus,
1963).
Rice,
Wulff,
Mosaics
ff.).
G.,
Paris
of the
Paris
Norman
Sicily
The Miniatures
(London 1938).
O.,
The Mosaics
of
(London 1929).
Diez, E. and Demus, 0., Byzantine Mosaics in
Felicetti-Liebenfels,
ORNAMENTAL ARTS
mo
General Works:
Kitzinger, E.,
1961).
Millet, G.,
Schmit,
Sotirou,
(Athens 1956).
Underwood, P. A.,
Camii,
in:
9-10 etseq.
(Cologne 1963).
Whittemore, Th., The Mosaics of St. Sophia at
SCULPTURE
La
sculpture (byzantine) et
les arts
(Paris 1923).
Grabar, A., Le succes des arts orientaux a la
les
Macedoniens,
in:
Various Techniques:
Falke,
Brihier, L.,
Ebersolt, J.,
tin (Paris
1939^)-
Pasini, A., II
1886).
Rosenberg,
Main
A.,
Zellenschmelz
(Frankfurt-on-
1920).
209
APPENDIX OF PLATES
The appendix
i
4
5
6
7
- Serres
- Arta: St. Theodora
- Athens St. Theodore
- Athens Old Metropolis
- Hosios Lucas in Phocis main church
- Daphni
- Arta Parigoritissa
- Samarra
2IO
9 - Mistra Brontocheion
- Hosios Lucas in Phocis: interior of main
:
10
1 1
church of the
Virgin
church
- Hosios Lucas in Phocis
- Merbaka
- Mistra Palace of the Despots
14 - Constantinople: Tekfur Serai Palace
1
211
J/^-KSVi."*
213
2I 4
215
11
12
218
INDEX
The numerals
academism, new
201
Acropolis
Aesop,
123
Men
Agac
171
182
of
life
Byzantine
aesthetics,
59.
alti Kilise
Albania
Alexander, Emperor
Alexandria
Alexius
Alexius
133;
Rising to Heaven
son of John
Comnenus
187
Basil II
174
133
182
17,
132,
147;
Aphentiko
31, 79
(or Brontocheion)
124,
Apostles 91,
133,
of,
193;
95
191
Aquileia
Arab, Arabic
14, 25, 81, 95, 155,
Arakou: see Virgin
Archangelos
Archangels 143; church of, Mesembria
Gabriel 69; Michael 186, 188, 190
arcosolium (tombs with)
Ark of the Covenant
Armenia
86
182
popular
arts,
129;
193
196
26, 155
provincial or regional
Ascension
Asia Minor
155
Athens
Ba6kovo, convent of
220
105!,
124;
domed
74
Bayeux, tapestry of
181
Belli Kilise
157
146
168, 169, 177, 194
Bidbai, fables of
182
Bithynia
Blachernes
Black Sea
Blessed Lucas
Boeotia
77
130,
134
77, 110
Bogomils
Boiana
Bosphorus
195, 198,
29
200
13, 17
brick
io2f.,
110
bronze
188
Bulgaria, Bulgarian
14,
15,
196
156
15, 16,
Arta
757, 171
death of 142
Burning Bush
98
art, aristocratic 26, 155; 'colonial' 154; of Byzantine court 26, 95, 155; of Byzantine expansion
154;
Brontocheion or Aphentiko
Apulia
192
72, 73
Bible, biblical
11$
157
the Macedonian
99
17
antiquity
I,
Betrayal of Judas
153, 163
Archangel of
Basil
199
128
15
178
31, 32, 156
188
aniconical art
151,
Baptism
baptistery
99
20; Alexius,
Balkan, Balkans
14,
Ballek Kilise
Baltimore: see menology, Museum
Bamberg, treasury of cathedral of
*53
158
128
figures.
Bagawat
and
89
see
157
181
Menology
caliphs
95f.
43
194
17, 22,
182
Castelseprio
Catalans
Cefalu
cenobism
123
145, 149, 150
Chora
77
sculptured decor 129
18, 66, 123, 144!, 146
80, 120, 195; see also Kariye Camii
Christ
29, 45, 54, 65, 71, 80, 86, t}8, 143, 145,
ceramics
Chios
31, 191;
Daphni
Enthroned
169,
Repentance of
108;
miracles of i8y,
Pantocrator: see Pantocrator;
Passion of 146, 152, 157, 176;
201
150, 202
demons
158
140
26
circus
171, 172,
143
182, 188
180, 201
171
79-
143
152
Dimna
194
132. 196
188
Divine Wisdom
Dionysus
dome
cross 120
Cimitile
136, 169
Deisis
132;
classic, classical
171;
decor, ornamental
in Majesty 132;
Wisdom
in all
David
Decani
burial of 114;
childhood of 157;
Dividing of Garments 138, 174;
donors
197
181
drolleries
Ducas
Dugento
127
si,
200
86
coins
MS. 20 (Paris)
Comnenus, John
Comneni, Comnenian
Coislin
145, 147,
148,
180;
MS. 79
33, 122;
Manuel 33
Cordova
47
Edessa
Egri tash Kilisesi
Sophia
158
Egypt
14
Eleusis
123, 145
Elizabeth,
Elmale
116
St.
Kilise
157
embroidery, embroideries
Empire, Latin, of Constantinople
enamel
England
81
34, 37, 7
17, 31, 100, 198
153
127
122
Euboea
77
Euphrates
Europe, Central
14
194;
Western
Evangelisatria
125
182
Corinth
25, 36, 51
court, Imperial
51, 81, 95; see also art of
Byzantine court
Creation of the Birds (in Florence Bible)
177
Exultet
exuviae sacrae
Crete
Cross
Crucifixion
Crusade, crusaders 15,
cube (building) with
Fener Isa
103, 119, 180
Fetie Camii: see Virgin Pammacharistos
121,
18
34,
161
dome
84 99, 100
129
feasts
Fener
Isa Meljid or
Cyprus
Genesis
Dalmatia
15
Damascus
Danube
14,
15'
47
24
49
154
197
filigree
Cycle of Childhood
147; of Feasts 149, 152;
inspired by Gospels 195; liturgical 151, 152, see
also liturgy; of the Passion 151, see also Christ,
Passion of
18, 151,
34
Rome
150,
143
123, 126, 131
182, 193; see also painting,
monuments
193
31,
mural
funeral
149
Genoa, Genoese
George of Antioch (Admiral)
Georgia, Georgians
16,
Germany
25
149
23, 190
18,
221
glazed
104
tiles
glyptics
36. 37
gold
Golden Number
79
169
Goliath
Gothic
27, 119, 127, 131, 193, 197
Gra6anica
129, 195, 201
Gr. 285, Vatican Barber.
178; see also Paris
Gr. 372, Vatican Barber.
174
Gr. 749, Vatican
177
Greece, Greek 13, 15, 17, 18, 23, 30, 38, 102, 107,
123,
128, 193
groined arches
Grotto Ferrata
104
181
John Chrysostom
John Italus
John,
John,
176
65. 173
57
182
i43> 146
29
116
St.
(Infant)
St.,
the Evangelist
John Tzimisces
46
i5> 171
Joseph
92
Joshua, Book of, Vatican Library 168; Roll of,
Vatican Library 64, 168
Judas, Betrayal of 146; Hanging
118, 167
Judgement, Last
148, 153, i85 203
Justinian
14, 32, 33, 75, 77, 96, 133
Justinian II
86
,
Harbaville, triptych
of,
Louvre
188
Heraclea
Hercules
Hesychasts
Hezekiah, King
52
187, 188
29, 202
88, 169
Hippodrome
86
Holy Land
Holy Mountain
Hosios Lucas
18,
(St.
Luke), Phocis
78f., 80,
39,
77
Kastoria
202
180
13,
Iconoclasm
170, 177,
14,
105,
132ft.,
155,
156,
iconostasis
if.,
97
187, 202
199, 202
ideas, religious
56,
Ignatius
Incarnation
60
134
132, 177, 196
196
Infant Jesus
illuminated
179, 181
18
Ionian Islands
Iran, Iranian
47, 52, 81, 96, 129, 156, 180
Irene
133
initials,
Irish
178
Islam
Muslims
Museum:
Italy, Italian
see
Museum
Khazars
Khirbet el Mafjar
Khokhoul, monastery of
Kiev 151; see also St. Sophia
Ivanovo
ivory, ivories
222
Tchukur
14
179
190
157
Kokkinobaphos, convent of
Kurbinovo, Macedonia
Last Supper
Latin, Latins
175
7/5, 151, 153
120
14, 18, 23, 37, 56, 57, 61, 181
Laurentian VI 23 (Florence)
Leningrad: see Museum
igot,
187
85
86
132
129, 195, 261
14, 18, 24
Library: Laurentian, Florence 65, 177; Marcian,
Venice 67, 162, 171, 17 5; National, Madrid 130,
liturgy
ern
87
105, 127, 153, 195
Limoges
Istanbul
178
iconography
Iconophobes
icons
32L, 38
Kesel
Iconoclasts
179
201
194
99
hunting scenes
Kalila
Chora
Karabas-Kilise, Cappadocia
93, 104, 123, 127, 134L, 144, 146, 148, 151, 199
humanism, humanist
51
62ff.,
Logos
Louvre: see Museum
Lusignan kings
196
18
202
31, 37, 159, i88f.
Macedonia
18, 74,
Madonna
148
197
mannerism
Mantzikert
manuscripts, Greek, in Italy
98,
Nilus,
nominalism
155
72, 73L, 128
179
95
202
Norman, Normans
15.
H8f.
195
Nubia
14
numismatics,
Ochrid
86
effigies
Olympus, Mt.
77
Omayyad
180, 181
Orlandos, M.
172
Mesembria
Mesopotamia
14
Metropolis (the old), Athens 123; Mistra
124
Michael (Archangel)
64, 186, 188
Michael III
Michael VIII Palaeologus
microcosm (church as)
Milan
Milesevo
Millet, Gabriel
86
193
59f.,
74I
75, 182
195, 198
'Milion'
86
Milvius, Bridge of
41
modernism
Monemvasia:
Monreale
see St.
Sophia
///, 126, 149
18, 110, 124
Morea
31, 34, 35, 3p, 40, 48, 63, 66, 70, 79, po,
Nathan, Prophet
136, 169
Nativity
Nerez
Nesebar: see Mesembria
New Monastery, church
Chios
144
Triumph
85;
of
33, 85,
Ottonians
96
100
49, 182.
Padua
86
painting, easel
'monastic' 155;
mural
22, 34,
198;
105,
167;
popular
frescoes
i24f.,
129,
131,
148,
150,
188,
193^,
188
Chapel,
(Royal)
Palestine
15
Paris
MS. Gr. 20
Gr.
134
194;
Parthenon
Pascal
of,
131
104,
154
128
Monastir
mosaic
15
St.
also St.
171; of
96
Novibazar
tion of 146
Mchatta
menology 137,
36, 5*
175
also Virgin
198
17.
42, 168
niello
153
Mistra
Nicaea
Nicander
Nicephorus III Botaniates
Nicephorus, Patriarch
Nicephorus Phocas
I,
Pope
122,
146
161
223
123, 128
Patleina, Preslav
Roger
II
149
Patmos 33
182
Romanesque
Patriarchs
134
9*
Romanus Lecapenus
Romanus II
Paul,
St.
Paulicians
Pearl, Pavilion
29
95
100
Peloponnese
pendentives
68, 91,
Philippi
140
741.
Photius (Patriarch)
57
126
152
Pirdop
74. 75
Pisa
Pliska
77,
105,
Pompeian painting
131
127
portraits
69, 144,
146
200
146
villa of Livia,
134,
Gregory of Nyssa
180
St.
195
'small
St.
171
St.
John-Aliturgitos, Mesembria
John, churches of
John the Theologian, Mesembria
Josse, Pas-de-Calais
Luke: see Hosios Lucas
173;
52
St.
Mark, Venice
St.
7i
St.
St.
Nicon, Sparta
Panteleimon, Thessalonica
155; Byzantine in
(popul ar)
St.
Paraskevi,
H3. !52
Qasr el Heir
Quattrocento
179
31
Apollinare
Nuovo
29
182
168
Reg. Gr. 1, Vatican Library
Reg. Gr. 1613, Vatican Library
137
Reg. Suev. Gr. 1, Vatican Library
*35> 169
Renaissance, Macedonian
31, 98, 105, 180, 192
47
18
129
129
107
52
Treasury of
189
7i
Purification
33,
156
158
105
St.
Rome
65,
Achilles Island
128
proskynetaria
224
187;
pro thesis
155*. 157
182
St.
proskomidi
Rhineland
Rhodes
105, 128
Prilep
Prizren
Prophet,
prophets
prophets'
Propontis
25
128
80
Pomposa, tribunal of
Porta Panagia
Reformation
Reggio
180
23
16, 76,
St.
Peter, St.
Psalter
Russia
108
Europe
33, 119
68, 189
Saint, Saints, saintly 19, 40, 56, 66, 68, 153, 171L,
Peristera
Ravenna
Rome, Roman
Rumanians
108, 144
Pentecost
Prima Porta,
art
Mesembria
105
121
129
Salerno
Salonika
Sassanid
181
14, 25,
52, 96
Istanbul 1 igf; Lykodimou
or Christ Lykodimou, Athens, 122
Saviour,
church
of,
47
57
38, i87ff., 193
Seljuk: see
Turks
Semitic
156
14,
Serbia, Serbs
18, 100,
Serres
23, 127, 130
Sicily
147,
silver
Mt.
Skoplje
Skripou
Sinai,
Museum
129,
110
110
14,
25
188
soapstone
Sofia: see
Museum
48
105, 124, 16$, 195; see also Mistra,
126
Staro-Nagoricino
!95. !99
128
Stip
Stiris
43
stone, rough-cut
102f.
Stoudion, convent of
Suzdal
144,
synthronus
196
Trephilia
Trier
Trikkala
105,
Trinity
Troglodyte (monasteries or sanctuaries) 26,
Turks, Turkish 13, 15, 18, 24, 56, 61, 76, 81,
155;
Osmanli
123
75
128
29
155
119,
Unbelief of
Thomas
143
14,
15,
Museum
157
i3f.
177
Theodora
18,19,
i04f.
Mark
Acheiropoetos, Thessalonica
Mary
122
133, 143
in the
29
35.
190
122
Tcharekle Kilise
Tekfur Serai
Templar: see iconostasis
Testament, Old
Venice, Venetian
180, 198
Tabor, Mt.
Taxiarchs
147
74, 76, 103^, 120; barrel
vaulting, vaults
174
71
Syria, Syrian
Theodore,
15
200
Vatopedi
195, 198, 201
St. Nicon
Stanimachus
Tbilisi: see
Athens 107
15, 23, 61
Smyrna
Sopocani
Spain
Sparta
of,
Trebizond
Trecento
Tree of Jesse
Martorana 149
in Paradise 89
Kato-Panagia 127
of the Blachernes, Arta 127
Pammacharistos 120
Pantanassa. Mistra 110, 124, 183, 195, 201
Parigoritissa 127
Peribleptos, Mistra 110, 124, 265, 195, 199, 201;
Ochrid 129
Virtues
196
Vladimir
150, 153; see also St. Demetrius
86
monk
47
80
Theodore Metochites
Theophilus, Emperor
32, 76 95*-
Theo tokos
146
Thessaly
Thessalonica
127
14,
36,
102
108,
121,
122,
126,
Washing
of the Feet
West, Western
73, g8f., 102,
II
143, 146
200
William
Yugoslavia
149
113, 114,
115,
201
154,
Tokal
tombs
Torcello
Transcaucasia
157
193
148, 188
73*.
Zemen
200
Zeuxippe workshops
Zoe
133
51
225
A Comprehensive Library
of All the Arts
The
embraces
Library
In the course of
this series,
to see, to appreciate, to
Painting
African Masks
Iconography
Leatherwork
Basketry
Porcelains
Bronzes
Heraldry
Assyrian Jewelry
Byzantine Enamels
Chinese Scrolls
Fertility Carvings
Ancient Inca
Gold-work
Bookbinding and
Illumination
Calligraphy
Caricatures
Cubism
Classicism,
Temples,
Tombs
Churches, Shrines
Screens, Scrolls
The Renaissance
Ancient American
Art
Graphic Arts
Puppets, Dolls
Still
Life
Architecture
Coins, Symbols,
Romanticism,
Seals
Wood, Jade
Realism
Fashion Design
Carvings
Pyramids, Sphinxes Chateaux, Castles,
Batik
Cathedrals
Gothic Era
Frescoes, Reliefs
Cave Paintings
Landscape
Lacquer-work
Architecture
Mythography
Drawing
Ritual Vessels
Work
in Clay,
Wax, Electrum
Murals
Miniatures
Sculpture
Furniture
Textiles
Tapestries
Engraving, Etching Carpets, Rugs
Industrial Design
Impressionism,
Expressionism
Abstractionism
Ceramics
Glassware
Gold and
Silver
Work
Ivory,
Bone
Carvings
Mosaics
Pottery
Embroidery, Lace
Buddhist Art
South Sea Art
Stained Glass
Photography
Portraiture
and
MUCH more!
WORLD
The
historical, sociological
and
religious
backgrounds