GENDER

SOCIALIZATION,
MASCULINITIES AND
FEMININITIES
GESC2320
Gender and Family: a Global Perspective

Introduction

Introduction

Hegemonic definitions of masculinities and femininities

Explanations: Nature VS Nurture Controversies

State 5 things that men and women are fundamentally

different from each other.
List out the 5 most masculine and feminine behaviors as
you think them to be.
Did you imagined yourself (or wish to be) a
man/woman? Why?
List out the types of toys you were given from your
parents and relatives when you were young.

Sex and Gender

Biological determinism
Social learning approach
Gender role socialization

Sex is ascribed; Gender is achieved

Gender role refers to a set of behavioral norms prescribed for
men and women in a given social setting
Feminine
Not aggressive

Masculine
Aggressive

Weak, not confident

Bold, confident

Sneaky

Direct

Gender role and gender identity

Dependent

Independent

Social outcomes resulted from gender reproduction:

Submissive, passive

Dominant, active

Gender segregation
Catch up in HK cases: the making of gender in families
Gender stereotypes

Emotional

Calm

Subjective, illogical

Objective, logical

Doing gender

Hegemonic definition of masculinity (Connell

1987)

Feminists see gender roles as oppressive stereotypes

imposed by society

Hegemonic definition of masculinity:

Erving Goffman (1963: 128): in an important sense there is

only one complete unblushing male in America: a young,
married, white, urban, northern, heterosexual, Protestant,
father, of college education, fully employed, of good
complexion, weight, and heights, and a recent record in
sportsany male who fails to qualify in any of these ways
is likely to view himself during moments at least as
unworthy, incomplete, and inferior.

Not talkative

Concern others

Self-centered

Hegemonic definition of femininity (Connell

1987)

Talkative

Emphasized femininity is oriented to

accommodating the interests and desires of men.
This is organized around compliance with gender
inequality.
The display of sociability rather than technical
competence, fragility in mating scenes, compliance
with mens desire for titillation in office relations,
acceptance of marriage and child care as a
response to labor market discrimination against
women.

Gender: masculinities and femininities

Explanations:

Biological determinism

Genetic

inheritance (nature) versus environment

influences (nurture)

Nurture
Social
Biology

Social
Learning

Sex and Gender

Evolutionist perspective females natural evolutionary

instinct is toward high sexual selectivity and monogamy;
males are naturally promiscuous () since their
reproductive success depends upon fertilizing as many
eggs as possible without emotional constraint.
Brain function mens brains heavier or more complex
than womens
Hormonal differences mens higher level of testosterone
(), which causes aggression, than females lead
men are generally more aggressive than female.

Theoretical orientations:

Nature

Simone de Beauvoir, One is not born, but rather

becomes a woman (or man)
are born in nature but develop through culture
discrimination produces in women moral and
intellectual effects so profound that they appear to be
caused by nature (Beauvoir 1972 [original 1949], 18

Gender socialization

Proper behavior is reinforced through rewards while

inappropriate behavior is punished
Role model
children modify behavior in order to maximize rewards and
minimize sanctions

social

How do individuals learn gender that they ARE

gendered (have a gender) and how to live up to
expectations for what this means?
how

do ideas about gender get reproduced and

transformed from one generation to the next?

Social learning theory

We

Gender reproduction

Biological determinism is the idea that peoples

attitudes, behaviors, affinities, and other qualities are
determined in part or in whole by their biology.

Children learn proper behavior for girls and boys

through parents, the media, peer groups, and other
sources of socialization
At an early age, children develop stereotypical
conceptions of both genders, and begin to use these
conceptions to organize their knowledge and behavior

Gender Role Socialization

Socialization encompasses the processes by which we

learn and adapt to the ways of a given society or
social group so as to adequately participate in it.
Gender role socialization is ...a lifelong process
whereby people learn the values, attitudes,
motivations, and behavior considered appropriate to
each sex by their culture
Socialization approach emphasizes
conscious social learning

George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

Role-taking

He argues that people develop their self-image

through role-taking, the ability to take the role of
others in interaction. Through role-taking, we come
to see ourselves from another person's point of view
and thus come to see ourselves through others' eyes.
e.g.

preparatory

stage: (significant others)

stage: particular others
game stage: learn to take on the role of multiple
others
adult stage: generalized others (I Vs me)
play

between lovers and mother- and daughter-in-law

etc.

Gender socialization (Fagot 2000)

Gender socialization

Rosch (1977) (also refer to West & Z. 1987:132-3)

Categorization

Reciprocal Role theory (Johnson 1975)

Parents promote gender-typed behavior

Bem (1981)

Age difference

and classification a category exists

whenever two or more discriminably different entities
are treated equivalently.

Role-taking requires different cognitive ability

and we develop this ability in different stags of
development:

Expressive

Childhood,

Gender

schema
children to organize and interpret new
information and to use this information to regulate
behavior.
E.g. girls play with dolls and boys prefer guns

role; instrumental role

adolescence

Enable

The familys role in the socialization of gender

Differential treatment by sex begins at birth.

Parents

of newborns appear to perceive their sons and

daughters differently.
E.g.

mothers talk more to their daughters and imitate the

infants vocalization, where they provide more physical
stimulation to sons.

Specialization

in child care: fathers take up the play

time while mothers doing the caring work
Block (1976): fathers interact with boys and girls in v.
different ways, whereas mother react to boys and girls
in similar ways.

Problems of the notion of gender role

in explaining gender differences

Be caution:
Roles

are situated identities (West & Zimmerman 1987:128-

9)
a

social role is not ones master identities, e.g. sex

category, that cut across situation.
Some roles are gender marked, e.g. doctor & nurse

Self and Identity

Self is a mental construction of the persons

Identity is the sense, and continuity of self
Identity is about belonging, about what you have in
common with some people and what differentiates
you from others. At its most basic it gives you a
sense of personal location, the stable core to
individuality. But it is also about your social
relationships, your complex involvement with others

Gender identity is intimately related to the concept

of gender role, which is defined as the outward
manifestations of personality that reflect the gender
identity.
Gender identity is self-identified as a result of a
combination of inherent and extrinsic or
environmental factors. ()
Cf. gender role is the social expectations arising
from conceptions surrounding gender and the
behavioral expression of these. ()

Social outcomes 1: Gender segregation

The activities boys engage in require them to

change their own thinking. (Fagot 2000:84) (also refer

play toys and engage in activities that force them

to solve problems in new and creative ways.
Girls toys and activities allow them to engage in
activities that more clearly imitate domestic life and to
rehearse cultural roles.
Lead

to differences in intellectual and emotional

development.

who you are as a man or a woman

Reinforce gendered behavior competence

Some argue that gender identity is fixed in early
childhood, age 2 to 3, and is thereafter static
Gender dysphoria (): Gender identity
doesnt match with biological sex

Doing gender (West & Zimmerman 1987)

Gender is not a set of traits, nor a variable, nor a

role, but the product of social doing of some sort.
These social doings occur through situated
conduct interactions between men and women in
particular settings
It is a continuous creation of the meaning of
gender through human actionsgender itself is
constituted through interaction. (p.129)

Social outcomes 2: Gender stereotypes

Instrumental characters
Masculine

to W & Z: 1987:146)
Boys

Gender identity is the sense of self associated with

cultural definitions of masculinity and femininity.
Define

Can be seen as something fixed or something fluid.

Gender Role VS Gender Identity

Gender Identity

Breadwinner

role

Expressive characters
Feminine
Homemaker

role

Nevertheless, are gender role and identity a fixed

entity?

As a result of economic transformation

The crisis of masculinity & femininity

Men

& women are looking for a new identity

in sex roles

Changes
Men

alone cant fulfill a provider role

rise of Metrosexuality (Hall & Brendan 2011)
More working women due to the contraceptive revolution
The

Sex

role socialization

More

people accept husband & wife both have jobs, both

do housework, both take care of the children.
Toward androgyny

Percent female in total labor force, 1960 2005

Countries
United States
France
China
United
Kingdom
Germany
Japan
Indonesia
Singapore
Hong Kong
Philippines
Saudi Arabia

1960
32
34
41

1970
36
36
42

1980
41
40
43

1990
44
43
45

2000
46
45
45

2005
46
46
45

32
39
39
27
18
29
32
4

36
39
39
30
26
35
33
5

41
39
39
35
35
34
38
8

44
40
41
38
39
36
37
11

46
44
41
38
40
43
37
14

46
45
41
38
40
47
40
15

Source: World Development Indicators 2006, World Bank

Sandra L. Bems gender schema

Challenge the traditional bipolar gender role

Feminine
traits

Masculine traits
Low

High

High

Feminine

Androgynous

Low

Undifferentiated Masculine

Androgynous characters

Independent & affectionate, assertive & understanding

Concluding Remarks

Rich content in gender identity

High degree of flexibility regarding gender-stereotypic
behaviors
Easily form a comfortable and rewarding sense of self
identity; enjoy higher self-esteem than others
(undifferentiated persons have the lowest self-esteem)
More successful in resolving life crises & mentally more
healthy, especially for females

Gender socialization actually produces only a small

number of exclusively masculine males and
exclusively feminine female
One may possess both masculine & feminine
qualities
Weak in both dimensions leads to vague &
confusing gender identities

Men and women learn and do gender

In other words, we see gender as socially constructed
and family is one of the important agent that
socializing appropriate gender role
However, gender roles are adopted and played out by
individuals
Also, parents of the child may have different
orientations in ways how their child should be socialized.
Alternatively, parents might not be able to instill a
particular set of gender traits to their child as they want
them to be.
Besides, gender identity itself is not something fixed

References

Goffman, Erving (1963). Stigma: Notes on the

Management of Spoiled Identity. Englewood Cliffs,
N.J., Prentice-Hall.