Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253 268

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Spherical harmonics in texture analysis

Helmut Schaeben *, K. Gerald van den Boogaart
Geoscience Mathematics and Informatics, Freiberg University of Mining and Technology, Gustav-Zeuner-Str. 12,
Freiberg D-09596, Germany
Accepted 31 March 2003

Abstract
The objective of this contribution is to emphasize the fundamental role of spherical harmonics in constructive approximation
on the sphere in general and in texture analysis in particular. The specific purpose is to present some methods of texture analysis
and pole-to-orientation probability density inversion in a unifying approach, i.e. to show that the classic harmonic method, the
pole density component fit method initially introduced as a distinct alternative, and the spherical wavelet method for highresolution texture analysis share a common mathematical basis provided by spherical harmonics. Since pole probability density
functions and orientation probability density functions are probability density functions defined on the sphere X3oR3 or
hypersphere X4oR4, respectively, they belong at least to the space of measurable and integrable functions L1(Xd), d = 3, 4,
respectively.
Therefore, first a basic and simplified method to derive real symmetrized spherical harmonics with the mathematical
property of providing a representation of rotations or orientations, respectively, is presented. Then, standard orientation or pole
probability density functions, respectively, are introduced by summation processes of harmonic series expansions of L1(Xd)
functions, thus avoiding resorting to intuition and heuristics. Eventually, it is shown how a rearrangement of the harmonics
leads quite canonically to spherical wavelets, which provide a method for high-resolution texture analysis. This unified point of
view clarifies how these methods, e.g. standard functions, apply to texture analysis of EBSD orientation measurements.
D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Real-valued spherical harmonics; Real-valued harmonics for the rotation group; Harmonic series expansions; Spectral
decomposition of the X-ray transform; Summability; Spherical singular integral; Spherical radial basis functions; Spherical wavelets; Methods
of texture analysis

1. Introduction
The subject of texture analysis is the experimental
determination (collecting and processing data) and
interpretation of the statistical distribution of orienta-

* Corresponding author. Fax: +49-3731-394-067.

E-mail address: schaeben@orion.hrz.tu-freiberg.de
(H. Schaeben).

tions of crystals within a specimen of polycrystalline

materials, which could be metals, rocks or bio-materials. It is often referred to as analysis of crystallographic
lattice preferred orientation (LPO), and the objective of
the interpretation is to relate an observed pattern of
preferred orientation to its generating processes or vice
versa. The orientation of an individual crystal is
assumed to be unique and given by the rotation
g
1aSO(3) which brings a coordinate system Ks fixed
to the specimen into coincidence with a coordinate

0040-1951/03/$ - see front matter D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(03)00190-2

254

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

system Kc fixed to the crystal, g
1: KsiKc. Thus, in

the context of texture analysis, rotation always means
passive or frame rotation.
The coordinates of a unique direction represented
by haX3oR3 with respect to the crystal coordinate
system Kc (referred to a crystallographic direction)
and by raX3 with respect to the specimen coordinate
system Ks (referred to as specimen direction) are
related to each other by rotations in the set of rotations
Ch; r fqaSO3 j h grg
which constitutes a one-dimensional circle on X4oR4
with center O parametrized by h and r when rotations
are represented as unit vectors (quaternions) on X4.
More specifically, conventional texture analysis is
the determination and interpretation of the orientation
probability density function f of a polycrystalline specimen by volume without individual orientation measurements; it is emphasized that size, shape, and spatial
location of the contributing grains are not considered.
In X-ray diffraction experiments, the orientation
probability density function f cannot be directly measured, but with a texture goniometer only pole probability density functions P(h, r) can be sampled, which
represent the probability that an experimentally fixed
crystal direction h or its antiparallel
h statistically
coincide with a specimen direction r. Then, a pole
probability density function is basically the mean of
two spherical X-ray transforms
1

Ph;
r Xf h; r Xf
h; r
2
of the orientation probability density function f, where
the spherical X-ray transform is defined as mean of f
along the one-dimensional circle C(h, r), i.e.
Xf h; r

1
2p

f gdg

fgaSO3jhgrg

In mathematical tomography, the transform assigning to a function defined on a d-dimensional manifold

its mean values with respect to the family of dVdimensional submanifolds with 1 V dVV d
1 is
referred to as dV-plane transform. If dV= 1, it is explicitly called X-ray transform; if dV= d
1, it is explicitly
called Radon transform. For d = 2, the two cases
coincide. The start of spherical mathematical tomog-

raphy dates back to the pioneering papers by Funk

(1913, 1916), while mathematical tomography in an
Euclidean setting commenced later with the classic
paper by Radon (1917). In this sense, the term X-ray
transform applies to texture analysis and is used by
us (cf. Cerejeiras et al., 2002), even though it does not
refer to the actual radiation, which could be c,
neutron, or synchrotron as well.
The invariant Haar measure dg in Eq. (1) is
uniquely defined by the postulate that the measurements should essentially be independent of the
choices of the involved coordinate systems Ks, Kc,
which in turn requires an invariance of the form
X f B
h; r X f gc
1 Bgs
gc h; gs r
Corrected experimental X-ray, neutron or synchrotron diffraction intensity data are thought of as being
discretely sampled with a texture goniometer from
continuous pole probability density functions P(h, r),
i.e. even probability density functions defined on the
cross-product X3  X3 of two unit spheres in R3. With
respect to the diffraction experiment, the feasible
crystal directions are the normals of the crystallographic lattice planes. Several representations of pole
probability density functions exist, among others (i)
truncated series expansion into spherical harmonics,
(ii) finite series expansion into different standard
functions, (iii) series expansion into spherical wavelets. These representations lead to practical methods to
resolve the inverse problem of texture goniometry to
reconstruct a reasonable orientation probability density function f defined on SO(3), or equivalently on
the hypersphere X4oR4, from the given corrected
intensity data, which are mean values of f along onedimensional great circles of X4 parametrized by h and
r. Each method exploits that the X-ray transform of
the harmonics for the group SO(3) are the harmonics
for the sphere X3.

2. Spherical harmonics
To compute orthonormal real-valued and symmetrized harmonics is not only of special interest in
texture analysis but of general mathematical interest
(cf. Zheng and Doerschuk, 2000).

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

The purpose of this section is to clarify the simple

and elegant structure of the harmonic functions for the
rotation group SO(3) and their straightforward relation
to the spherical harmonics for the sphere X3 mediated
by the spherical X-ray transform (Eq. (1)). In contrast
to more conventional presentations of this subject (cf.
Bunge, 1982; Matthies et al., 1987), harmonics are
introduced here directly as real functions. Introduced
in this way, they apply most readily to texture analysis, and unnecessary efforts with complex functions
are avoided (cf. Boogaart, 2001). A fundamental
theorem of representation theory assures that a realvalued representation exists (cf. Curtis and Reiner,
1962).
An orientation may given by three Euler angles
providing the angles of an sequence of frame rotations
about some axes of the coordinate system ordered
according to some convention. These rotations are
given by
1
0
1
0
0
C
B
C
B
C
Rx u B
0
cosu
sinu
C
B
A
@
0
sinu cosu

255

Thus, a rotation about the z-axis can be achieved by

first rotating the z-axis with Rx(
p/2) = Rtx (p/2) onto
the y-axis, then applying the rotation Ry(u) by the
given angle u about y, and eventually rotating the yaxis. Analogously with
Qy Ry

p
2

Qz R z

p
2

it holds
Rx u Qtz Ry uQz Qy Rz uQty
Ry u Qy Rx uQty Qtx Rz uQx
Rz u Qty Rx uQy
Then any rotation gaSO(3) may be decomposed
into
g Rz u1 Rx URz u2
Rz u1 Qy Rz UQty Rz u2 Rz aRy bRz c

0
B
B
Ry u B
B
@

cosu

sinu

sinu
0

C
C
C
C
A

0 cosu

sinu

cosu

B
C
B
C
B
Rz u B sinu cosu 0 C
C
@
A
0
0
1
p
p
Rx
Ry uRtx
Qx Ry uQtx
2
2
with

Qx R x

B
B
B
B0
2
@
0

p

0
0

1

C
C
1C
C
A
0

Rz aQtx Rz bQx Rz c
Harmonics for SO(3) can generally be introduced
by application of group representation theory (cf.
Curtis and Reiner, 1962), i.e. the theory of all possible, essentially different representations of elements of
SO(3) by matrices of arbitrary order. Harmonics
provide a set of representatives of all irreducible
representations, which in turn are the characteristic
representations. This set is not unique; an additional
specification is required to impose uniqueness. Following the complex approach of Gelfand et al. (1963)
and Vilenkin (1968), the common application in
texture analysis is to transform initial complex harmonics into real harmonics (cf. Bunge, 1969, 1982),
which, however, are no longer harmonic representations of rotations, i.e. compared with the complex
harmonics, they do not possess the single most
important property of being a representation. For the
proper transform preserving the representation property, the reader is referred to Boogaart (2001).

256

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

The real and complex harmonic functions for the

rotation group have a very similar structure. For real
harmonics, we start with the harmonic representation
of a simple rotation about the z-axis
S
RS u rmn
m
S ;...;S ;n
S ;...;S
1
0
cosS u
0

sinS u
C
B
C
B
C
B
O
q
C
B
C
B
C
B
C
B
0
1
0
C
B
C
B
C
B
C
B
q
O
C
B
A
@
sinS u
0
cosS u

The same object looks a little less intuitive for complex harmonics like
C
RS C u rmnS
m
S ;...S ;n
S ;...;S
0 iS u
e
B
B
B
O
B
B
B
B
1
B
B
B
B
O
B
@

1
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
A

eiS u

Together with a rotation Q by p/2 about another

axis, harmonics can be rewritten similarly to rotation
matrices as
TS g TSmn gm
S ;...;S ;n
S ;...;S
RS u1 QSx RS UQSx t RS u2

and
QSy wRSy

QSx wRSx

2
p
2

As with rotation matrices, harmonics in matrix

notation possess a distinguished property also known
as the representation property (cf. Gelfand et al.,
1963; Vilenkin, 1968)
TS ggV TS gTS gV
In texture analysis, the orientation probability density
function f is expanded into a Fourier series of harmonic functions.
With the trace of a matrix trA=
P
traij ij i aii , this expansion can be written in
condensed matrix notation as

f g

l X
S
S
X
X

CSmn TSmn g

S 0 m
S n
S

l
X

trCtS TS g

S 0

with matrices CS of CSmn coefficients

CS CSmn m
S ;...;S ;n
S ;...;S
The representation property of the harmonics
allows to calculate the harmonic expansion of the
orientation probability density function with respect to
a different sample or crystal coordinate system by
simple matrix calculations as follows

f gwf ggV

l
X

trCtS TS gTS gV

S 0

RS aQSy RS bQSy t RS c

with

p

l
X

trTS gVCtS TS g

S 0

RSz uwTS

Rz u R u
S

trCS TtS gVt TSmn g

|{z}
S 0
CSmn of f gV

RSx uwTS Rx u QSy RS uQSy t

RSy uwTS Ry u QSx t RS uQSy

l
X

l
X
S 0

t TS g
trC
S

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

Let us now focus on X-ray transforms and pole

probability density functions, respectively. A crystallographic direction h may be presented by two Euler
angles u, U corresponding to the rotations Rz(u) and
Rx(U) which rotate the z-axis of Kc onto h.

Analogously, a specimen direction r can be defined by

two Euler angles uV, UV, providing the rotations Rz(uV)
and Rx(U)Vwhich rotate the z-axis of Ks onto r.
r Rz uVRx UVez
Calculating (Xf)(h, r) is most simple for h = r = ez,
where ez denotes the unique vector representing the
direction of the coinciding z-axis of the coordinate
systems. Then
1
2p

S e0
C S00 e0 C
tret0 RSz uVRSx UVCS RSz uRSx Ut e0
trCtS RSx UVt RSz uVt e0 et0 Rz uRz U
|{z} |{z}
p
p
t
4p
4p
2S 1 YS

h Rz uRx Uez

f Rz /d/
Z 2p

l
X
tr
CS RS /d/

S 0

l X
S
1 X
CSmm cosm/d/
2p S 0 m
S
Z 2p
Z 2p
 CSm
m
sinm/d/ CSmm
cosm/d/
0
0
|
{z}
|{z}
l
1 X

C 00
2p S 0 S

l
X

4p
trCSt YtS hYS r
2S

1
S 0

l X
S
S
X
X
CSmn
YS ;m hYS ;n r
2S 1
S 0 m
S n
S

is retrieved; for a complementary interpretation and

application the reader is referred to (Boogaart and
Schaeben, 1999).
Harmonics, being real-valued right from their
introduction, may then be symmetrized in much the
same way as their complex-valued harmonic relatives.

0 when m p 0

Now using u, U, uV, UV to rotate the coordinate

systems of the specimen and the crystal, respectively,
such that h = ezaKc and r = ezaKs, the orientation
probability density function in the rotated space is
given by
f g f Rz uVRx UVt gRz uRx U
According to formula (2), the C-coefficients of f are
given by
S RS uVRS UVCS RS uRS Ut CS RS
C
z
x
z
x
 uQSy RS UQSy

which could be used as definition of spherical harmonics, the well-known spectral decomposition of the
X-ray transform (Bunge, 1969, 1982; Matthies et al.,
1987)

4p

Z 2p
l X
S
1 X

CSm
m sinm/
2p S 0 m
S 0

2S 1 YS

r
2S 1 S
YS h
Rx UVt RSz uVt e0
4p

Xf h; r

Thus, setting

2p
0

257

3. Standard functions in texture analysis

According to the intuitive introduction of standard orientation probability density functions into
texture analysis by the Rossendorf school (cf.
Matthies, 1980; Matthies et al., 1987, 1988, 1990;
Eschner, 1993, 1994), it should satisfy the requirements (i) to be specified by a small number of
parameters, (ii) mathematically and numerically
tractable, (iii) generally appealing from the point
of physical interpretation, and (iv) possess analytical
expressions for corresponding pole probability density functions and all normalization constants, thus
avoiding truncation errors. This informal characterization includes that their harmonic series expansion

258

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

is known. Later, all Rossendorf standard orientation

probability density functions widely applied in pole
probability density (or ambitiously: texture) component fit methods have been shown to actually reduce
to special cases of the von Mises Fisher matrix
distribution on SO(3) or, equivalently, to the Bingham distribution of axes on X+4oR4, particularly to
the symmetrically unimodal and the symmetrically
circular fibre case (Schaeben, 1996a). Thus, the
von Mises Fisher matrix and the Bingham distribution, respectively, provide a general mathematical
model orientation probability density function. Similarly, other standard functions like the spherical
Brownian (Savelova, 1984; Nikolayev and Savyolova, 1997; Schaeben and Nikolayev, 1998) and the
spherical de la Vallee Poussin (Schaeben, 1997,
1999) have been introduced, which mark with
respect to harmonic series expansion and analytical
representation of the limiting function the extreme
ends on the scale of standard functions: There is
no analytical representation for the Brownian, while
the harmonic series expansion of the de la Vallee
Poussin is finite.
Recently, another standard probability density
function proportional to exp(j tan2 (x/2)) has been
introduced (Ivanova and Nikolayev, 2001).
Complementary to their initial introduction, standard functions are derived here by summability or
summation processes, respectively, of harmonic series expansion revealing their intricate relation with
them and avoiding resorting to intuition and heuristics.
3.1. Notation
Basically following Freeden et al. (1998) and
Hochstadt (1986), some basic notation is recalled
and fundamental results are summarized.
The unit sphere in d dimensions is denoted Xd and
defined as
Xd fraRd j ArA 1g
If e1, . . ., ed are orthonormal vectors in Rd, and raXd,
then
p
r ted 1
t 2 rd
1

where t = rted and rd
1 is a unit vector in the space

spanned by e1, . . ., ed
1, and
dxd 1
t 2 d
3=2 dtdxd
1
(cf. Watson, 1983). Thus
NXd N

Z
Xd

dxd

2pd=2
Cd=2

e.g. NX2N = 2p, NX3N = 4p, NX4N = 2p2.

The class L p (Xd) consists of scalar functions f:
d
X iR1, which are measurable and for which
Nf NLp Xd

Z
Xd

Af xAp dxp x

1=p
<l

Thus, for d = 3, p = 1, it holds pN1N

L1(X3) = 4p, for
d = 3, p = 2 it holds N1NL2 X3 4p.
Since our main interest is in results for X3oR3,
which apply to experimentally accessible pole probability density functions, omitting the superscript and
writing in short X always refers to X3. Most results
analogously generalize to d >3.
Real spherical harmonics of different orders are
orthogonal in the sense of the L2 inner product
Z
Yn ; Ym L2 X3
Yn rYm rdx3 r 0
X3

There are 2n + 1 linearly independent harmonics of

order n for X3; therefore, let { Yn, 1, . . ., Yn, 2n + 1}
denote an orthonormal sequence of harmonics of
order n with respect to the inner product of L2
(X3), and let Yn,j, j = 1, . . ., 2n + 1 denote one of its
members.
Then it holds
n
X
j
n

Yn;j r1 Yn;j r2

2n 1
Pn r1 r2
4p

where Pn denotes the Legendre polynomial (cf. Freeden et al., 1998; p. 32 (2.3.12), p. 38). It can be
written as
 2
1
d
t 2
1n ;
Pn t n
2 n! dt

ta
1; 1

(cf. Freeden et al., 1998; p. 41 (3.2.14)).

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

As defined above, a pole probability density function is actually a probability density function P(h, r)
defined on X3  X3. Mathematically, haX3 and raX3
are any two-unit vectors in R3. With respect to the
diffraction experiment, however, h refers to the unit
normal direction of a crystallographic lattice plane and
therefore cannot vary arbitrarily as can raX3. To
emphasize the role of h as a parameter of the experiment, pole probability density functions used to be
denoted Ph(r) or Ph(r) to indicate symmetry of the
crystallographic form h. In the following, harmonic
analysis is applied to functions F(h, r) defined on
X3  X3 read as a function of r parametrized by h.
Then, any function F(h, r)aX (X3  X3), where X
denotes either Lp, 1 V p < l, or C, can formally be
associated with its Fourier series, i.e.
Fh; rf

l X
n
X

Fh;B; Yn;j BYn;j r

integrals, i.e. to convolutions of the function with a

zonal kernel function approximating identity.
The nth partial sum of the harmonic series expansion is defined as
Sn Fh; B; r

with constants (independent of r)

^
Fn;j
hYn;j r

S 0 j
S

n X
S
X

Fh; B; Yn;j BYn;j r

S 0 j
S

Fh; B;

n X
S
X

!
Yn;j BYn;j r

S 0 j
S
n
X
2S 1
PS r B
Fh; B;
4p
S 0

Gn t

^
h Fh; B; Yn;j B
Fn;j

!
4

n
X
2S 1PS t
S 0

referred to as its spherical Fourier-transform or Fourier-coefficients. Thus,

Fh; rf

n X
S
X

Setting

n0 j
n

l X
n
X

259

n 1

Pn1 t
Pn t
t
1

which may be addressed as the spherical Dirichlet

kernel, it is

^
Fn;j
hYn;j r

n0 j
n
2

It can be shown that any function F(h, B)aL (X )

may be approximated in the L2 (X3) sense, i.e. in the
norm of L2 (X3), by finite truncations of its Fourier
orthogonal series expansion in terms of any L2 (X3)
orthonormal system of spherical harmonics Yn,j. It
should be noted that the above statement does not
hold true for every continuous F(h, B)aC (X3) or
F(h, B)aLp (X3) with pa[1, 4/3]v[4, l) (Freeden
et al., 1998, p. 58). Thus, finite truncations of Fourier
series expansions by means of L2 (X3)-orthonormal
spherical harmonics do not generally form an approximation process on the sphere. For convergence
in C(X3) norm it is required that F is Lipschitzcontinuous (Freeden et al., 1998, p. 59). Instead of
imposing conditions on the function to be approximated, it may be more efficient to augment the
Fourier series with convergence factor to ensure
convergence. As it will be shown, the augmented
series expansions correspond to spherical singular

1
Sn Fh; B; r
4p

Z
X3

Fh; rVGn r rVdx3 rV

Of mathematical interest is the existence and

uniqueness of the limit
lim Sn Fh; B; r

n!l

As already mentioned above, the series of partial sums

does not generally converge for FaC(X3) or FaL1
(X3) in the sense of the corresponding norm (cf.
Freeden et al., 1998).
Therefore, the linear space of all absolutely convergent sequences {hq (n, j)} of real numbers hq (n, j),
(n, j)aJ ={(n, j) | n = 0, 1, . . ., j = 1, . . ., 2n + 1} for q
in some parameter set IA is introduced. The sequence
{hq (n, j)} furnished with appropriate properties is
referred to as convergence factor eventually constituting a convergent summation process of the augmented harmonic series expansion as follows.

260

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

the set of functions g: [
1,1]iR1, and endowed with

norms
NgAX
1;1
Nqe BNXXd

Instead of Sn( F(h, B); r), the focus is on

Uq Fh; B; r

l X
n
X

^
hq n; jFn;j
hYn;j r

n0 j
n

l X
n
X

hq n; jFh; B; Yn;j BYn;j r

Fh;B;

n
X

!
hq n; jYn;j BYn;j r

n0 j
n

which leads to different summation processes for

different choices of hq (n, j), qaIA. If hq (n, j) = hq
(n) for all j = 1, . . ., 2n + 1, then Uq ( F(h, B); r)
simplifies to the special case
Uq Fh; B; r

l X
n
X

^
hq nFn;j
hYn;j r

Fh; B

n0

Uq Fh; B; r

1
4p


hq nPn r B

4p
Z

Fh; rV

X3
l
X

2p

1=p

AgtA dt

they form subspaces of X (Xd) where X (Xd) denotes

either Lp (Xd) or C (Xd), and X [
1, 1] analogously.
For zonal functions, their harmonic series expansions
reduce to an expansion in terms of Legendre polynomials Pn,d for Rd with corresponding Fourier Legendre coefficients.
The spherical convolution of a zonal function
gaL1 [
1, 1] and a function faX (Xd) is defined by
Z
g*f y
gy xf xdxd x
Xd

n0 j
n
l
X
2n 1

1

1

n0 j
n
l
X

2n 1hq nPn r rV

n0

 dxrV
Z
1

Fh; rVKq r rVdx3 rV

4p X3
8
If more specifically IA = IN, then hq (n, j) = hm (n),
and if additionally
8
< 1 if nVm
hm n
:
0 otherwise
then the summation process Um( F(h, B); r) degenerates to the partial sums Sm ( F(h, B); r).
3.2. Summation processes and singular integrals on
the sphere
Any scalar function gy: XdiR1, xigy(x) = g(y x),
x, yaXd is called zonal (synonymously central, rotationally invariant). Zonal functions are isomorphic to

A convolution has the nicer property of the corresponding property of g and f, respectively. In particular, the Fourier coefficients of the convolution are the
product of the Fourier( Legendre) coefficients of the
functions being convoluted.
A set of functions {vq | qaIA}oL1 [
1, 1] with q
in some parameter set IA is called a kernel if
vq ^ 0 2p

Z

1;1

vq tdt 1

holds. The convolution of a function faX (Xd) with a

kernel vqaL1 [
1, 1] is called a spherical singular
integral
vq f ; x vq *f x

Z
Xd

vx yf ydxd y

If the kernel function vaX [
1, 1] is an approximate identity, i.e. if it is uniformly bounded for all
qaIA, and if it possess the spatial localization property
Z

lim

q!q0

1

vq tdt 0;

da
1; 1

then the singular integral converges in X (Xd)-norm

towards f for q ! q0. A nonnegative kernel is an
approximate identity if
lim vq ^ 0 1

q!q0

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

With respect to texture analysis, it is well known

that if the orientation probability density function f is
zonal with respect to g0aSO(3), then its X-ray transform is zonal, too, and it holds
Xf h; r Xf h g0 r Xf g0
1 h r
Correspondingly, the familiar form of the harmonic
series expansion of an orientation probability density
function
f gf

l X
S
S
X
X
S 0 n
S m
S

for any zonal function f defined on X4, where the last

equation is an application of the identity CS(1) (cos
w) = US (cos w) with the Chebychev polynomials of
the second kind US (cos w). Further, following an
argument introduced by Arnold (1941), the corresponding series expansion for an even function f is
1
f x; j f p
x; j

2
l
1 X
2
S 12 f ^ S PS ;4 cosx
2p S 02

f x; j

4p
C mn T mn g
2S 1 S S

l
1 X
2S 12 f ^ 2S P2S ;4 cosx
2p2 S 0
l
1 X
sin2S 1x

2
2S 1f ^ 2S
2p S 0
sinx

and its X-ray transform

Xf h; rf

l X
S
S
X
X

CSmn YS ;m hYS ;n r

12

S 0 n
S m
S

is turned into
f g; g0 ; jf


261

with the even-order Chebychev polynomials of second kind U2n (x/2)=((sin (2n + 1)x/2)/(sin x/2)).
Formally, a spherical singular integral may be
associated with its harmonic series

l
X

2S 1 ^
f 2S
2p2
S 0

sin2S 1xgg0
1 =2

sinxgg0
1 =2

9
vq F; rf

l X
n
X

vq F; B; Yn;j BYn;j r

n0 j
n

and
l
X
2S 1
Xf ^
X f B; g0 ; j
h; rf
4p
S 0

 S PS h g0 r Xf h g0 r; j

l X
n
X

vq *FB; Yn;j BYn;j r

n0 j
n

10

l X
n
X

^
v^q nFn;j
hYn;j r

13

n0 j
n

(cf. Matthies et al., 1987; Schaeben, 1996b).

Eq. (9) follows from
f x; j

l
1 X
S 12 f ^ S PS ;4 cosx
2
2p S 0

l
1 X
1
S 1f ^ S CS cosx
2p2 S 0

l
1 X
S 1f
^ S US cosx
2p2 S 0

with constants (independent of r)

1
2p2

l
X

S 1f ^ S

S 0

sinS 1x

sinx

v^q n 2p

1

vq tPn tdt G; Pn

and
^
Fn;j
h Fh; B; Yn;j B

11

referred to as Fourier( Legendre) coefficients.

Comparing Eqs. (7) and (13), at least the formal
analogy is obvious that hq (n, k) is a convergence
factor and provides a summation process if it is equal

262

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

to the Fourier Legendre coefficients of a (zonal)

approximate identity vq (t). For detailed results and
proofs the reader is referred to Dunkl (1966), Berens
et al. (1968), Butzer and Nessel (1971), Butzer et al.
(1979), and Freeden et al. (1998).
3.3. Examples
For reasons of notational simplicity and practical
applications, we confine ourselves again to the case
X3, i.e. to X-ray transforms.
The most simple choice for a spherical kernel is
the Dirichlet kernel (Eq. (5)). Choosing more sophisticatedly as spherical kernel the (i) spherical Brownian, (ii) spherical de la Valle e Poussin, (iii)
spherical Cauchy, (iv) von Mises Fisher and (v)
X-ray transformed von Mises-Fisher probability density function
l
1 X
2S 1exp
S S 1q
PS t
(i) vq t
4p S 0

l
X

1
I S q
I S 1 q

 PS t
2S 1
4p S 0
2B 32 ; q 12


1
1t q

vn t
B1; q 1
2

(iii) vq t

l
1 X
2S 1q2S PS t
4p S 0
2

1
1
q
pq t
4p 1 q2
2qt3=2
l
I S 1=2 q
1 X
PS t
2S 1
(iv) vq t
I 1=2 q
4p S 0

3.3.1. Singular integral of Gauss Weierstrass, spherical Brownian standard probability density function
Choosing
hq n; j hq n exp
nn 1q
with qaIA=(0, l), q0 = 0, it follows that
l
1 X
2n 1hq nPn t
4p n0

l
1 X
2n 1exp
nn 1qPn t
4p n0

bt; q

bt; q
(ii) vq t

leads to the singular integrals of (i) Gauss Weierstrass,

(ii) de la Vallee Poussin, (iii) Abel Poisson, (iv) von
Mises Fisher and (v) X-ray transformed von Mises
Fisher. All of them provide summation processes and
thus accomplish convergence in the X (Xp) norm. In
case of C (Xd), this is uniform convergence which in
turn implies pointwise convergence.

q
expqt mt; q
4psinhq

which is the spherical Brownian distribution for X3

(cf. Mardia and Jupp, 2000). Moreover, it is the X-ray
transform of the spherical Brownian for X4 (cf.
Schaeben, 1996b).
Then
Z
Wq Fh; B; r
Fh; rVbr rV; qdxrV
15
X3

is the spherical singular integral of Gauss Weierstrass

(cf. Freeden et al., 1998; Schaeben, 1996b). It converges for q ! 0 to F(h, r) in the corresponding norm.
A texture component fit method using spherically
Brownian distributed components evolves as follows.
In case of a finite data set F(h, rk) according to some
spherical sampling scheme rkaSh adjusted to q
wq Fh; B; r

(v) vq t

l
1 X
I S q
I S 1 q
PS t
2S 1
4p S 0
I 0 q
I 1 q

q
q

1
I0 1 t exp t
1
4psinhq
2
2

XM t; q

14

NS
hN
X

ak hbr rk ; q

k1

provides a practical approximation of F(h, r) in the

sense that
NS
hN
X
k1

ak hbr rk ; qcFh; rk

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

The iterative fit of ak (h) may start with a(0)

k (h) = F(h,
rk).
In practice, the series expansion may be truncated
by the user to a rough approximation by K major
texture components with q = q(k), k = 1, . . ., K
uFh; B; r

K
X

ak hbr rk ; qk

where a small number K bNShN denotes the total

number of spherically Brownian distributed components to be considered. Usually, these major components are placed in some rk where F(h, r) displays
strong local maximum. Strictly speaking, this usercontrolled method turns texture approximation by
finite series expansion into texture modeling by a
very small number of texture components, which
may be very successful and helpful in practice when
the pattern of lattice preferred orientation is known or
sufficiently simple.
3.3.2. Singular integral of de la Vallee Poussin,
spherical de la Vallee Poussin standard probability
density function
Choosing
8
j
>
< I n jI
 3 n1 1  if nVj
2B
;
j

hq n; j hj n
2
2
>
:
0
if n > j
where

0 1
2S
S
X
B C
I S j

1k @ A
k0
2k


1
1
 B k ;j S
k
;
2
2

Z
X3

Fh; rVvn r rV; qdxrV 17

is the spherical singular integral of de la Vallee

Poussin (cf. Schaeben, 1996b). It converges for
n ! l to F(h, r) in the corresponding norm. A
texture component fit method using spherically de la
Vallee Poussin distributed components evolves analogously to the case of Gauss Weierstrass. Since the
infinite series representing the kernel reduces to a
finite series, truncation is not required in practical
numerical applications involving CS coefficients, and
errors due to truncation are avoided. This property
essentially distinguishes the de la Vallee Poussin
standard orientation probability density function
from other known standard functions in an advantageous way, as it provides a computationally efficient
model.
3.3.3. Singular integral of Abel Poisson, spherical
Cauchy- or Lorentz-type standard probability density
function
Choosing
hq n; j hh n hn
with ha[0,1), h0 = 1, it follows that
l
1 X
2n 1hh nPn t
4p n0

S 0; 1; . . .
with jaIA = N, j0 = l, it follows that
n
1 X
2S 1hj S PS t
4p S 0
n
1 X
I S j
I S 1 j

 PS t
2S 1

4p S 0
2B 32 ; j 12


1
1t j

vn t
B1; j 1
2

which is the spherical de la Vallee Poussin kernel for

X3 and the X-ray transform of the spherical de la
Vallee Poussin kernel for X4 (cf. Schaeben, 1997,
1999).
Then
Vn Fh; B; r

k1

263

16

l
1 X
2n 1hn Pn t
4p n0

1
1
h2
ph t
4p 1 h2
2ht3=2

18

which is the spherical Cauchy distribution for X3 (cf.

Mardia and Jupp, 2000) or Lorentz-type distribution
(Matthies et al., 1987), respectively; it is also the X-

264

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

ray transform of the spherical Cauchy distribution for

X4.
Then
Z
Fh; rVph r rVdxrV
19
Uh Fh; B; r
X3

is the spherical singular integral of Abel Poisson (cf.

Freeden et al., 1998; Schaeben, 1996b).
A texture component fit method using spherically
Cauchy distributed components evolves analogously
to the case of Gauss Weierstrass or de la Vallee
Poussin. Owing to the poor localization, i.e. the fat
tails, of the Cauchy distribution, it is rarely used in
practical texture component fit procedures.
3.3.4. Standard von Mises Fisher probability density
function
Choosing
In1=2 j
I1=2 j

hq n; j hj n

with jaIA = R+, j0 = l, it follows that

Fh; rVMr rV; jdxrV

l
1 X
2n 1hq nPn t
4p n0
l
1 X
Il j
Il1 j
Pn t
2n 1
4p n0
I0 j
I1 j
j
j

CM jI0 1 t exp t
1
2
2

20

22

Fh; rVXM r rV; jdxrV

X3

23

which is the von Mises Fisher distribution for X (cf.

Mardia and Jupp, 2000). It is not the X-ray transform
of the rotationally symmetric von Mises Fisher
matrix probability density function on SO(3) or equivalently the bimodal Bingham, i.e. Watson probability
density function for X4.
Then
Uj Fh; B; r

with jaIA = R+, j0 = l, it follows that

Uj Fh; B; r

In j
In1 j
I0 j
I1 j

hq n; j hj n

which is the X-ray transform of the von Mises Fisher

distribution for X4.
Then

l
In1=2 j
1 X
Pn t
2n 1
I1=2 j
4p n0

j
expjt mt; j
4psinhj

3.3.5. X-ray-transformed standard von Mises Fisher

probability density function
Choosing

XM t; j

l
1 X
2n 1hj nPn t
4p n0

Fisher pole probability density function seems to be

unknown, it is not applied in texture component fit
methods.

21

is a spherical singular integral that converges for

j ! l to F(h, r) in the norm. A texture component
fit method using projected von Mises Fisher distributed pole probability density components evolves
analogously to the previous cases and corresponds
to von Mises Fisher distributed orientation probability density components.
3.4. Remark

X3

which is the spherical singular with respect to the von

Mises Fisher kernel (Schaeben, 1996b).
Since the form of the orientation probability density function which is projected on the von Mises

This first class of radial spherical basis functions

(Gauss Weiertrass, de la Vallee Poussin, von Mises
Fisher, Abel Poisson) is characterized by the fact
that all Legendre coefficients of the corresponding
kernel are nonvanishing (Freeden et al., 1998). Note

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

that this is actually true for the de la Vallee Poussin

kernel for n ! l. The second class consists of locally supported kernel functions. Depending on the
diameter of their support, some of their Legendre
coefficients vanish (Freeden et al., 1998). Application
of the Riemann Lebesgue kernel, which is the indicator with respect to spherical caps was briefly considered in Schaeben (1996b); it is not considered here
as its presentation is beyond the scope of this contribution.
Unimodal radial basis functions can be transformed
and adapted to represent multimodal fibre textures;
formally, the required adaptation is accomplished by
interpreting the angle x = arc cos t as orientation
distance xf with respect to the fibre C(h0, r0) defined
by h0, r0aX3.

As shown above, any function F(h, B) thought of as

being parametrized by haX defined on X may be
associated with its harmonic series expansion
Fh; rf

l X
S
X

FS^;j hYS ;j r

S 0 j
S

l X
S
X

Fh; B; YS ;j BYS ;j r

24

S 0 j
S

The space of all spherical harmonics of degree S

with S = 0, 1, 2, . . ., i.e. the restriction to the unit
sphere of all homogeneous and harmonic polynomials
in three variables, is denoted by Y S ; then dim
Y S = 2S + 1. That any function in L2(X3) may be
represented by its harmonic series expansion may be
rewritten as

4. Spherical wavelets

L2

Another representation of spherical distributions

in texture analysis is provided in terms of spherical
wavelets (Schaeben et al., 2001). The main idea of
wavelet analysis is to obtain a multiscale representation of the data or functions, which allows
localization in space and frequency. Initially, a
spherical probability density function is sampled
on a coarse, ideally almost equidistributed, grid on
the sphere. These coarse grid measurements are
approximated by a spherical polynomial of low
degree. This polynomial is clearly a sufficiently
good approximation in regions of the sphere where
the underlying function does not vary too much,
i.e. where the underlying function consists of low
frequencies only. Where the data show large variations, the initial approximation requires a local
improvement, which is accomplished by a local
refinement of the grid of measurements. The crucial point then is to construct a high-degree polynomial from the global coarse grid and the locally
refined grid. This can be seen as adding adaptively
and locally a wavelet part to the global approximation of low degree.
Thus, wavelets provide a digital device to zoom
into areas of special interest. Moreover, wavelets will
provide the means to control the scanning process
with a texture goniometer adaptively to a required
local refinement of the spatial resolution.

265

L2 X

Y

S 0

Further, Pn (X) = PSn = 0 Y S with dim Pn (X)=

(n + 1)2.
Let Nk be a sequence of strictly monotone increasing positive integers. Then, scaling spaces Vk are
introduced as polynomial spaces
Vk X3 PNk X3
with dim Vk (X3)=(Nk + 1)2. Hence, there is a chain
V0 X3 oV1 X3 oV2 X3 o . . .
and it is sensible to define the corresponding orthogonal complements
Nk1

Wk X3 Vk1 X3 OVk X3

S Nk 1

YS

with dim Wk=(Nk + 1
Nk)(Nk + 1 + Nk + 2). Finally,

l

L X3 V0 X3 P
2

 W X
k

L2

k0

The classical approach of wavelet theory uses Nk = 2k.

However, in case of spherical probability density
functions, this would imply very large dimensions of
the wavelet spaces. Therefore, the choice maybe more
like Nk = 20 k.

266

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

with Ik={k=(k1,k2)TaN02: k1 < 2 Nk, k2 < 2 Nk} and

Using again
2X
S 1
j0

2S 1
PS r1 r2 ;
YS ;j r1 YS ;j r2
4p

rk;k

r1 ; r2 aX3

T

by using the Clenshaw Curtis weights wkV(k).

Analogously, with

with Legendre polynomials PS of degree S with

PS (1) = 1 results in
Fh; r

pk1
pk2
pk1
pk2
pk2
cos
cos
; cos
sin
; sin
2Nk
Nk
2Nk
Nk
Nk

l 
X

Fh; B;

S 0

2S 1
PS r B
4p

SVk Fh; B; r

Fh; B;

S 0

2S 1
PS r B
4p

Nk1
X

2S 1PS t

S Nk 1

25

Considering harmonics only up to order Nk, the

approximation SVk ( F(h, B); r) with respect to Vk is
given by
Nk 
X

HV
k t

and SWk ( F(h, B); r) c SWI k ( F(h, B); r) by numerical

integration, it holds
I
SVI k1 Fh; B; r SVI k Fh; B; r SW
Fh; B; r
k

30

Substituting SWI k ( F(h, B); r) by

26

I
S W
Fh; B; r
k

wV
k 1 kLj Fh; rV
k 1;k

kaIk1

 HV
k r rkV1;k

and the corresponding next wavelet part by

SWk Fh; B; r

N
k 1
X

S Nk 1

2S 1
PS r B
Fh; B;
4p

27
Introducing the kernel
GkVt

31

with
Lk Fh; rk1;k
8
< Fh; rk1;k

: I
SV Fh; B; rk1;k

if Fh is large
32
otherwise

Nk
X
2S 1PS t

eventually yields

S 0

I
S VI k1 Fh; B; r SVI k Fh; B; r S W
Fh; B; r
k

it holds
1
SVk Fh; B; r
4p

33
Fh; rVGkVr rVdxrV

X3

28
The right-hand side can be numerically evaluated
by a sampling theorem (Potts et al., 1996) such that
SVk ( F(h, B); r) c SVIk ( F(h, B); r), i.e.
SVI k Fh; B; r

X
kaIk

wkVkFh; rVk;k GkVr rVk ;k

Summarizing, the proposed procedure is as follows. The function F(h, r) is known on a coarse r-grid
and SVI ( F(h, B); r) is computed. By inspection or
algorithms (Mhaskar et al., in press), the regions
where F(h, r) and SVI ( F(h, B); r) have large absolute
values and large variations, respectively, are detected.
In the next step, the approximation SVI F is improved
by adding the next wavelet part SWI F. Since F(h, r)
should not be totally sampled on a refined r-grid and
since it is known that SWI F is almost zero in regions

H. Schaeben, K.G. van den Boogaart / Tectonophysics 370 (2003) 253268

where F(h, r) does not oscillate too much, SVI F + SWI F

is replaced by SVI F + SWI F. The definition of Lk shows
that the function F(h, r) must be resampled for some
additional points in the regions where large variations
of F(h, r) are observed or expected.
It can be shown that the spherical X-ray transform
of the wavelet representation of f is the wavelet
representation of the X-ray transform Af(h, B), and
that the wavelet representation can be applied to solve
the inverse problem to determine numerically the
crystallographic orientation probability density function f from corrected experimental X-ray, neutron or
synchrotron intensities measured in diffraction experiments with a texture goniometer.

267

analysis. Wavelet texture analysis combines the best

elements of both methods, in particular the frequency
localization of the harmonic and the spatial localization of the component fit method. It generalizes
both with mathematical rigor and provides a wellfounded means for high-resolution texture analysis.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the guest editors of
this special issue of Tectonophysics for the invitation
to contribute and the opportunity to bring a unified
view of the fundamentals of mathematical texture
analysis to the attention of a broader audience.

5. Conclusions
References
Harmonics for the group of rotations SO(3) and the
sphere X3, respectively, provide a major mathematical
prerequisite for texture analysis.
Their application in texture analysis can be largely
clarified and turned instructive if they are introduced
in the way they are used-as real-valued functions
avoiding the classical complex approach featured in
textbooks of texture analysis. Their single most
important property is that of being a group-theoretical
representation. This property is lost if, e.g. the conversion of complex into real harmonics (Bunge, 1969,
1982) is done with less care than actually required.
Convergence of the associated harmonic series
expansions has never been an issue in texture analysis;
it has been taken for granted. However, considerations
of their summability provide a complementary introduction of standard distributions as required in texture
component fitting. Initially introduced on heuristic
grounds to deal with the ghost problem and the
nonnegativity constraint, the focus here is on their
common mathematical basis in terms of harmonics.
The results presented here in the context of texture
analysis are also fundamental for the analysis of
individual crystallographic orientation measurements,
e.g. the approximate identities are used in kernel
density estimations of the orientation probability density function.
The duality of summation processes and spherical
singular integrals provides the key of an appropriate
re-arrangement of the series leading to wavelet texture

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