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ROSAPAT 11

261

AN ABSOLUTE IRON AGE CHRONOLOGY


OF THE LEVANT AND THE MEDITERRANEAN
Lorenzo Nigro

During the last two decades archaeologists and historians working in


Southern Levant and the Mediterranean have multiplied their efforts to
address the issue of Iron Age periodization and its absolute chronology,
starting from the Dark Age of the last two centuries of the 2nd millennium
BC1 and going down into the first half of the 1st millennium BC2.
Ancient sources and archaeological record have been sounded out by
scholars in search of chronological reference points, anchors to fix in time
strata and related sets of material culture. A reliable timetable has been
traditionally provided by the Egyptian Pharaohs list, recently also verified
through a radiocarbon-based regeneration3. It was useful when Egyptian
inscribed items were found in primary deposition, even though also
Egyptian chronology has its own uncertainties. Furthermore, radiocarbon
dating when used as a clue to check if one or another chronological
reconstruction was reliable, proved to be not so accurate to become a
decisive tool for 1st millennium BC chronology.
The goal of these efforts basically was to support historical reconstructions.
They actually needed a robust backbone, depending on sources always

Department of Sciences of Antiquities, Rome La Sapienza University.


Reliefs and inscriptions of Pharaoh Merneptah mentioning the clash with the SeaPeoples in his 8th regnal year (1190 BC) and the city of Ras-Shamra/Ugarit
destroyed with a group of cuneiform tablets of the royal archives attesting the date
(1189 BC) and the causes (an invasion) of this destruction remain the main
epochal reference points for the beginning of the end of the Late Bronze Age in the
Levant (Liverani 1988, 635-638). This longue dure process, in facts, lasted until
the end of the Ramesside Dynasty around 1070 [1076] BC (tabs. 1, 4).
2
For an overview on this issue see Mazar 2005; 2011; Finkelstein 2005;
Finkelstein - Piasetzky 2011.
3
Manning 2006; Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010. Unfortunately, the latter study does
not include dates later the end of the 20th Dynasty (Ramses XI). Anyhow, radiocarbon dates (combined with reign-length information included in the model) for the
New Kingdom cover a period from the 17th to the 21st Dynasties, and thus provide
brackets beyond its beginning, and end. Results basically agree with the traditional
chronology (von Beckerath 1997; Shaw 2000), in which the New Kingdom starts in
1550 BC, though radiocarbon dates imply that the period might have begun, and
ended, earlier by about a decade than the traditional consensus date.
1

262

Lorenzo Nigro

ROSAPAT 11

bearing a definite rate of incertitude. The questionable reliability attributed


to sources pushed scholars to look for external supports to their
reconstructions obtained through archaeology, stratigraphy, statistics, but
also archaeometry, paleo-environmental studies, etc. The more these
reconstructions were complex opposite of lex parsimoniae 4 the more
they needed a spiders web of interrelated data to sustain them. Hence,
intermingled connections of data have grown up apparently becoming an
inextricable bush, or a M.C. Eschers lithography depicting a fascinating but
often impossible construction (fig. 1). Moreover, chronological systems
(and multiplied terminologies) have complicated the interrelation between
sites and even regions, as it is evident if one tries to connect the Levant
with central or western Mediterranean (tab. 4).

Fig. 1 - Eschers architecture: a possible metaphor


of self-based chronological
systems.

Conversely, if one considers chronology a tool and not a goal, the simplest
scheme fitting the largest number of cases (in observance to the above
mentioned lex parsimoniae) may help to better exchange archaeological
information across the Mediterranean from Syria-Palestine to the Iberian
Peninsula. For the sake of such task, that is an easier correlation of sites
and strata, the following Levantine New Chronology (LNC) is suggested by
the present author (tabs. 1-2).
4

This principle, introduced by Aristotle (384-322 BC), and transmitted by


Averroes (Ibn Rush 1126-1198 AD), was a logic corollary of the method of science
(about its limits: Courtney - Courtney 2008).

264

Lorenzo Nigro

ROSAPAT 11

Damascus raids in the second half of the 9th century BC. A date around 840
BC might fit the stratigraphic evidence of several sites destroyed at the
time, and fulfill the mean of various dating systems proposed11.
Period
Iron IA
1200/1190-1136
Iron IB
1136-960
Early 1136-1070
Late 1070-960
Iron IIA
960-840
Early 960-925
Late 925-840
Iron IIB
840-732/722/701

Hazor13
Tell elMutesellim
12

VIIA
[LB III]

gap

VIB

XII/XI

Tell esLachish
15
Sarem/
14
Tel Rehov
(D7-D6)
VI
[LB III]

VII
(D5-D3)

gap

Arad16 Ashdod

Beth
Shan18

Tell esSafi19

gap

XIIIb

VI
(lower
VI)

A7

gap

XIIIa

A6

XII-XI

upper
VI/
lower V

A4

17

VIA
VB
VA-IVB
IVA

Iron IIC
III
732/722/701-586
Iron III
II
586-535

X-IX
VIII-V

VI (D2)

XII

V (D1)
IV-III

IV-III

XI
IX
X-VIII VIII

A5

A3-A2
IV

IV

II

II

VII-VI VII

gap

gap

III

gap

gap

gap

gap

VI

Tab. 2 - Iron Age Levantine New Chronology (LNC) and related


stratigraphic sequence of some Palestinian key sites.
A glance to main sites in different areas of Palestine, with their
stratigraphic sequences may substantiate the table on archaeological
grounds (tab. 2), while very difficult remains at every extent to
correlate strata and events known from different sources. A preliminary
contribution is to enlist such events and corresponding documentary data
within the grid of Levantine New Chronology. Finally, what it has been
11

Fiaccavento in this volume, 3.2.2.


Megiddo was used as example due to the wide popularity of its Iron Age
stratigraphy put forward by the Oriental Institute of Chicago Expedition (see also
Finkelstein - Zimhoni - Kafri 2000). However, the Megiddo stratigraphy still has
many unsolved problems (see, for instance, Mazar 2008 versus Finkelstein 2009).
13
Mazar 2008; Ben-Tor - Ben Ami - Sandhaus 2012.
14
Mazar et al. 2005.
15
Ussishkin ed. 2004, Vol. 1, 60-95.
16
Herzog 2002.
17
Dothan - Zukerman 2004; Mazar 2007.
18
Panitz-Cohen - Mazar eds. 2009, 1-30.
19
Maeir ed. 2012, 19-56, fig. 1.3.
12

An Absolute Iron Age Chronology

2014

265

suggested for Palestine might be set into the Mediterranean panorama as


illustrated on table 420.
Period

Dating

Iron IA

1200/1190 Merneptah faces the Sea People/


-1136
Destruction of Ugarit, Hazor, Megiddo,
Beth Shan

Major historical events

Iron IB

1136-960

th

Early 1136-1070 End of the 20 Dynasty (1077)


Late 1070-960 Last presence of Philistine pottery

Iron IIA

960-840

Early 960-925

Late 925-840

Main documents or sources


21

Stele of Merneptah

(1208)

Tiglath-Pileser I trip to the Levant


22

Khirbet Qeiyafa Ostrakon

Palestine being occupied by new


groups
Early building activities in Judah and
central hills

Inscriptions of Kings of Byblos:


Ahiram, Ittobaal [] Yehimilk, Abibaal
23
(on a bust of Shoshenq I) , Elibaal (on a
bust of Osorkon I), Shipitbaal

925 raid of Pharaoh Shoshenq I


Incipit of Omride dynasty in Samaria

Stele of Shoshenq I from Megiddo


ca.) [1 Kings 14:25-26]

24

(925

Iron IIB

840732/722/
701

853 battle of Qarqar against


Shalmaneser III (Israel allied of
Hadad-ezer king of Damascus)
840 Hazael of Damascus

Jehu on Shalmaneser IIIs Black Obelisk


25
Samaria Ostraka
26
Stele of Mesha (840) [2 Kings 3]
27
Stele of Tel Dan [2 Kings 10:32-33]
Balaam text from Deir Alla

Iron IIC

732/722/
701-586

Tiglath-Pileser III subjugates AramDamascus


Shalmaneser V conquests Samaria
Siege of Jerusalem (701) and takeover
of Lachish (701) by Sennacherib

Sennacheribs inscriptions at Khorsabad


(conquest of Samaria, 722, and siege of
Jerusalem, 701) [2 Kings 17:3-6; 2 Kings
18:13-15]
29
Ekron inscription

Iron III

586-535

Nebuchadnezzar II destruction of
Jerusalem (586)
Cyrus Edict of Restoration (538)

Babylonian Chronicles : destruction of


Ashkelon (604) and siege of Jerusalem
(597) [2 Kings 25]

28

30

Arad letters

31

Lachish letters

32

Tab. 3 - Levantine New Chronology and major historical events/sources.


20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32

Pharaonic dating according to Hornung - Krauss - Warburton eds. 2006.


Hasel 1994.
Misgav - Garfinkel - Ganor 2009.
Ash 1999, 61.
Fisher 1929, figs. 8-9, 60-61.
Birnbaum 1957.
Dearman ed. 1989.
Biran - Naveh 1993; 1995; Athas 2003.
Pritchard 1969, 284-285; Luckenbill 1924, 32-33.
Gitin - Dothan - Naveh 1997.
Grayson 1975, 100-102.
Aharoni - Naveh 1981, 11-74.
Torczyner et al. 1938.

Lorenzo Nigro

Tab. 4 - Comparative timetable of the Levant and Mediterranean 1200-525 BC (according to Velleius Patercolus,
Historiae Romanae I, 2,4, Cadiz was founded in 1101 BC; the traditional date of the foundation of Carthage
descends from Timaeus of Tauromenium, The Histories, cited by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities
I, 74,1; while archaeological data so far available do not go back earlier than 760 BC).

266
ROSAPAT 11

2014

An Absolute Iron Age Chronology

267

The range of error of this system i.e. a timetable trying to minimize


difference between different chronologies proposed so far and fixed
chronological datum points is around 1.5 %, that is, on a period of ten
centuries, 15 years. The latter is the maximum oscillation accepted for
most reliable dates (for example Pharaoh Shoshenqs raid into Palestine:
925 BC)33 to validate the table, also considering astronomic periodical
observations in ancient Egypt.
The Levantine New Chronology is offered to scholars as a simple tool
summarizing the efforts of many, to whom is addressed the author
admiration for the continuous commitment towards a more convincing and
firmly based historical reconstruction.

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[ROSAPAT 11]

[PRIN 2009 - THE SEVEN PLAGUES]

OVERCOMING CATASTROPHES
Essays on disastrous agents characterization
and resilience strategies
in pre-classical Southern Levant
Edited by LORENZO NIGRO

ROME 2014
LA SAPIENZA EXPEDITION TO PALESTINE & JORDAN

[PRIN 2009 - THE SEVEN PLAGUES]

OVERCOMING CATASTROPHES
Essays on disastrous agents characterization
and resilience strategies
in pre-classical Southern Levant

Edited by
LORENZO NIGRO
with contributions by
L. NIGRO, M. LIVERANI, C. MORHANGE, A. SALAMON,
G. BONY, C. FLAUX, E. GALILI, J.-P. GOIRAN, D. ZVIELY,
F. BRAEMER, B. GEYER, G. DAVTIAN, F. HFLMAYER,
M. SALA, E. GALLO, A. MASSAFRA, C. FIACCAVENTO

ROME 2014

ROME LA SAPIENZA STUDIES


ON THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF PALESTINE & TRANSJORDAN
EDITOR: L. NIGRO
EDITORIAL BOARD: M. SALA

VOLUME 11
L. NIGRO (ed.)

Overcoming Catastrophes. Essays on disastrous agents characterization


and resilience strategies in pre-classical Southern Levant

(= Rome La Sapienza Studies on the Archaeology of Palestine & Transjordan, 11)


Copyright 2014 La Sapienza Expedition to Palestine & Jordan
Sezione di Orientalistica - Dipartimento di Scienze dellAntichit
P.le A. Moro, 15 00185 Rome ITALY
All rights reserved. Copy or reproduction of parts of text or illustrations is strictly
forbidden without the explicit written permission given by La Sapienza
Expedition to Palestine & Jordan.
pp. 272, 17 x 24 cm, B/W illustrations.
ISBN 9788898154081
ISSN 1826-9206

ROSAPAT 11

CONTENTS
Premise by L. NIGRO - The PRIN 2009 Project: The Seven Plagues. Catastrophes
and destructions in Palestine and Egypt during the pre-classical period ............... iii
Section 1 - Methodology and framework of the project ............................ 1
L. NIGRO - The Seven Plagues Project: Method and Results ................................. 3
M. LIVERANI - Dealing with catastrophes ........................................................... 15
C. M ORHANGE, A. SALAMON, G. BONY , C. FLAUX, E. GALILI , J.-P. GOIRAN , D. ZVIELY Geoarchaeology of tsu namis and th e reviva l of neo-catastr ophism in the Eastern
Mediterranean ............................................................................................... 31
Section 2 - Palestine .................................................................................. 53
L. NIGRO - The Archaeol ogy of C ollapse and Resilience: Tell es-Sultan/ancient
Jericho as a Case Study ................................................................................. 55
F. BRAEMER, B. GEYER, G. DAVTIAN - Man/environment interactions in the Bronze Age
Levant: clim atic crisis or fl uctuations, c hronology an d settlem ent pattern s in the
Third Millennium Syrian arid steppe area villages.............................................. 87
F. H FLMAYER - Dating Catastr ophes and Collapses i n the ancient Near East: the
end of the first urbanization in the Southern Levant and the 4.2 ka BP event ..... 117
E. GALLO - Destructions in Early Bronze Age Southern Levant ............................ 141
M. SALA - Archaeology versus Chron ologies: a r eassessment of Early Bronze Age
phasing in the light of the PRIN 2009 Project results at Khirbet al-Batrawy ........ 171
A. MASSAFRA - The end of the Middle Bronze age in Southern Levant: was Sharuhen
the only city conquered by Ahmose? ..............................................................185
C. FIACCAVENTO - Destructi ons toward s the end of the 2 nd and during the 1 st
millennium BC in Southern Levant.................................................................. 205
L. NIGRO - An Absolute Iron Age Chronology of the Levant and the Mediterranean 261

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