Introduction

Classification of Automobiles
Automotive Technology,
An automobile is a vehicle that is capable of propelling itself. Since 17th century, several
attempts have been
made to design and construct a practically operative automobile.
Today, automobiles play crucial role in the social, economic and industrial growth of any country.
After the designing of Internal Combustion Engines, the Automobile industries has seen a
tremendous growth.

Classification of Automobiles :

Automobiles can be classified into several types based on many criteria. A brief classification of
automobiles is
listed below:

1. Based on Purpose :
Passenger vehicles : These vehicles carry passengers. e.g: Buses, Cars, passenger trains.
Goods vehicles : These vehicles carry goods from one place to another place. e.g: Goods lorry,
Goods
carrier.
Special Purpose : These vehicles include Ambulance, Fire engines, Army Vehicles.

2. Based on Load Capacity:

Light duty vehicle : Small motor vehicles. eg: Car, jeep, Scooter, motor cycle
Heavy duty vehicle : large and bulky motor vehicles. e.g: Bus, Truck, Tractor

3. Based on fuel used:

Petrol engine vehicles : Automobiles powered by petrol engine. e.g: scooters, cars,
motorcycles.
Diesel engine vehicles : Automobiles powered by diesel engine. e.g: Trucks, Buses, Tractors.
Gas vehicles : Vehicles that use gas turbine as power source. e.g: Turbine powered cars.
Electric vehicles : Automobiles that use electricity as a power source. e.g: Electric cars,
electric buses.
Steam Engine vehicles : Automobiles powered by steam engine. e.g: Steamboat, steam
locomotive,
steam wagon.

4. Based on Drive of the vehicles :

Left Hand drive : Steering wheel fitted on left hand side

Right Hand drive : Steering wheel fitted on right hand side

Fluid drive : Vehicles employing torque converter, fluid fly wheel or hydramatic transmission.

5. Based on number of wheels and axles :

Two wheeler : motor cycles, scooters

Three wheeler : Tempo, auto-rickshaws
Four wheeler : car, Jeep, Bus, truck
Six wheeler : Buses and trucks have six tires out of which four are carried on the rear wheels
for
additional reaction.
Six axle wheeler : Dodge(10 tire) vehicle

6. Based on type of transmission:

Automatic transmission vehicles: Automobiles that are capable of changing gear ratios
automatically as
they move. e.g: Automatic Transmission Cars.
Manual transmission vehicles: Automobiles whose gear ratios have to be changed manually.
Semi-automatic transmission vehicles: Vehicles that facilitate manual gear changing with
clutch pedal.

7. Based on Suspension system used:

Convectional - Leaf Spring

Description of different components of

Automobile vehicles.
Body components, including windows and trim:
Bonnet/hood
o Bonnet/hood latch

Bumper
o

Unexposed bumper

Exposed bumper

Cowl screen

Decklid

Fascia rear and support

Fender (wing or mudguard)

Front clip

Front fascia and header panel

Grille (also called grill)

Pillar and hard trim

Quarter panel

Radiator core support

Rocker

Roof rack

Spoiler

Front spoiler (air dam)

Rear spoiler (wing)

Rims
o

Hubcap

Tire/Tyre

Trim package

Trunk/boot/hatch
o

Trunk/boot latch

Valance

Welded assembly

Doors

Outer door handle

Inner door handle

Door control module

Door seal

Door watershield

Hinge

Door latch

Door lock and power door locks

Center-locking

Fuel tank (or fuel filler) door

Windows

Glass
Sunroof
o

Sunroof motor

Window motor

Window regulator

Windshield (also called windscreen)

o

Windshield washer motor

Window seal

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Mechanical Engineering
TOPIC: 02 AUTO ENGINES:

What is the difference between a CI engine and an SI engine?

Well,everyone above have given great answer for your question ,I would like to add some more
and give reasons for what they have said and so here we go
1.Basically SI engines work on Otto Cycle and CI engines on Diesel cycle
2. SI engines use gasoline as fuel and CI engines use diesel as fuel.
3. SI engines use spark plugs and CI engines don't this is because the compression ratio of SI
engines is small and the temperature developed is not high enough to start the combustion and
so spark plug is used to initiate the combustion once the initial spark is generated the flame
front takes care of the rest ,whereas in a CI engine the temperature generated is higher than the
ignition temperature of diesel due to high compression ratio and so a spark plug is not needed.
4.The torque generated by CI engines are very high when compared to their counterpart SI
engines this is because the CI engines at high compression ratio and so the piston travels far
more distance into the cylinder and so the radius of crank also increases ,since torque is cross
product of force and radius therefore this increase in radius causes an increase in torque ,the
above is one of the many factors contributing to high torque of CI engines,and this is the reason
why almost all the trucks and heavy vehicles use CI engines and passenger vehicles and bikes
use SI engines.
5.Vibrations produced by CI engines is very high when compared with SI engines this is because
of the high compression ratio used.
6. CI engines are heavy when compared to SI engines because of the need to withstand the high
pressure developed ,the walls of the engine are made thicker to increase their strength and this
one of the reason why Diesel engines are not usually preferred in bikes as they increase the
weight of the bike and the vibrations make the ride wearisome.
7.Thermal efficiency of CI engines are higher when compared with SI engines because of the
difference in compression ratio adding to this ,poor oxidation of fuel and few other factors make
Diesel engines more fuel efficient than petrol engines.
8.Carburettors are used in SI to prepare the air - fuel mixture which is combusted and in case of
CI engines fuel at high pressure is injected at the end of compression stroke.
9.Volume to power ratio of SI engine is low when compared to CI engine and that is one of the

reason why CI engines are costlier because the volume of combustion chamber of a Diesel
engine that will produce the same power as a petrol engine is large and so more material is
consumed to make it and this adds to the overall cost.
10.Starting a SI engine is much easier than starting a CI engine because of high compression
ratio.If you had done your bachelors in Mechanical or Automobile stream you would have felt this
by the way you had started the engines by using an hand crank.
11.Maintenance cost of SI engines are low when compared to CI engines because of the high
fatigue stress that is caused in CI engines.
12.SI engines always operate at high speed whereas CI engines operate at low speed,one of the
main reason for this is the increase in crank radius in case of Diesel engines.

Working principle of two stroke and four stroke

engines and their difference.
Comparison between two stroke cycle diesel engine and a four stroke engine

Marine diesel engine guideline

The main difference between the two cycles is the power developed. The two-stroke cycle
engine, with one working or power stroke every revolution, will, theoretically, develop twice the
power of a four-stroke engine of the same swept volume. Inefficient scavenging however and
other losses, reduce the power advantage .
For a particular engine power the two-stroke engine will be considerably lighteran important
consideration for ships. Nor does the two-stroke engine require the complicated valve operating
mechanism of the four-stroke. The four-stroke engine however can operate efficiently at high
speeds which offsets its power disadvantage; it also consumes less lubricating oil.
Each type of engine has its applications which on board ship have resulted in the slow speed (i.e.
80 100 rev/min) main propulsion diesel operating on the two-stroke cycle. At this low speed
the engine requires no reduction gearbox between it and the propeller.
TOPIC: 03 VALVES AND PORTS:

Valves and Ports in Four-Stroke Engines

Abstract: Components located after the intake manifold in four-stroke diesel engines serve
important functions in managing the air supply to the cylinder. Poppet-type valves control the
timing of flow into and out of the cylinder. The intake port design impacts the breathing capacity
of the engine as well as the bulk motion of the air as it enters the cylinder.

Valves
Valve Timing

Intake Port

Impact of Intake Manifold

Valves
As the airflow passes various components and stages of the intake system, different properties and
characteristic of the intake charge have been modified to achieve the overall goals of the air management
system. The intake air filter ensures that air cleanliness is adequate, the charge air composition and oxygen
content is controlled by introducing EGR to the intake air and the compressor and charge air cooler ensure that
intake manifold pressure and temperature objectives are met and that intake charge density is within design
limits. A few final aspects of air management are achieved after the intake charge exits the intake manifold and
enters the cylinder. Valves or ports control the timing of air flow to the cylinder. Also, the passage between the
intake manifold and cylinder can have a significant influence on the flow as it enters the cylinder and can be
used to impart a suitable bulk motion and kinetic energy to the charge to support the mixing of air, fuel and
intermediate combustion products in-cylinder.
In four stroke engines, intake gas enters the cylinder through a port located in the cylinder head and past a valve
used to open and close the port. In two stroke enginesdiscussed elsewhereports in the cylinder liner that
are
alternately covered
and uncovered by
the
piston are
commonly used.
Figure 1.
Nomenclature
One-Piece
Poppet-Type
Valve

for

Gas flow into and

of the cylinder in
stroke engines is
controlled almost
exclusively by
poppet-style
valves (Figure 1).
While other valve
designs have been
used or proposed, none appear to be able to match the reliability and sealing ability of the poppet style valve.
The most common poppet valve construction in automotive use is the one-piece valve where the entire valve is
made from the same material. However, other variations are available including:
out
4-

A welded tip construction has a separate tip welded to the stem above the keeper grove.
The tip can be made from a material that is much more wear resistant than the rest of the
valve.
A two-piece construction has a separate stem welded above the fillet, Figure 2 left.
An internally cooled construction has a hollow stem containing a coolant such as metallic
sodium or sodium-potassium mixture and is commonly used in extreme duty and high
performance exhaust valves, Figure 2 center. Valve temperature peaks are reduced due to
the shaker effect of the molten metal and these designs can withstand thermal loads

particularly well. The temperature in the hollow neck can be lowered by about 80 to 130
K, reducing overall wear of the valve and valve seat insert.

Some designs also have a hollow cavity in the valve head that contains metallic sodium,
Figure 2, right. This is an extension of the classic sodium-filled hollow valve, with an
additional cavity in the valve head. This can further temperature peaks in the valve head
and further increase the valve service life.

A welded seat face construction has a valve seat that is welded with a hard overlay to
better withstand conditions that would otherwise lead to extreme valve seat wear and/or
corrosion.
Figure 2. Example Poppet Valve
Designs

Left: Two-piece solid stem valve. Center:

Hollow stem valve.
Right: Hollow stem valve with additional
cavity on the valve head.
(Source: Mahle)
In addition to different construction styles,
valves can have different design enhancements
to improve their durability. Seat face strain
hardening can be used to moderately enhance
seat wear endurance in cases where a welded
seat face construction is not necessary. Stem
surface treatments can be used to reduce
friction and/or wear especially were adhesive
wear may otherwise be encountered. Aluminizing the valve seat face and sometimes the combustion face to
improve corrosion resistance in lead oxide environments was once popular for engines burning leaded gasoline.
Tip caps fitted over the end of the valve stem can be used to improve tip wear resistance where welding of
dissimilar metals is a problem.

TOPIC: 04 COOLING SYSTEM:

What is a Cooling System?

A typical 4 cylinder vehicle cruising along the highway at around 50 miles per hour, Actually, there
are two types of cooling systems found on
motor vehicles:
Liquid cooled and Air cooled.
Air cooled
engines are found on a few older cars, like the original
Volkswagen Beetle, the Chevrolet Corvair and a few
others.
Many modern moto
rcycles still use air cooling, but
for the most part, automobiles and trucks use liquid cooled

systems and that is what this article will concentrate on.

The cooling system is made up of the passages inside the
engine block and heads, a
water pump to cir
culate the
coolant, a thermostat to control the temperature of the
will produce 4000 controlled
explosions per minute inside the engine as the spark plugs
ignite the
fuel in each cylinder to propel the vehicle down
the road.
Obviously, these explosions produce an enormous
amount of heat and, if not controlled, will destroy an engine
in a matter of minutes.
Controlling these high temperatures
is the job of the coolin
g system.
The modern cooling system has not changed much from the
cooling systems in the model T back in the '20s.
Oh sure, it
has become infinitely more reliable and efficient at doing it's
job, but the basic cooling system still consists of liquid
coolant being circulated through the engine, then out to the
radiator to be cooled by the air stream coming through the
front grill of the vehicle.
Today's cooling system must maintain the engine at a
constant temperature whether the outside air temperatur
e is
110 degrees Fahrenheit
or 10 below zero.
If the engine
temperature is too low, fuel economy will suffer and
emissions will rise.
If the temperature is allowed to get too
hot for too long, the engine will self destruct.
Cooling Systems in Automobiles & Cars
689
coolant, a radiator to cool the coolant, a radiator cap to
control the pressure in the system, and some plumbing
consisting of interconnecting hoses to transfer the coolant
from the engine
to radiator and
also
to the car's heater system where hot coolant is used to
warm up the vehicle's interior on a cold day.
A cooling system works by sending a liquid coolant through
passages in the engine block and heads.

As the coolant
flows through
se passages,
the
engine.
The heated
way through a
rubber hose to
of the car.
As it
flows through
radiator, the
cooled by the
engine
from the grill
Once the fluid is cooled, it
returns to the engine to absorb more heat.
The water pump
has the job of keeping the fluid moving through this system
of plumbing and hidden passages
International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT)
ISSN: 2249

8958, Volume
2,
Issue
4, April 2013
690
Before
World War II
, water
cooled cars and trucks
routinely overheated while climbing mountain roads,
creating geysers of boiling cooling water. This was
considered normal, and at the time, most noted mountain
roads had auto repair shops to minister to overheating
engines.
ACS (Auto Club Suisse) maintains
historical monuments to
that era on the
Susten Pass
where two radiator refill stations
remain (See a picture
here
). These
have instructions on a

the
it picks up heat from
fluid then makes its
the radiator in the front
the thin tubes in the
hot liquid is
air stream entering the
compartment
in front of the car.

cast metal plaque and a spherical bottom watering can

hanging next to a water spigot. The spherical bottom was
intended to keep it from being set down and, therefore, be
useless around the house, in spite of which it was stolen, as
t
he picture shows.
During that period, European firms such as
Magirus
Deutz
built air
cooled diesel trucks, Porsche built air
cooled
farm tractors,
and
Volkswagen
became famous with air
cooled passenger cars. In the USA,
Franklin
built air
cooled
engines. The
Czechoslovakia
based company
Tatra
is
known for their big size air
cooled V8 car engines, Tatra
engineer Julius Mackerle published a book on it. Air
cooled
engines are better adapted to extremely cold and hot
environmental weather temperatures, you can see air
cooled
engines starting and running in freezing conditions that
stuck water
cooled engines and continue working when
water
cooled ones start producing steam jets.
IV.

WATER COOLING SYSTEM

In this method, cooling water jackets are provided around
the cylinder,
cyli
nder head, valve seats etc. The
water when
circulated through the jackets, it absorbs heat of combustion.
This hot water will then be cooling in the radiator partially
by a fan and partially by the flow developed by the forward
motion of the vehicle.
The cooled water is again recirculated
through the water jackets.
There are two types of water cooling system :
Thermo Siphon System
In this system the circulation of water is due to difference in
temperature
(i.e. difference in densities) o
f water. So in
this
system pump
is not required
but water is circulated because
of density difference only.
Pump Circulation System
In this system circulation of water is obtained by a pump.
This pump is
driven by means of engine output shaft
through
V
belts

Cooling Systems in Automobiles & Cars

691
Water Jackets
Cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder,
cylinder head, valve seats
and any hot parts which are to be
cooled. Hea
t generated in the engine cylinder,
conducted
through the cylinder walls to the jackets. The water flowing
through the
jackets absorbs this heat and gets hot. This hot

water will then be cooled in the

radiator.
Antifreeze Mixture
In western countries if t
he water used in the radiator freezes
because of cold
climates, then ice formed has more volume
and produces cracks in the cylinder
blocks, pipes, and
radiator. So, to prevent freezing antifreeze mixtures or
solutions are added in the cooling water.
The id
eal antifreeze solutions should have the following
properties :
(a)
It should dissolve in water easily.
(b)
It should not evaporate.
(c)
It should not deposit any foreign matter in cooling
system.
(d)
It should not have any harmful effect on any part
of
cooling system.
(e)
It should be cheap and easily available.
(f)
It should not corrode the system.
No single antifreeze satisfies all the requirements.
Normally following are used as
antifreeze solutions :
(a)
Methyl, ethyl and isopropyl alcohols.
(
b)
A solution of alcohol and water.
(c)
Ethylene Glycol.
(d)
A solution of water and Ethylene Glycol.
(e)
Glycerin along with water, etc.
Advantages
of Water Cooling System
(a)
Uniform cooling of cylinder, cylinder head and valves.
(b)
Specific fuel

consumption of engine improves by using

water cooling
system.
(c)
If we employ water cooling system, then engine need
not be provided at the
front end of moving vehicle.
(d) Engine is less noisy as compared with air cooled
engines, as it has water for
d
amping noise.
Disadvantages
of Water Cooling System
(a)
It depends upon the supply of water.
(b)
The water pump which circulates water absorbs
considerable power.
(c)
If the water cooling system fails then it will result in
severe damage of
engine.
(d)
The water cooling system is costlier as it has more
number of parts. Also it
requires more maintenance and
care for its parts.

TOPIC: 05 LUBRICATION:
Leave a comment

Importance of Lubrication in Marine Diesel Engines

written by: Ricky edited by: Lamar Stonecypher updated: 11/12/2008
A marine diesel engine consists of various components which are in relative motion which is of different types such as rotary, oscillatory
or sliding. Lubrication is very important otherwise these
components would simply wear out and cause damage.
Learn
about lubrication in marine engines here

Introduction

Friction is a necessary evil and it opposes the

relative
movement between any two objects which leads to
loss of
energy and hence wastage. Since there are lots of
moving
parts in any engine including marine diesel
engines,
there needs to be a method to take care of the
same.
Friction cannot be eliminated completely but can be reduced by applying appropriate lubrication techniques
which we will see in this article.

Leave a comment

Importance of Lubrication in Marine Diesel Engines

written by: Ricky edited by: Lamar Stonecypher updated: 11/12/2008
A marine diesel engine consists of various components which are in relative motion which is of different types such as rotary, oscillatory
or sliding. Lubrication is very important otherwise these components would simply wear out and cause damage. Learn about lubrication
in marine engines here

Introduction
Friction is a necessary evil and it opposes the relative movement between any two objects which leads to loss of energy and hence
wastage. Since there are lots of moving parts in any engine including marine diesel engines, there needs to be a method to take care
of the same. Friction cannot be eliminated completely but can be reduced by applying appropriate lubrication techniques which we will
see in this article.

Lubrication
The main object of lubrication is to separate moving metallic parts by inserting a layer of fluid between them in the form of a thin film
which reduces friction. Before going on to study the actual mechanism of lubrication system in a marine diesel engine, let us first see
which all parts of the engine need lubrication. It requires just an elementary knowledge of the engine construction and a little
forethought to imagine which all parts are moving relative to each other and hence require lubrication.
There are mainly four types of motions present in a marine engine and hence the lubrication can be provided based on the type of
motion. These types are as follows.
1.
2.

There is purely rotational motion between certain components and these include the
bearings of various parts such as the camshaft, crankshaft and so forth.
There is purely sliding motion between components such as the piston ring/cylinders,
crosshead guide

3.
4.

There is oscillatory motion between parts such as the rocker arms

There is very small point or line type friction in certain parts such as meshing gear teeth, chain and
sprocket wheels and so forth.

Types of Fluid Lubrication

Whenever a layer of lubrication fluid exists between two surfaces it has to be under one of the following
conditions.
When there is a continuous thick film of lubricant
between the moving surfaces without any break, it
is referred to as perfect or thick film lubrication.
When the layer is just a few molecules thick the
lubrication is said to be boundary lubrication
When the layer is imperfect and the two objects in
relative motion are in partial contact, the
lubrication is known as imperfect lubrication or
partial film lubrication.
We have cleared the basic concept of lubrication in this
article and will further proceed to study the exact
mechanisms of lubrication used in various types of
moving parts in marine engines in the subsequent
articles

TOPIC: 06 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM: Fuel Pumps

The fuel pump transfers petrol from the tank to carburettor through a fine grain filter. The pump must deliver
petrol in sufficient volume and pressure to keep the carburettor bowel full of clean petrol, regardless of vehicle
speed or manoeuvring. While all pumps deliver fuel through mechanical action, they are generally divided into
the following two groups.
(i) Pumps mechanically driven by car engine.
(u) Pumps electrically driven by an electric motor or solenoid.
9.4.1.

Mechanical Fuel Pumps

The most common type of fuel pump used in automobiles is the single action, diaphragm-type mechanical
pump. A diaphragm type fuel pump is usually mounted on the engine and is operated by an eccentric lobe on
the camshaft. The sectional view of a single diaphragm pump with its drive mechanism is shown in Fig. 9.12A.
A spring-loaded arm is held against the eccentric lobe, containing it at all times. In some systems a short push
rod is fitted between the eccentric lobe and the spring-loaded arm. The cam-actuated lever arm pulls the
diaphragm from the fuel chamber side, increasing its volume and thereby drawing fuel from the tank. A spring
on the lever side of the diaphragmpushes against the diaphragm as the cam eccentric lobe movement relaxes its
pull on the arm
lever and diaphragm. This spring pressure on the diaphragm moves the fuel towards carburettor as shown in
Fig. 9.12B. The fuel pump is fitted with two check valves. The inlet check valve allow petrol to flow into the
pump, and the outlet check valve allows petrol to leave the pump. Thus the pump lifts the fuel from the supply
tank to the pump by vacuum and forces it under pressure to the carburettor. The pressure at which the fuel is
delivered to the carburettor depends on the tension of the diaphragm spring that actuates the diaphragm during
delivery.

Fig. 9.12. Sectional view of a typical diaphragm fuel pump.

An A.C. mechanically operated fuel pump, which is very widely used in automobiles, is shown in section in
Fig. 9.13.

Fig. 9.13. A.C. fuel pump.

When the carburettor float bowl becomes full of fuel, the carburettor inlet valve closes due to which pressure in
the line leading to the pump increases. This back pressure is transmitted to the pump diaphragm due to which it
remains in the lower position against the pressure of the diaphragm spring, and the pull rod links are lowered so
that they are disconnected from the rocker arm. The situation continues until the fuel in the float chamber falls
sufficiently to open the carburettor inlet needle valve, consequently relieving the pressure in the pump chamber
to restart the system. In this way the supply of fuel to the carburettor is regulated meeting the requirement.
An air dome is normally incorporated with the outlet of the pump to minimise flow variations and also to
increase pump output. The dome provides an air pocket which is compressed by the outgoing fuel causing
reduction in pressure and consequently this compressed air supports fuel flow.
A bowl is installed before the inlet valve of some models of the pump. This acts as a settling chamber for the
collection of water and other foreign materials, which cannot pass through the fine screen of the filter. The bowl
needs periodic cleaning.
The double-action mechanical pump (Fig. 9.14) is consisted of a diaphragm fuel pump and a vaccum booster
pump for vacuum-operated windshields wipers. The vaccum booster is installed on the top of pump. The
booster provides vacuum for operating a vacuum-driven windshield wiper when the intake manifold vacuum
drops under certain engine operating conditions. Both vacuum booster (upper section) and pump (lower
section) of the total assembly are connected individually through links and rocker-arm break joints to a single
rocker-arm, which follows the cam by means of a rocker-arm spring. The vacuum section linkage operates the
vacuum unit diaphragm in a manner similar to operation of the pump. During upstroke, the diaphragm forces
the air from the vacuum chamber to the intake manifold through its outlet valve and during down stroke the
diaphragm is pushed down to create a vacuum in the chamber, which opens its inlet valve to draw air from the
windshield-wiper inlet connection. The diaphragm operation takes place only when manifold vacuum is
insufficient for operation of windshield-wiper. When manifold vacuum is more than that created by the pump,
both the booster valves are forced open to produce a direct vacuum path through the pump chamber
between the manifold and the wiper motor, and the vacuum unit diaphragm is moved up disconnecting the link
from the rocker arm.
Mechanical fuel pumps are quite dependable. If they break down, it is usually due to one of the following
problems.
(i) A diaphragm that leaks.
(ii) Worn out inlet or outlet check valves. (Hi) A worn or broken push rod.
(iv) A worn linkage, which reduces the pump stroke.
Occasionally, the camshaft eccentric may wear sufficiently to reduce the pump stroke, or a bolt-on eccentric
may become loose from the camshaft. In these cases, the camshaft or the eccentric must be replaced. It is also
possible to install an electric fuel pump to bypass a defective mechanical pump.

Pump Performance Tests

Capacity Test. The fuel line is disconnected from the carburettor and directed into a measuring container. The
engine is started and allowed to idle for 30 seconds while the fuel is being collected in the container. The engine

is turned off at the end of 30 seconds and the amount of petrol delivered by the pump is measured and
compared with the specification of the pump. If the capacity is low, the test should be repeated on the fuel
pump side of the filter. The filter is plugged if the test on the fuel pump side of the filter is normal while test on
the carburettor side is low. If both tests are low, the problem is with the fuel pump operation or with the fuel
lines.

Fig. 9.20. Electric circuit diagram for in-tank fuel pump.

Static Pressure Test.

Fuel pump pressure is checked by placing a pressure gauge on the outlet side of the fuel pump, usually at the
carburettor end of the fuel line, and measuring the fuel pressure as the engine idles. Fuel pressure ranges from
34.5 to 69 kPa, depending upon the engine. If the fuel pump eccentric is normal, low fuel pressure indicates
that a new pump is needed.

Vacuum Test.
To conduct this test a vacuum gauge is installed on the tank side of the fuel pump. The fuel lines from the tank
are plugged during the test to keep petrol from leaking out of the line. A normal fuel pump shows about 254
mm of vacuum at idle. If the vacuum is less, the pump or pump-actuating cam is faulty.

Description of mechanical fuel injection pump and Nozzle and their

working principle.
Fuel Injection System Components
Hannu Jskelinen, Magdi K. Khair
This is a preview of the paper, limited to some initial content. Full access requires DieselNet subscription.
Please log in to view the complete version of this paper.
Abstract: The fuel injection system can be divided into low-pressure and high-pressure sides.
The low-pressure components include the fuel tank, fuel supply pump and fuel filter. The highpressure side components include a high pressure pump, accumulator, fuel injector and fuel

injector nozzle. A number of injection nozzle designs and different actuation methods have been
developed for use with different types of fuel injection systems.

Low-Pressure Side Components

o Overview
o

Fuel Tank and Fuel Supply Pump

Fuel Filter

Fuel Heaters & Coolers

High-Pressure Side Components

o

Overview

High Pressure Pump

Accumulator

Fuel Injector and Fuel Injection Nozzle

Fuel Metering

Nozzle Needle Control Actuators

Low-Pressure Side Components

Overview
In order for the fuel injection system to fulfill its purpose, fuel must be transferred to it from the fuel tank. This
is the role of the low-pressure fuel system components. The low pressure side of the fuel system consists of a
number of components including the fuel tank, one or more fuel supply pumps and one or more fuel filters. In
addition, many fuel systems contain coolers and/or heaters to better control fuel temperature. Figure 1
illustrates two examples of schematics for low pressure fuel systems, one for a heavy-duty diesel truck and one
for a light-duty diesel passenger car [CRC 2007][CRC 2008].
Figure 1. Examples of Low Pressure Fuel Systems for Heavy-Duty and Light-Duty Diesel Vehicles

Fuel Tank and Fuel Supply Pump

The fuel tank is a reservoir that holds the fuel supply and helps maintain its temperature at a level below its
flash point. The fuel tank also serves as an important means of dissipating heat from the fuel that is returned
from the engine [Bosch 1971]. The fuel tank should be corrosion-resistant and leakproof to pressures of at least
30 kPa. It must also use some means to prevent excessive pressure accumulation such as a vent or a safety
valve.
The fuel supply pump, often referred to as the lift pump, is responsible for drawing fuel from the tank and
delivering it to the high pressure pump. Modern day fuel pumps can be electrically or mechanically driven by
the engine. Using an electrically driven fuel pump allows the pump to be placed anywhere in the fuel system
including inside the fuel tank. Pumps driven by the engine are attached to the engine. Some fuel pumps may be
incorporated into units that serve other functions. For example, so called tandem pumps are units that

incorporate a fuel pump and a vacuum pump for the brake booster. Some fuel systems, such as those based on a
distributor type pump, incorporate a mechanically driven supply pump and the high pressure pump in one unit.
Fuel pumps are commonly sized to deliver more fuel than is consumed by the engine at any particular operating
system. This extra fuel flow can serve a number of important functions including providing extra fuel to help to
cool injectors, pumps and other engine components and maintaining a more constant temperature of the fuel in
the entire fuel system. Also, the excess fuel that is heated by its contact with hot engine components can be
returned to the tank or fuel filter to improve the vehicles low temperature operability.

Fuel Filter
Trouble-free operation of a diesel injection system is possible only with filtered fuel. Fuel filters help reduce
damage and premature wear from contaminants by retaining very fine particles and water to prevent them from
entering the fuel injection system. As shown in Figure 1, fuel systems can contain one or more stages of
filtration. In many cases, a course screen is also located at the fuel intake located in the fuel tank.
Two stage filter system typically uses a primary filter on the inlet side of the fuel transfer pump and a secondary
filter on the outlet side. The primary filter is required to remove larger particles. The secondary filter is required
to withstand higher pressures and remove smaller particles that can damage the engine components. One-stage
systems remove larger and smaller particles in a single filter.
Filters can be a box-type or replacement element design, as shown in Figure 2. The box-type filter is that which
can be completely replaced as needed and does not require cleaning. Filters with a replaceable element have to
be thoroughly cleaned when replacing elements and care must be taken to avoid any dirt residue that could
migrate to the intricate parts of the fuel injection system. Filters can be constructed of metal or plastic.

Figure 2. Two Types of Fuel Filters

(a) Box type; (b) Element type
Common materials for modern fuel filter elements are synthetic fibres and/or cellulose. Micro glass fibres can
also be used but because of the risk of migration of small glass fibre pieces broken off from the main element
into critical fuel system components, their use in some applications is avoided [Petiteaux 2009]. In the past,
pleated paper, packed cotton thread, wood chips, a mixture of packed cotton thread and wood fibres and wound
cotton have also been used [Brady 1996].
The degree of filtration required depends on the specific application. In general, when two filters are used in
series, the primary filter retains particles down to about 10 - 30 m, while the secondary filter is capable of
retaining particles greater than 2-10 m. As fuel systems evolve, clearances and stresses on high pressure

components increase and the need for clean fuel becomes event more critical. Both the capability of fuel filters
to keep up with demands for cleaner fuel [Salvador 2009] as well as methods quantifying acceptable fuel
contamination levels have needed to evolve [van Stockhausen 2009].
In addition to keeping solid particles out of the fuel supply and injection equipment, water in fuel must also be
prevented from entering critical fuel injection system components. Free water can damage fuel lubricated
components in the fuel injection system. Water can also freeze in cold temperature conditions and ice may
block small fuel injection system passages thus cutting off the fuel supply to the rest of the fuel injection
system.
Water can be removed from the fuel using two common approaches. The incoming fuel can be subject to
centrifugal forces that separates the denser water from the fuel. Much better removal efficiencies can be
achieved with a filter media that separates water. Figure 3 shows a filter using a combination of media-type and
centrifugal approaches.

Figure 3. Fuel Filter Equipped with Water Separator

Different water separation media operate under different principles. Hydrophobic barrier media, such as
silicone treated cellulose, rejects water and causes it to bead up on the upstream surface. As the beads become
larger, they run down the face of the element into a cup under the force of gravity. Hydrophilic depth
coalescing media, such as glass micro-fibre, has a high affinity for water. The water in the fuel associates with
the glass fibres and over time as more water enters from the upstream side, massive droplets are formed. The
water moves through the filter with the fuel and on the downstream side, falls out of the fuel flow into a
collection cup.
Increased use of surface active fuel additives and fuel components such as biodiesel have rendered
conventional separating media less effective and filter manufacturers have needed to develop new approaches
such as composite media and ultra-high surface area coalescing media [Stanfel 2009][Pangestu 2009][Bessee
2009]. Methods of quantifying fuel/water separation performance have also been affected [Stone 2009].

Fuel filters can also contain additional features such as fuel heaters, thermal diverter valves, de-aerators, waterin-fuel sensors, filter change indicators.
A fuel preheater helps minimize the accumulation of wax crystals that can form in the fuel as it cools to low
temperatures. Common heating methods use electric heaters, engine coolant or recirculated fuel. Two
approaches that use warm return fuel to heat the incoming fuel are shown in Figure 1.
Fuel overflow and leak-off fuel returning to the tank also carries air and fuel vapor. The presence of gaseous
substances in the fuel can cause difficulties in starting as well as normal engine operation in high temperature
environments. Therefore, bleeder valves and de-aerators are used to rid the fuel supply of vapors and air to
ensure trouble-free engine operation.

TOPIC: 07 CARBURETOR:
CARBURETORS
The process of carburetion means to mix air and fuel. The function of the carburetor is to meter fuel
and to proportion air/fuel mixtures, as intake air enters the engine. Carburetors are very complex and
are made of many parts, few of which can be interchanged with any other carburetor.

BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE
Daniel Bernoulli discovered in 1738 that there is a relationship between the speed or velocity of a
fluid - either liquid or gas - and the pressure exerted by that fluid. If fluid flow is constant, pressure
is constant. As speed increases, pressure decreases. This is evident in the effect of air on the wing of
an aircraft, the increased speed of air above the wing creates an area of lower pressure. The pressure
of the slower moving air below the wing is greater, applying lift to the wing. The same principle is
used in the design of a venturi in the carburetor.
VENTURI
The carburetor operates on the principle of the incoming air drawing the fuel into the air stream. The
carburetor is positioned on the intake manifold and all of the air that is drawn in by the downward
motion of the pistons, must pass through the carburetor This air passes through a narrowing of the
carburetor body. This is called a venturi. The air is forced to change flow characteristics as it
passes through the venturi.
VENTURI CONSTRUCTION
Air passing over the wing of an airplane must travel further than the air under the wing, thus
creating a low-pressure area above the wing, giving it lift. As intake air passes through the venturi,
it must accelerate and travel faster than it was travelling in the larger area of the passage. As the
air passes through at the higher rate of speed, a low-pressure area is created, just as above the
wing of an airplane. This low pressure creates a suction on the gasoline that is present in the
carburetor, and it draws it into the air stream through the discharge tube or nozzle (Bernoulli's
Principle).
The venturi is self-regulating. As the volume of air passing through the venturi rises and falls,
the level of suction on the fuel also rises and falls. The higher the volume of air, the higher the
suction is, and the higher the volume of gasoline that is drawn with it. A constant air fuel mixture
can be maintained this way.
THROTTLE PLATE
If an engine were permitted to draw air in freely, it would accelerate and run uncontrolled at very
high speed. Cutting off or throttling the airflow controls engine speed. When the volume of air is
reduced, engine speed falls accordingly. When air volume is unrestricted, the engine will
produce full power.
The airflow or volume is controlled by the throttle plate, which is placed in the base of the carburetor, below the venturi, and is able to
close the airflow almost completely. The throttle plate, or throttle butterfly, as it is sometimes called, is mounted on a shaft. Rotation
of the shah causes the throttle plate to open or close the air passage. The throttle plate is closed by spring force and opened by foot
pressure from the driver.
BASIC CARBURETOR COMPONENTS

The basic carburetor has the following parts:

1) Carburetor body: the main housing(s), which contain all of the systems and circuits.
2) Air horn: the main air passage. Generally used to describe the upper portion of the passage.
3) Throttle valve: to control airflow.
4) Venturi: the narrowed area of the air passage.
5) Main discharge tube: extends from the fuel bowl into the venturi, carrying fuel to mix with
the air steam.
6) Fuel bowl: stores fuel.
CARBURETOR CIRCUITS
The varying demands and operating conditions of an engine require variations in the
air/fuel mixture. While the venturi and main discharge nozzle are designed to maintain
close to a 15:1 ratio, the engine will require ratios ranging from 8:1 to 18:1. These variations are achieved
through circuits that cope with the needed changes in fueling. The basic carburetor has six major circuits: - float - idle - main metering
- full power or enrichment accelerator - choke

FLOAT CIRCUIT
The float circuit serves to maintain a constant fuel level in the fuel bowl. The float is
mounted with a hinge, and a needle valve is positioned so that the float can close the needle
valve.
When fuel level is low, the needle valve is open. Fuel under pressure from the fuel pump
flows past the needle valve and fills the fuel bowl. As the fuel level rises, the float pushes the
needle valve closed and fuel flow stops.
Some carburetors have two fuel bowls and will therefore require two float circuits. Float level - the
level of the fuel in the float bowl - is adjustable, usually by bending tabs on the float or by

bending the hinge portion of the float. Gauges are often provided with carburetor overhaul kits
to allow precise setting of float levels. The float bowl is vented to the air horn and to the charcoal canister.
IDLE CIRCUIT
An idling engine requires a slightly richer mixture. There is not enough air flowing through the
venturi to draw fuel out of the main discharge tube, so an alternate passage is provided.
The throttle plate is blocking the majority of intake air, and a high vacuum is present below the
throttle plate. The vacuum draws fuel from the float bowl through a passage that exits below the
throttle plate. Air is drawn through an air bleed passage and mixes with the fuel, before it is
discharged out of the idle port. An idle adjusting screw is located in the idle passage so that flow
of fuel - and consequently engine idle speed - can be adjusted. On late model carburetors the idle
adjustments are set at the factory and sealed, and no adjustments are possible.
Since only a very small amount of air can pass by the throttle plate, a controlled, enriched
mixture enters the engine. As the throttle plate begins to open and the engine comes off idle,
further discharge ports are exposed to vacuum and more fuel air mixture is drawn through these
passages. These ports are called off-idle ports.
The ports may be connected by a transfer slot, or may be individual holes placed above the
throttle plate. The off idle ports provide a smooth transition as the throttle moves from idle to
part throttle, and the fuel flow moves from the idle circuit to the main metering circuit. Vehicle
manufacturers use many variations of idle circuitry.
MAIN METERING CIRCUIT
The main metering circuit provides the fuel metering throughout most of the engine operation.
After the throttle is opened past the off idle ports, there is sufficient airflow to draw fuel through
the main discharge tube. The main metering circuit can maintain normal air/fuel mixture through
all rpm ranges, depending on engine load.
The main discharge nozzle is connected via passages to the fuel float bowl. A metering jet is
placed in this passage to precisely control fuel flow. Jets of various sizes can be interchanged to
affect engine performance.
The passage includes an air bleed that allows air to mix with the fuel as it enters the discharge
tube. A well may be situated in the passage that allows progressively more air to mix with the fuel
and prevent the mixture from becoming too rich as engine speed and air volume increase.

FULL POWER OR ENRICHMENT CIRCUIT

To produce full power, the engine needs a slightly richer
mixture. Since the main metering system tends to provide a
constant air/fuel ratio, an additional circuit is provided to enrich the mixture under full power
operation. There are several designs of circuits for this purpose; the common ones are the
metering rod type, and the power valve.
The metering rod design utilizes mechanical linkage or vacuum to actuate a metering rod that is
placed in the main jets. When full throttle operation is called for, the metering rod lifts out of the
main jet, increasing the area of the opening and subsequently the amount of fuel that can flow.
The power valve design utilizes vacuum or linkage to open an additional metering jet that
permits the flow of additional fuel through the discharge tube.
ACCELERATOR PUMP CIRCUIT
When the engine is accelerated slowly from idle there is a transfer from the idle circuit to the main metering circuit, as discussed
earlier. However if an engine is accelerated quickly, a momentary hesitation will occur. As soon as the throttle plate is opened, air will
flow quickly into the manifold. The flow of gasoline will be slightly delayed however, and that first rush of air/fuel mixture will be
very lean, causing the engine to hesitate or even stall.
The accelerator pump circuit provides a positive charge of fuel that is sufficient to compensate for the amount of air that is drawn
in, before the main metering system begins fuel flow.

The accelerator circuit consists of mechanical linkage

connected to a diaphragm or plunger type pump, and nozzles
located in the air horn. Fuel enters the pump chamber through
a one way check valve, and is discharged through a second
check valve, in a manner similar to the fuel pump. As the
throttle opens, the pump is actuated and fuel is discharged
from the nozzle(s). The linkage is generally adjustable, to
increase or decrease the amount of fuel that is pumped into the
engine. Hesitation on quick acceleration, is often an indicator
of a faulty accelerator pump.
CHOKE CIRCUIT
Starting a cold engine requires a very rich mixture. To allow the
carburetor to deliver this rich mixture requires the addition of another
plate similar to the throttle plate. The choke plate is capable of closing
the airflow into the air horn; this is described as choking the engine by
cutting off its airflow. When the choke plate is closed, the entire
carburetor is subject to the high manifold vacuum. This high vacuum
draws large volumes of fuel through the various passages.
Originally, chokes were manually operated. The driver opened and closed
the choke to keep the engine running at a satisfactory speed and
smoothness. To eliminate the inefficiency of a driver operating the choke,
automatic chokes have been used for years. A temperature sensitive
bimetallic spring is connected by linkage to the choke plate. When the
engine is cold, the spring closes the plate, and as the engine heats the bimetal spring opens the plate. Many additional devices have been added to
automatic chokes to modify the transition from full choke during engine
cranking, to no choke, at normal operating temperature. The choke plate is
offset on its shaft, so that air velocity pulls it partially open as soon as the
engine starts. Intake manifold vacuum is also used to actuate the opening
of the choke. As the engine heats, exhaust gas is directed toward
the bi-metal spring,
causing it to respond more
rapidly, and an electric
heater may also be
installed to heat up the bimetal coil. When an
engine is cold and running
under choke, it generally
needs to operate with the
throttle plate slightly further open,
than at a hot idle. Idle speed is
generally also increased slightly to
allow the engine to run smoothly
and avoid the tendency to stall.
A fast idle device that is
incorporated into the choke
linkage accomplishes this. Usually
a screw on the throttle linkage
contacts a multi-step cam. When
the choke shaft rotates closed, the
throttle opens in
steps, by the actuation of the cam. To engage this feature, the throttle linkage
must be depressed during cranking. In fact, in many cases the choke will not
be
closed unless the throttle is

depressed before or during cranking.

A choke break or vacuum break is used to open the choke plate slightly
once the engine starts so that it can breathe. When engine vacuum builds
after the engine starts it acts on the break diaphragm to pull the choke plate
open. This amount of opening must be very precise or the engine will stall.
Some manufacturers call for the adjustment to be made using an angle
gauge and others use a specific demension.

TOPIC: 08 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:

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Home>>Notes>>Automobile-engineering>>Clutch

Clutch
Clutch is a mechanism which enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted,
when desired, to a second shaft the axis of which is coincident with that of the first.

Function of clutch:

Clutch is use the function of clutch to engage and disengage the engine
power from gear box or wheel.
Effortless operation.

Minimum size.

Minimum mass.

Torque transmission will be more.

Friction capacity will be more.

Heat dissipation will be more.

Minimum vibration.

Well balance.

Necessity clutch:
If the engine is directly connected to the gear box. The vehicle will be moved forward of the time
of engine starting and will get stop when the vehicle going to stop the avoid this problem clutch
is necessary.

Requirement of good clutch

Minimum size.
Gradual engagement.

An effortless operation.

Minimum mass.

The working principal of clutch is friction into the clutch is increased by four methods:

Surface contact area should be more.

Pressure on surface should be maximum.

Surface should be rough.

Types of clutch:

Single plate clutch.

Diaphragm type clutch.

Multiplate clutch.

Helical type single plate clutch.

Centrifugal clutch.

Cone clutch.

Semi-centrifugal clutch.

Single plate Clutch:

Part- fly wheel, friction plate, pressure plate.

Diagram of single plate clutch is shown in figure.

Single plate clutch

When drivers wants to shift the gear or to stop the vehicle. He depress clutch
pedal so that the fork pushed the forward and pushes the clutch bearing and
finger.
The finger are pivoted so that they pulls the pressure plate back hence the
clutch plate will get free so the flywheel radiate but the clutch plate will not
get rotate. This is the disengage position on clutch.
Diaphragm type clutch:

In this type of clutch instead of helical spring diaphragm spring is used the remaining
parts spring type clutch.

Multi plate clutch:

o

Diagram of multi plate clutch is shown in figure.

Multi plate clutch

In this multi plate clutch inside of using single plate more number of
clutch plates are used.
In small vehicle like motorcycle, scooter etc. the space is limited so
that a big single plate cannot be sued so that number of plate
increased size.

The plates are arranged in such a way that after every.

This type of clutch used in heavy transport vehicle and racing cars
where high torque is required.

The construction is similar to single plate type except that all the
friction plates in this case are in two sets, one set of plates slides in
grooves on the flywheel and the other one slides on splices on the
pressure plate hub.

Helical type single plate clutch :

Construction of Helical type single plate Clutch:

Following parts are used in this clutch.
1.

Flywheel.
2. Cover assembly.
3. Helical spring.
4. Clutch plate.
5. Operating linkage.
6. Splinted shaft or clutch shaft.

The clutch plate is hold in between flywheel and pressure plate. The helical spring is
given behind the pressure plate, which is Hal fly compressed, this spring given the force
on pressure plate and clutch plate. The cover assembly mounted on flywheel.

Working of Helical type single plate Clutch

:
o

When the engine starts, the crank shaft will get rotate with flywheel,
the clutch plate and pressure plate also get rotate dew two spring
force, the clutch plate rotate the clutch shaft and so on this is the
engage position of clutch.

Centrifugal clutch:
o

Centrifugal clutch is shown in figure.

Centrifugal clutch
o
o

In this type of clutch both the spring force the centrifugal force work to
engage the clutch.
When engine and vehicle stop the clutch is in disengage on passion.
When engine get start and speed get increased the flyweight moves
away (expand) and create a centrifugal force on pressure plate as well
as on clutch plate as speed increases the force also get increases and
the clutch get fully engage.
When driver realest accelerator pedal the speed of engine get reduced
so that the centrifugal force also get reduce and clutch get disengage.
This type of clutch does not require clutch pedal.

This type of clutch is used on mopeds, and scooters.

Semi centrifugal clutch:

o

Semi centrifugal clutch is shown in figure.

Semi centrifugal clutch

o
o

In this type of clutch both the spring force the centrifugal force work to
engage the clutch.
Clutch plate one pressure plate is given the clutch plate as having
external splice and engages with clutch box, the pressure plate are
having internal saplings and engage with engine gears.
The clutch plate and pressure plate are hold together with the help of
helical spring.

Cone clutch:
o

The cone clutch is shown in figure.

Cone clutch
o

This clutch is having inner cone (flywheel) and outer surface of outer
cone friction material is given to engage this two cone together helical
spring is given at the center of outer cone the outer cone is having
internal spines.
Which are engage with clutch shaft? As the inner cone rotates, the
outer cone also gets rotate which rotate the clutch shaft. In this type of
clutch the frictional force is more than single plate clutch but dew to
disengage disc advantages this type of clutch is not use in automobile
vehicle.

Clutch operating mechanism:

Following type is the operating mechanism.
o

Mechanically operated clutch: In this type mechanism linkages are

connected in such a way that the force to operate the clutch gets
increased.
Hydraulic operated clutch: In this type mechanism the hydraulic oil
is used to increase the pressure to operate the clutch. In this
mechanism master cylinder and slave cylinder are used to increase the
oil pressure

GEAR BOX

A gearbox is a mechanical method of

transferring energy from one device to
another and is used to increase torque
while reducing speed. Torque is the power

generated through the bending or twisting of a solid material. This term is often used
interchangeably with transmission.
Located at the junction point of a power shaft, the gearbox is often used to create a right
angle change in direction, as is seen in a rotary mower or a helicopter. Each unit is made
with a specific purpose in mind, and the gear ratio used is designed to provide the level of
force required. This ratio is fixed and cannot be changed once the box is constructed. The
only possible modification after the fact is an adjustment that allows the shaft speed to
increase, along with a corresponding reduction in torque.
In a situation where multiple speeds are needed, a transmission with multiple gears can be used
to increase torque while slowing down the output speed. This design is commonly found in
automobile transmissions. The same principle can be used to create an overdrive gear that
increases output speed while decreasing torque. A wind turbine is an example of a very large
gearbox. The turbine moves at a slow rate of rotation with a great deal of torque. The
transmission translates this power into the faster but lower torque rotational speed of the
electricity generator. Due to the sheer size and the amount of power they can generate, wind
turbines have multiple gears and stages. This feature is required to ensure that the electricity
generator can provide a consistent output even as the turbine rate of rotation fluctuates.
In an automobile, there are three types of transmission: automatic, manual, or continuously
variable. A manual transmission vehicle provides the best example of a simple gearbox. In both
the automatic and continuously variable transmissions, the gearboxes are closed systems,
requiring very little human interaction.
Manual transmission is available in two different systems: sliding mesh and constant mesh. The
sliding mesh system uses straight cut spur gears. The gears spin freely and require driver
manipulation to synchronize the transition from one speed to another. The driver is responsible
for coordinating the engine revolutions to the road speed required. If the transition between gears
is not timed correctly, they clash, creating a loud grinding noise as the gear teeth collide.
The constant mesh system has diagonally-cut helical or double helical gear sets that are
permanently meshed together. Friction cones or synchronized rings have been added to the gears
to create a smoother transition when changing gears. This type of transmission is usually found
in racing cars and agricultural equipment.

Wheel And Tires

Introduction of Wheel And Tires:

A wheel tire assembly is on essential device in imparting rolling motion to a

vehicle.
It is mounting on the rear and the front axles, and always remains in contact
with the road.
The power available at the rear axle is utilized to roll the rear wheel.

Consequently upon which the front wheel also roll and a wheel tire assembly
consists of the following main part

(1) Wheel body with a rim.

(2) Tire and rim.

(3) Brake drum.

(4) Air valve.

The assembly may have different styles as viewer from the outside a few such Styles.
A wheel tire assembly servers the following purpose:
It makes the vehicle mobile.
It bears the total load of the vehicle.

It helps in smooth steering and directional stability.

It provided cushioning effect to the vehicle.

Requirement of a good wheel:-

To accomplish different purpose the automobile wheel should posses the following
requirement.

They must be structurally strong.

To keep the unstrung weight to a minimum they should be as light as possible.

They material of the wheel should be anticorrosive and weather resisting.

Wheel should be balance both statically and detachable.

Types of wheel:o

Different types of wheel used on various auto vehicles can be enumerated as

below.

(1)

Wire spooked wheel.

(2)

Pressed steel disc wheel.

(3)

Light alloy cast wheel.

(4)

Composite wheel.

(1)

Wire spooked wheel.

(2)

Pressed steel disc wheel.

(3)

Light alloy cast wheel.

(4)

Composite wheel.

Wire spoke wheel were used on early cars and are almost absolute now however they still
find use on certain sports cars due to their light lightness better heat dissipation easier
mounting and quick remove disc wheels made of pressed steel are quick remove disc
wheels made of are simple and robust in construction are easily cleanable and have lower
cost, therefore these are mostly used type wheels, cost wheels are of more recent type
they are made of night alloys such as magnesium and aluminum alloy.
They posses serial advantages over the steel wheels but a few disadvantage too some of
these as given follows.

They use wider rims as well as wider tires.

Road adhesion improves due to wider tires especially during a curve negotiation.

Since aluminum and magnesium have better heat conduction hence dissipation of heat
produced at brakes and the tires is better.

They are costing than steel wheels as the comp active cost of aluminum and magnesium
are higher than steel.

The development of steel aluminum composite wheel is another recent feature.

They possess superiority of strength styling and light weight less different types of wheel
are.

Light alloy wheel:o

We have discussed curlier in chapter that are of the treenails of later generation
vehicle is to employed light weight materials.

In line with these themes the use of light alloy aluminum and magnesium has
been done to produce wheels.

These alloy wheels are manufactured by casting and forging processes typical
construction of a light alloy castled is they possess several advantages over the
conventional steel wheels.

These are

(1)

Reduce weight therefore enhanced fuel economy.

(2)

Decreased unsparing weight of the vehicle there for better suspension.

(3)
Better heat dissipation due to higher thermal conductivity therefore tires run cool on
the wheel.

(4)

Improved stability while cornering since rims can be made wider.

(5)

Enhanced resistance against shock and vibration.

(6)

Greater impact strength and fatigue resistance.

(7)

Lower susceptibility to corrosion.

(8)
Pleasing aesthetic appearance and styling. The light alloy wheel find use in cars and
heavy vehicles but are most suitable for racing and sports cars. Cast wheel are generally used for
light vehicles while the forged wheels are preferred on heavy vehicles such wheels have veen
used on commodore car Mercedes Benz new E- class saloon etc. a/8 mg- wheel has been used on
fords sport car birched a 4600 cc and 320 bhp

Wheel specification:o The wheels are available in different sizes.

o

Their dimension differ from vehicle to vehicle and model to mode for example the
wheel of a scooter does not fit on a motorcycle and also the wheel of tomato
starlet car model done not suit Toyota passes car model of the same make it is
because each wheel has its own specification an automobile wheel is specification
in the following sequence manner.

Radial ply tire: In this construction the basic structure is of such ply cards which are placed along the
direction X of the tire axis.
The orientation of cords is such that they join 3 and 9, 9 and 3 on the watch i.e. they are
at right angles to y-axis since desired lateral stability as the ride will be very soft;
therefore, a number of broken strips are incorporated to run over the tire the breaker strips
are made of inextensible but flexible material.

The inextensibility is desired since there should not be any change in their circum length
owing to variation in inflation pressure die air pressure inside the behaving of breaker
strips is analogous to a girder which rein for the construction in its own plane.

Its involvement is essential for directional stability too

TOPIC: 09 FRONT AXLE & STEERING:

66
Automobile Engineering

7
.2
FRONT AXLE

Front wheels of the vehicle are mounted on front axles. Functions of

front axle are listed
below :
(
a
)
It supports the weight of front part of the vehicle.
(
b
)
It facilitates steering.
(
c
)
It absorbs shocks which are transmitted due to
road surface irregularities.
(
d
)
It absorbs torque applied on it due to braking of vehicle.
Construction and Operation
Front axle is made of I
section in the middle portion and circular or elliptical
section at the ends. The special x
section of the axle makes
it able to withstand
bending loads due to weight of the vehicle and torque applied due to
braking. On
kind of front axle is shown in Figure 7.1 which consists of main beam,
stub axle,
and swivel pin, etc. The wheels are mounted on stub axles.
Figur
e 7.1 : Front Axle

7.3
TYPES OF FRONT AXLES
There is two types of front axles :
(

a
)
Dead front axle, and
(
b
)
Line front axle.
Dead Front Axle
Dead axles are those axles, which donet rotate. These axles have
sufficient rigidity
and strength to take the weight. The
ends of front axle are suitably designed to
accommodate stub axles.
Line Front Axle
Line axles are used to transmit power from gear box to front wheels.
Line front
axles although, front wheels. Line front axles although resemble rear
axles but
they are dif
ferent at the ends where wheels are mounted. Maruti
800 has line front
axle.

7.5
STEERING
A good steering mechanism is must for a vehicles stability at the time
of turning.
Steering of four wheeler is designed in a manner so that it will not
permit latera
l slip of
front wheels during steering. There must be true rolling of wheels at
the time of steering.
The front wheels are mounted on front axles to allow their left and
right swing for
steering the vehicle. Steering is done by providing a suitable gearing
and linkage
between front wheels and steering wheel. A simplified diagram of a
steering system has
been shown in the

Figure 7.

TOE
IN AND TOE
OUT
The front wheels are slightly turned in at front side such that the
distance between
wheels at front (A) is little less than the distance at back (B), when
seen from top. This
difference in distance is called to
in. It is shown in F
igure 7.7. The distance B is greater
than A by 3 to 5 mm.
Figure 7.7 : Toe
in (A < B)

Purpose of Toe
in
(
a
)
To ensure that wheels are rolling parallel.
(
b
)
To stabilize steering and prevent slipping towards sides.
(
c
)
To prevent excessive tyre wear.
(
d
)
To offset th
e effect of small deflections in the wheel support system.

The wheels are set with to

in but they move parallel when car moves forward.
The difference in the angles between the two front wheels and frame
of the car during
turns is called toe
out. While tak
ing the turn, the
inside wheel makes larger angle than
outer wheel to satisfy the condition of correct steering. The toe
out is shown in
Figure 7.8.
Figure 7.8 : Toe
out at the Time of Turning of Vehicle

At turns, inner wheels makes an angle

which
is more than angle

of outer wheel.
Toe
out is set by maintaining proper relation between the steering knuckle
arm, tie rods
and pitman arm.

7.12
STEERING GEAR BOX
Steering gears are used to reduce the steering effort and convert
rotary motion of steerin
g
wheel into straight line motion of linkage. Thus, steering gear
provides mechanical
advantage also to make steering easy. Steering gears are put inside
the steering gear box.
Steering gear box connects steering shaft and steering linkages.
Various types
of steering gears used in different automobiles are listed below :

(
a
)
Worm and sector type,
(
b
)
Worm and worm wheel type,
(
c
)
Worm and roller type,
71
Front Axle and Steering

(
d
)
Rack and pinion type, and
(
e
)
Cam and roller type.
Worm and Sector Type Steering Gear
In a worm and sector type steering ge
ar a worm is provided at the end of steering
shaft which meshes with a sector provided on a sector shaft. When
the worm is
rotated, the sector turns which moves the linkages for steering the
vehicle. The
sector shaft is also called pitman arm shaft, roller
shaft or cross shaft. This is
shown in Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9 : Worm and Sector Steering Gear

Worm and Worm Wheel Type Steering Gear

In worm and work wheel system, square threads are provided on the
worm on the
steering shaft. The worm meshes with
the worm wheel which is mounted on a
shaft. A drop arm is also mounted on the same shaft as shown in
Figure 7.10. The

rotation of steering shaft rotates the worm and worm wheel.

This rotates drop arm
by 60
o

to 90

. This moves the steering linkages. This t

ype of gear box is used in
tractors.

Figure 7.10 : Worm and Worm Wheel Steering Gear

A square shaft is generally used on which worm wheel is mounted.

Worm and Roller Type Steering Gear
In the worm and roller steering gear, a roller with two teeth is
meshes with the
teeth on roller. This type of system was popular in American
passenger cars.
Rack and Pinion Steering Gear
A pinion is attached at the end of the steering shaft. A rack mashes
with the
pinion. The rotary movement of the steering moves the
pinion which gives motion
to the rack. The movement of the rack is responsible for turning the
wheels
through steering linkages.

7.13
STEERING LINKAGES
Steering linkages is connection of different links between steering
gear box and front
wheels. The rotat
ion of steering wheel is transmitted to the steering gear from which it
is
transferred to the front wheels for turning them to left or right.
72
Automobile Engineering

7.13.1
Steering Linkage for Conventional Rigid Axle Suspension
Steering linkage for a conventional rigid axle susp
ension has been shown in Figure 7.11.
It is generally used in cars which have rigid front axle.

Figure 7.11 : Steering Linkage for a Rigid Axle Suspension

The steering knuckle arm is connected to pitman arm through a drag

link (link rod).
The rig
ht hand track rod arm is connected to left hand track rod arm through
a track rod
(or tie rod).
Working of Steering System
When steering wheel is rotated, the motion is transmitted to pitman
arm through
gear box. This motion is transmitted to drag link. Dr
ag link transfers this
movement to stub axle which rotates about king pin. This turns the
right wheel.
The left wheel
is turned through the track rod and left hand track and arm.

7.13.2
Steering Linkage for Independent Front Suspension
If automobile is fit
ted with independent front suspensions then different type of steering
linkages are used. In these linkages, the ball joints are fitted between
steering linkage
and steering arm which facilitates independent movement of the
wheels. A simplified
linkage is
shown in Figure

Steering & Suspension: Suspension Systems: Types of suspension

Independent suspension

Summary
Independent suspension helps keep unsprung mass low. Also, if a wheel hits
an irregularity, it won't upset the opposite wheel on the same axle. It allows
wheel camber to be adjusted, or designed into the suspension geometry.

One of the main benefits claimed for independent suspension is that unsprung mass can
be kept low.

Also, if a wheel on one side hits a road irregularity, it wont upset the wheel on the other
side on the same axle.

And it allows wheel camber to be adjusted individually, when provided for by the
manufacturer.

One of the simplest, and most common, independent suspension systems is the
McPherson strut type. It can be used on the front and rear of the vehicle.

It consists of a spring and shock absorber unit called a strut.

The lower end of the strut is located by a ball joint, fitted to the end of the suspension
control arm. Its upper end is located in a molded rubber mounting.

If the unit is on the front, the upper mounting includes a bearing to allow the complete
strut to rotate with the steering.

A tension rod, or stay bar, extends from the body sub-frame, to the outer end of the
control arm.

This maintains the location of the control arm during braking, and accelerating.

In this front-wheel-drive suspension, the control arm is a wishbone shape with 2 widelyspaced mounting points. This prevents backward and forward movement, so a tension rod
is not needed.

Wishbones can also be used in a parallel link system. They can be used in pairs with the
coil spring between the lower wishbone, and the suspension cross-member.

Alternatively, the upper link may be a wishbone, with the coil spring mounted above,
combined with a single-pivot lower link, located by a tension rod.

On some vehicles, a torsion bar provides the springing medium. The torsion bar is
attached at the inner fulcrum point of the wishbone, or control arm. As the suspension is
deflected, it twists around its centre.

It can be fitted to the upper, or the lower link, depending on the type of vehicle. The
upper link is shorter than the lower one - irrespective of the springing method used. When
the suspension is deflected, the unequal lengths allow the track of the vehicle to be
maintained near constant, but with some changes to camber angle.

Generally, when the car leans during cornering, the inner wheel leans outwards at the top,
and the outer wheel leans inwards. This helps to maintain maximum tire contact with the
road surface

The country's cargo shipments ride on air, and now your car can, too.

Air suspension systems have long been used in the trucking world, but in
the last decade or so, they've moved into the commercial world. Motorcycles, all-terrain
vehicles, custom cars, performance cars -- even everyday commuter cars -- are using the
suspension systems.

Changes in technology mean that systems are no longer clunky, slow and imprecise.
Instead, they use fast, precision-based technology with advanced electronics that control
everything from ride height to bag pressure, offering a smooth, controlled drive.

And it's about time, as the car's suspension system is an often-overlooked area. From a
comfort and safety standpoint, your car's suspension is integral to how your car drives.

Shock absorbers and coil springs help absorb and direct road force, maintaining wheel
oscillation, jounce and rebound.
However, every time you add or take away weight to a vehicle, speed up or slow down, or turn
left or right, this challenges what the shock absorbers and springs are capable of. Traditional
stock shocks and springs are designed and installed with only a fixed set of situations in mind
replace a vehicle's coil springs with air springs. The air springs are simply tough rubber and
plastic bags inflated to a certain pressure and height to mimic the coil springs. But the
similarities end there. By adding in an on-board air compressor, sensors and electronic controls,
today's air suspension systems provide several advantages over all-metal, conventional springs,
including near-instant tuning, and the ability to adapt handling to different situations and vary
load capability.
Whether the system is manual or electronic, or installed by a weekend mechanic or a seasoned
tech, air suspension can lower a car to improve its street cred, even out a heavy payload, or
simply improve the ride of a vintage Detroit metal street monster.
Read on to learn more about this trend and what to look for when you want to give your car a lift.

TOPIC: 11 BRAKES:

Braking System

Brakes are employed to stop or slow down the speed of vehicle.

When brake applied to wheel braking force is created that force oppose the
speed of wheel or rotation of force.

Braking requirement:
1)The vehicle must stop in smallest distance.
2) It must act suddenly in emergency.
3)It must have strong braking force.
4)It must neither slip nor kid the vehicle.
And less heat production.
5)It must operate on least effort

Brake Drum:
Construction of Brake Drum:

The brake drum is mounted on axle hub and whole assembly is hold in wheel to brake
shoes are handed on the back plate by mines of pin expander is fitted in between shoes.
The friction material is pasted or biretta on brake shoes the expanded (cam) expander.

The brake shoe and press on drum. Due to friction action brake will get applied.

Brake drum is shown in figure.

Working of disc break:

Disc brake is shown in figure.

Disc brake

The disc brake are appeaser hydraulically when the vehicle is to brake the brake fluid
pumped by the master cylinder it them flows and pushes the piston and pad which makes
friction with rooter disc and due to frictional action brake will get applied.

Mechanical brake:

This brake system is operated by mechanical linkage.

This brake system applied light vehicle two wheeler and some three wheeler this system
required more efforts from driver and applied less force to the brake system to that
system doesnt used on four wheeler or heavy vehicle.

Hydraulic brake system :

In this system the brake is operated with the help of oil pressure in this system master
cylinder and wheel cylinder is most important part.
This system is very popular on four wheeler vehicle basically light and medium vehicle.

Working of hydraulic break system :-

The diagram of hydraulic brake system is shown in figure.

Hydraulic brake

The brake system is fitted with brake oil when driver presses the brake pedal the master
cylinder creates oil pressure and sent to wheel cylinder.
Piston in wheel cylinder get expands due to oil pressure and the brake shoes also get
expand and rub on brake shoes.
Also get expand and rub on brake drum so that brake will get apply.

Working of air brake system :

The diagram of pneumatic or air brake system is shown in figure.

Pneumatic or Air Brake System

Mostly it is used heavy vehicle the compressor run by engine sucked air from atmosphere
and the piston of compressor compress the air and supplied to air tank.
In between compressor and tank water separator is used which remove the water partial
from air the air tank stores the air with pressure up to 8kg/cm2.the safety valve is used in
the tank to manifold constant air pressure.

The pipe is connected from tank to brake valve and from brake valve to brake pedal the
brake valve get open and pressure air flows from tank to brake chamber as soon as the air
pressure inter in brake chamber the diaphragm get deflect which pushes the push rod for
tarring the cam as the cam get turned it expand the brake shoe and brake will get applied.

When driver release the brake pedal the brake valve gets closed and air pressure cannot
supplied to the brake chamber so that brake will get not applied.

Brake lining:
The brake lining are high friction material beings used rub again the rotating brake drums and to
stop them will the brake are applied for on efficient braking and longer lifer they are expect to
have high standard of quality they are required to full fill various requirement such as given
below:1) No water swells.
2) Low heat swells.
3) Low wear rate.
4) The high coefficient of normal and hot friction.
5) High strange and physically properties.

Brake lining material:

The brake lining are made of asbestos, rubber, metallic particles, resin, minerals, and
coefficient of friction modifies among these the asbestos is most important there for
brake.
Lining are commonly known as asbestos brake linings.

1) Chrysalides asbestos fibers are comparatively cheap posses the hot coefficient of friction
around 0.33 to 0.40 in the temperature range of 200 to 300.
2) The metallic partial of aluminum brass and zinc are used for high heat dissipation and better
antiwar characteristics.
3) The asbestos can resist temperature up to 350 without folding.

Types of brake linings:

On the basis of manufacturing the brake lining are group in to following types.
1) Rigid molded.
2) Flexible molded.
3) With metallic partial.
4) The wealth out metallic partial.
1) Non asbestos brake lining.
i) Flexible.
ii) Roll lining.

Rigid molded asbestos brake lining :o

o

Rigid molded asbestos brake lining has a random asbestos filigrees friction
material with metallic inclusion in the form of steel wool brass chips.
The coefficient of friction is well maintained even at higher temperature it is
suitable for used under dry operating condition only it offer exceptional resistance
to wear wealth out any penalty in the form of drum damage it finds application in
light the medium and heavy commercial drum brake such a lining are two types:-

1.

With Metallic Partial

2.

Without Metallic Partia

lexible molded roll brake lining :The flexible molded non metallic roll brake lining are of a dark gray in color having a random
asbestos they have a random asbestos they have a high level of friction with a good anti squall
properties and excellent temperature and wear resistance they are produce in roll and liner form
and are suitable used under a dry operating condition only its material is manufactured with a
good finish on both the surface suit may be bounded on inter surface.

Wire meshed roll lining:

The molded rubberized and flexible wire meshed backed and with medium coefficient of
partition these brake lining are suitable car and light commercial vehicle running in cities and
also for agricultural tractors.

Woven brake lining:

These are solid non magically using women the configuration of abbots fabric this lining do not
feed up to 250 to 300 wire inclusion is also done for better heat transfer the turnery since copper
or this alloys are preferred there coefficient of friction morally lies in the vicinity of 0.4.

The wear properties of brake lining:

The wear resistance is a very important properties aliening should have the backing efficient will
be have only of the timing are capable of sustaining a large number of braking stroke at a
elevated temperature a test report conducted on lining at a 400 if show that the lining are stable
or a long period of time and there is no reduction in brake effective even a after 100 cycle of
inter brake operation a good brake lining should work well over about 800 km

TOPIC: 12 INTAKE & EXHAUST SYSTEM:

TOPIC: 13 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM: