Test 1 Review: Chapter 2: Fourier Representation of Signals and Systems

Test 1 Review
Reference:
Test 1 Review
Sections:
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7
3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6
4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8 of
Professor Deepa Kundur

University of Toronto
S. Haykin and M. Moher, Introduction to Analog & Digital Communications, 2nd

ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007. ISBN-13 978-0-471-43222-7.
Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto)
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Communication Systems: Foundational Theories

I
Chapter 2: Fourier Representation of

Signals and Systems
Modulation Theory: piggy-back information-bearing signal on a

carrier signal
Detection Theory: estimating or detecting the
information-bearing signal in a reliable manner
Probability and Random Processes: model channel noise and
uncertainty at receiver
Fourier Analysis: view signal and system in another domain to
gain new insights
information
source
transmitter
receiver
information
consumption
channel
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The Fourier Transform (FT)
Energy Signals
I
G (f ) =
Z
g (t) =
g (t)e j2ft
The energy of a signal g (t) is given by:

Z
|g (t)|2 dt
G (f )e +j2ft
If g (t) represents a voltage or a current, then we say that this is

the energy of the signal across a 1 ohm resistor.
Why? Because a current i(t) or voltage v (t) exhibits the

following energy over a R ohm resistor.
Notation:
g (t)
G (f )
G (f ) = F [g (t)]
g (t) = F1 [G (f )]
E=
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Energy Signals and the Fourier Transform
v 2 (t)
dt
R
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FT Synthesis and Analysis Equations
G (f ) =
Practical physically realizable signals (e.g., energy signals) that obey:

Z
|g (t)|2 dt <
g (t) =
g (t)e j2ft
G (f )e +j2ft
g (t)
G (f )
have Fourier transforms.

I
i (t)Rdt =
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Since the FT is invertible both g (t) and G (f ) contain the

same information, but describe it in a different way.
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FT Synthesis Equation
e j2ft = cos(2ft) + j sin(2ft)

cos(2ft)
G (f )e j2ft dt
g (t) =
sin(2ft)
I
g (t) is the sum of scaled complex sinusoids
e j2ft = cos(2ft) + jsin(2ft)
complex sinusoid
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|G (f )| and G (f )
FT Analysis Equation
Z
G (f ) =
g (t)e
j2ft
dt
g (t) =
Z
=
G (f )e j2f t df
|G (f )|e j(2f t+G (f )) df
The analysis equation represents the inner product between g (t)

and e j2ft .
The analysis equation states that G (f ) is a measure of similarity
between g (t) and e j2ft , the complex sinusoid at frequency f Hz.
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|G (f )| dictates the relative presence of the sinusoid of frequency

f in g (t).
G (f ) dictates the relative alignment of the sinusoid of
frequency f in g (t).
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Low, Mid and High Frequency Signals
Importance of FT Theorems and Properties
Q: Which of the following signals appears higher in frequency?
The Fourier transform converts a signal or system representation

to the frequency-domain, which provides another way to
visualize a signal or system convenient for analysis and design.
The properties of the Fourier transform provide valuable insight

into how signal operations in the time-domain are described in
the frequency-domain.
1. cos(4 106 t + /3)

2. sin(2t + 10) + 17 cos2 (10t)
A: cos(4 106 t + /3).
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FT Theorems and Properties

Property/Theorem
Notation:
Linearity:
Dilation:
Conjugation:
Duality:
Time Shifting:
Frequency Shifting:
Area Under G (f ):
Area Under g (t):
Time Differentiation:
Time Integration :
Modulation Theorem:
Convolution Theorem:
Correlation Theorem:
Rayleighs Energy Theorem:
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Time-Bandwidth Product
Time Domain
g (t)
g1 (t)
g2 (t)
c1 g1 (t) + c2 g2 (t)
g (at)
g (t)
G (t)
g (t t0 )
e j2fc t g (t)
R g (0)
g (t)dt
d
g (t)
R t dt
g
( )d
R g1 (t)g2 (t)
g1 ( )g2 (t )
R
Rg1 (t)g2 (t )dt
2 dt
|g
(t)|
=
=
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Frequency Domain
G (f )
G1 (f )
G2 (f )
c1 G1 (f ) +c2G2 (f )
time-duration of a signal frequency bandwidth = constant
1
G fa
|a
G (f )
g (f )
G (f )e j2ft0
(f fc )
RG
G (f )df
G (0)
j2fG (f )
1
G (f )
j2f
R
G1 ()G2 (f )d
G1 (f )G2 (f )
G1 (f )G2 (f )
R
2
|G (f )| df
AT sinc(fT)
AT
Arect(t/T)
T larger
A
T /2
-T/2
-4/T
duration
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2/T
-2/T
-3/T
-1/T
1/T
4/T
3/T
null-to-null
bandwidth
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Time-Bandwidth Product
LTI Systems and Filtering

LTI System
time-duration of a signal frequency bandwidth = constant
impulse response
LTI System
the constant depends on the definitions of duration and

bandwidth and can change with the shape of signals being
considered
It can be shown that:

time-duration of a signal frequency bandwidth
with equality achieved for a Gaussian pulse.
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frequency response
For systems that are linear time-invariant (LTI), the Fourier transform
provides a decoupled description of the system operation on the input signal
much like when we diagonalize a matrix.
This provides a filtering perspective to how a linear time-invariant system

operates on an input signal.
The LTI system scales the sinusoidal component corresponding to frequency

f by H(f ) providing frequency selectivity.
1
4
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Dirac Delta Function
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I
Definition:
1. (t) = 0, t 6= 0
2. The area under (t) is
unity:
Z
(t)dt = 1
can be interpreted as the limiting case of a family of functions of

unit area but that become narrower and higher
all functions have

unit area
t
t
Note: (0) = undefined
T1
T2
T3
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T1
T2
T3
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The Fourier Transform and the Dirac Delta

(t)
1
1
e j2f0 t
e j2f1 t
e j2f1 t
+
2
2
e j2f1 t
e j2f1 t
sin(2f1 t) =
2j
2j
Sifting Property:
cos(2f1 t) =
g (t)(t t0 )dt = g (t0 )
(f )
(f f0 )
1
1
(f f1 ) + (f + f1 )
2
2
1
1
(f f1 ) (f + f1 )
2j
2j
cosine
Convolution with (t):
1
f1
1/2
t
g (t) ? (t t0 ) = g (t t0 )
1/2
f
-f1
sine
1
f1
0.5j
-f1
t
0
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f1
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Fourier Transforms of Periodic Signals
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g(t)
A
t
g (t) =
cn e
j2nf0 t
G (f ) =
n=
ck
cn (f nf0 )
n=
sinc
-5 -4 -3
-2 -1
-2
sinc
-5
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-4
-3
-1
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LTI System
Transmission of Signals Through Linear Systems
Transmission of Signals Through Linear Systems

impulse response
LTI System
LTI System
impulse response
frequency response
LTI System
frequency response
Time domain:
Freqeuncy domain:
Z
x(t)
X (f )
x( )h(t )d
y (t) = x(t) ? h(t) =
Y (f ) =
X (f )
freq selective system
y (t)
Y (f )
h(t)
H(f )
Causality: Rh(t) = 0 for t < 0
Stability: |h(t)|dt <
Y (f )
H(f ) X (f )
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Ideal Low-Pass Filters
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HLP (f ) =
H(f )
| {z }
e j2f t0 |f | B
0
|f | > B

STOPBAND
STOPBAND
PASSBAND
-B
B
-B
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hLP (t) = 2Bsinc(2B(t t0 ))
HLP (f ) =
e j2f t0
0
|f | B
|f | > B
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LTI Systems, Sinusoids and Ideal Lowpass Filtering

Q: Suppose the following signals are passed through an ideal lowpass filter with
cutoff frequency W such that f1 < W < f2 fc . What are the corresponding
outputs:
1. m(t) = sin(2f1 t + 4 )
hLP (t) = 2Bsinc(2B(t t0 ))
2. m(t) = sin(2f1 t + 4 ) + cos(2f2 t 5 )

3. m(t) = sin(2f1 t + 4 ) + cos(2fc t)
2B
4. s(t) = sin(2f1 t + 4 ) cos(2fc t)
t0
5. s(t) = sin(2f1 t + 4 ) sin(2fc t)
6. s(t) = sin(2f1 t + 4 ) + cos2 (2fc t)
1/B
Note: cos2 A =
A: 1. sin(2f1 t +
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1
2
cos(2A)
7. s(t) = sin(2f1 t + 4 ) cos2 (2fc t)

8. s(t) = sin(2f1 t + 4 ) cos(2fc t) sin(2fc t)
Note: sin A cos B =
1
2
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1
2
sin(A + B)
1
2
),
4
sin(B A)
2. sin(2f1 t + 4 ), 3. sin(2f1 t + 4 ), 4. 0,
6. sin(2f1 t + 4 ) + 12 , 7. 12 sin(2f1 t + 4 ),
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5. 0,
8. 0.
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Modulation
I
Modulation: to adjust or adapt to a certain proportion

I
Used to superimpose one signal onto another.
Chapter 3: Amplitude Modulation

I
In modulation need two things:

1. a modulated signal that is changed:
carrier signal: c(t)
2. a modulating signal that dictates how to change:
message signal: m(t)
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Amplitude Modulation
I
Three types studied:
In modulation need two things:

1. a modulated signal: carrier signal: c(t)
2. a modulating signal: message signal: m(t)
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

I
(yes, it has the same name as the class of modulation techniques)
carrier:
I
c(t) = Ac cos(2fc t); phase c = 0 is assumed.
2. Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)

I
message:
I
I
m(t) (information-bearing signal)

assume bandwidth/max freq of m(t) is W
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3. Single Sideband (SSB)
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Amplitude Modulation (the specific technique)
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sAM (t) = Ac [1 + ka m(t)] cos(2fc t)

% Modulation = 100 max(ka m(t))
Suppose
I |ka m(t)| < 1 (% Modulation < 100%)
I
[1 + ka m(t)] > 0, so the envelope of sAM (t) is always positive;

no phase reversal
+
Output
-
AM +
wave -
fc W
I
the movement of the message is much slower than the sinusoid
Then, m(t) can be recovered with an envelope detector.

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Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier

= Ac cos(2fc t) +ka Ac m(t) cos(2fc t)
|
{z
}
|
{z
}
excess energy
message-bearing signal
sDSB (t) = Ac m(t) cos(2fc t)
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Transmitting only the message-bearing component of the AM

signal, requires more a complex (coherent) receiver system.
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sDSB (t) = Ac m(t) cos(2fc t)
SAM(f )
f
2W
2W
SDSB(f )
f
2W
2W
SUSSB(f )
upper SSB
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carrier
carrier
message
message
amplitude
modulation
amplitude
modulation
DSB-SC
DSB-SC
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carrier
message
An envelope detector will not be able to recover m(t); it will

instead recover |m(t)|.
Coherent demodulation is required.

s(t)
amplitude
modulation
Low-pass
filter
v0 (t)
Demodulated
Signal
Local
Oscillaor
DSB-SC
Product
Modulator
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Costas Receiver
Costas Receiver
I-Channel (in-phase coherent detector)
Coherent Demodulation
Demodulated
Signal
Low-pass
filter
Product
Modulator
v0 (t)
local oscillator output

Voltage-controlled
Oscillator
Product
Modulator
Phase
Discriminator
Demodulated
Signal
Low-pass
filter
Voltage-controlled
Oscillator
DSB-SC wave
Phase
Discriminator
DSB-SC wave
-90 degree
Phase Shifter
Product
Modulator
-90 degree
Phase Shifter
Low-pass
Filter
Product
Modulator
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vQ(t)
Low-pass
Filter
Q-Channel (quadrature-phase coherent detector)
Circuit for Phase Locking
vI (t)
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Multiplexing and QAM
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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

s(t) = Ac m1 (t) cos(2fc t) + Ac m2 (t) sin(2fc t)
Multiplexing: to send multiple message simultaneously

Low-pass
filter
Product
Modulator
Quadrature Amplitude Multiplexing (QAM): (a.k.a quadrature-carrier

multiplexing) amplitude modulation scheme that enables two
DSB-SC waves with independent message signals to occupy the same
channel bandwidth (i.e., same frequency channel) yet still be
separated at the receiver.
Multiplexed
Signal
-90 degree
Phase Shifter
Product
Modulator
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Low-pass
Filter
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SDSB(f )
Suppose m1 (t) and m2 (t) are two message signals both of

bandwidth W .
QAM allows two messages to be communicated within
bandwidth 2W .
2W
2W
SQAM(f )
f
2W
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2W
SUSSB(f )
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upper SSB
f
W
Is there another way to gain this bandwidth efficiency?
Single Sideband
S LSSB(f )
lower SSB
Modulation:
SQAM(f )
Ac
Ac
m(t) cos(2fc t) m(t)
sin(2fc t)
2
2
W
W
sSSB (t) =
f
2W
2W
where
I the negative (positive) applies to upper SSB (lower SSB)
I m(t)
is the Hilbert transform of m(t)
SUSSB(f )
upper SSB
lower SSB
f
W
M(f )
S LSSB(f )
lower SSB
W
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M(f )
m(t)
h(t) = 1/( t)
m(t)
H(f )
j
upper SSB
f
H(f ) = -j sgn(f )
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-j
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Single Sideband
Single Sideband
Modulation:
sSSB (t) =
m(t)
Ac
Ac
m(t) cos(2fc t) m(t)
sin(2fc t)
2
2
s(t)
s(t)
Band-pass
filter
Product
Modulator
Coherent Demodulation:
v0 (t)
Low-pass
filter
Product
Modulator
Demodulated
Signal
Local
Oscillaor
HBP(f )
upper SSB
lower SSB
lower SSB
-fc
fc
Note: Costas receiver will work for SSB demodulation.
upper SSB
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Comparisons of Amplitude Modulation Techniques
AM:
DSB-SC:
sAM (t)
= Ac [1 + ka m(t)] cos(2fc t)
Ac
ka Ac
SAM (f ) =
[(f fc ) + (f + fc )] +
[M(f fc ) + M(f + fc )]
2
2
SAM(f )
sDSB (t)
SDSB (f )
2W
SAM(f )
= Ac cos(2fc t)m(t)
Ac
=
[M(f fc ) + M(f + fc )]
2
2W
SDSB(f )
f
2W
2W
2W
highest power
BT = 2W
2W
lowest complexity
f
2W
SUSSB(f )
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2W
SUSSB(f )
SDSB(f )
I
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lower power
BT = 2W
higher complexity
f
W
W
S LSSB(f )
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SDSB(f )

f
SSB:
2W
2W
SUSSB(f )
SSB:
upper SSB
Ac
Ac
m(t) cos(2fc t)
m(t)
sin(2fc t)
2
2
A
c
2 [M(f fc ) + M(f + fc )] |f | fc
SUSSB (f ) =
0
|f | < fc
Ac
Ac
sLSSB (t) =
m(t) cos(2fc t) +
m(t)
sin(2fc t)
2
2

0
|f | > fc
SLSSB (f ) =
Ac
[M(f
f
)
+
M(f
+
f
)]
|f
| fc
c
c
2
sUSSB (t)
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W
S LSSB(f )
lower SSB
f
W
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lowest power
BT = W
highest complexity
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Angle Modulation
I
c(t) = Ac cos(2fc t + c ) = Ac cos(i (t))

| {z }
Chapter 4: Angle Modulation
angle
i (t) = 2fc t + c = 2fc t for c = 0

1 di (t)
fi (t) =
= fc
2 dt
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Consider a sinusoidal carrier:
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Angle modulation: the message signal m(t) is piggy-backed on

i (t) in some way.
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Angle Modulation
I
PM vs. FM
Phase Modulation (PM):

i (t)
= 2fc t + kp m(t)
1 di (t)
kp dm(t)
fi (t) =
= fc +
2 dt
2 dt
sPM (t) = Ac cos[2fc t + kp m(t)]
sPM (t)
sFM (t)
Ac cos[2fc t + kp m(t)]

Z t
Ac cos 2fc t + 2kf
m( )d
0
dg (t)
Ac cos[2fc t + kp
]
dt
Ac cos [2fc t + 2kf g (t)]
sPM (t) =
sFM (t) =
Frequency Modulation (FM):

Z
i (t) = 2fc t + 2kf
m( )d
0
fi (t)
sFM (t)
1 di (t)
= fc + kf m(t)
2 dt

Z t
Ac cos 2fc t + 2kf
m( )d
0
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Modulating
wave
Integrator
Phase
Modulator
FM
wave
Modulating
wave
Differentiator
Frequency
Modulator
PM
wave
carrier
carrier
message
message
amplitude
modulation
amplitude
modulation
phase
modulation
phase
modulation
frequency
modulation
frequency
modulation
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Angle Modulation
carrier
m(t)
message
Integrator
Phase
Modulator
sFM(t)
Differentiator
Frequency
Modulator
sPM(t)
amplitude
modulation
m(t)
phase
modulation
frequency
modulation
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Properties of Angle Modulation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Constancy of Transmitted Power: PM
Constancy of transmitted power

Nonlinearity of angle modulation
Irregularity of zero-crossings
Difficulty in visualizing message
Bandwidth versus noise trade-off
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Constancy of Transmitted Power: FM
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Constancy of Transmitted Power: AM
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Nonlinearity of Angle Modulation
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Irregularity of Zero-Crossings
Consider PM (proof also holds for FM).

I
Suppose
s1 (t)
Ac cos [2fc t + kp m1 (t)]
s2 (t)
Ac cos [2fc t + kp m2 (t)]

I
Let m3 (t) = m1 (t) + m2 (t).
s3 (t)
Zero-crossing: instants of time at which waveform changes

amplitude from positive to negative or vice versa.
= Ac cos [2fc t + kp (m1 (t) + m2 (t))]

6= s1 (t) + s2 (t)
cos(2fc t + A + B) 6= cos(2fc t + A) + cos(2fc t + B)
Therefore, angle modulation is nonlinear.

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Zero-Crossings: PM
Zero-Crossings: FM
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Zero-Crossings: AM
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Difficulty of Visualizing Message
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Visualization of a message refers to the ability to glean insights

about the shape of m(t) from the modulated signal s(t).
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Visualization: PM
Visualization: FM
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Visualization: AM
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Bandwidth vs. Noise Trade-Off
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Noise affects the message signal piggy-backed as amplitude

modulation more than it does when piggy-backed as angle
modulation.
The more bandwidth that the angle modulated signal takes,

typically the more robust it is to noise.
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AM vs. FM
carrier
I
message
I
amplitude
modulation
AM is an older technology first successfully carried out in the

mid 1870s than FM was developed in the 1930s (by Edwin
Armstrong).
FM has better performance than AM because it is less
susceptible to noise.
FM takes up more transmission bandwidth than AM; Recall,
BT ,FM = 2f + 2fm
phase
modulation
vs.
BT ,AM = 2W or W
AM is lower complexity than FM.
frequency
modulation
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Narrow Band Frequency Modulation

I
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Narrowband FM
Modulation:
Suppose m(t) = Am cos(2fm t).
fi (t) =
sFM (t) Ac cos(2fc t) Ac sin(2fc t) sin(2fm t)

|
{z
}
|
{z
} | {z }
fc + kf Am cos(2fm t) = fc + f cos(2fm t)
carrier
= kf Am frequency deviation
Z t
i (t) = 2
fi ( )d
f
90o shift of carrier
2fm
Am
Rt
0
{z
DSB-SC signal
m( )d
= 2fc t +
f
sin(2fm t) = 2fc t + sin(2fm t)
fm
Modulating
wave
f
fm
sFM (t) = Ac cos [2fc t + sin(2fm t)]
Integrator
Product
Modulator
-90 degree
Phase Shifter
For narrow band FM, 1.

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Narrow-band
FM wave
carrier
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Transmission Bandwidth of FM Waves
Generation of FM Waves
A significant component of the FM signal is within the following

bandwidth:

1
BT 2f + 2fm = 2f 1 +
I
I
I
I
I
Narrowband FM modulator
m(t)
called Carsons Rule

f is the deviation of the instantaneous frequency
fm can be considered to be the maximum frequency of the
message signal
s(t)
Frequency
Multiplier
s(t)
wideband
FM wave
Crystal
Controlled frequency is
Oscillator very stable
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Demodulation of FM Waves
d
dt
Narrow band
Modulator
For 1, BT 2f = 2kf Am
For 1, BT 2f 1 = f2f
= 2fm
/fm
Integrator
Ideal Envelope
Detector
Frequency Discriminator: uses positive and negative slope

circuits in place of a differentiator, which is hard to implement
across a wide bandwidth
Phase Lock Loop: tracks the angle of the in-coming FM wave
which allows tracking of the embedded message
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Test 1 Review: Chapter 2: Fourier Representation of Signals and Systems

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Test 1 Review: Chapter 2: Fourier Representation of Signals and Systems

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Test 1 Review

Professor Deepa Kundur

S. Haykin and M. Moher, Introduction to Analog & Digital Communications, 2nd

Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto)

Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto)

Communication Systems: Foundational Theories

Chapter 2: Fourier Representation of

Modulation Theory: piggy-back information-bearing signal on a

Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto)

Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto)

The Fourier Transform (FT)

The energy of a signal g (t) is given by:

If g (t) represents a voltage or a current, then we say that this is

Why? Because a current i(t) or voltage v (t) exhibits the

Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto)

Energy Signals and the Fourier Transform

Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto)

FT Synthesis and Analysis Equations

Practical physically realizable signals (e.g., energy signals) that obey:

have Fourier transforms.

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Since the FT is invertible both g (t) and G (f ) contain the

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e j2ft = cos(2ft) + j sin(2ft)

g (t) is the sum of scaled complex sinusoids

e j2ft = cos(2ft) + jsin(2ft)

Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto)

Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto)

The analysis equation represents the inner product between g (t)

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|G (f )| dictates the relative presence of the sinusoid of frequency

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Low, Mid and High Frequency Signals

Importance of FT Theorems and Properties

Q: Which of the following signals appears higher in frequency?

The Fourier transform converts a signal or system representation

The properties of the Fourier transform provide valuable insight

1. cos(4 106 t + /3)

A: cos(4 106 t + /3).

Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto)

FT Theorems and Properties

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Rg1 (t)g2 (t )dt

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time-duration of a signal frequency bandwidth = constant

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LTI Systems and Filtering

time-duration of a signal frequency bandwidth = constant

the constant depends on the definitions of duration and

It can be shown that:

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This provides a filtering perspective to how a linear time-invariant system

The LTI system scales the sinusoidal component corresponding to frequency

Dirac Delta Function

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Dirac Delta Function

can be interpreted as the limiting case of a family of functions of

all functions have

Note: (0) = undefined

Professor Deepa Kundur (University of Toronto)

Dirac Delta Function

The Fourier Transform and the Dirac Delta

g (t)(t t0 )dt = g (t0 )