UNIT 4

INFINITE SERIES

Unit Structure

4.0

Overview

4.1

Distinguish between sequences and series

4.2

Sequences

4.3

Series
4.3.1

Convergence and divergence

4.3.1.1 The partial sum criterion
4.3.1.2 Geometric Series
4.3.1.3 Divergent Series
4.3.1.4 The Nth - Term Test for Divergence
4.3.1.5 The p-Series test
4.3.1.6 Comparison Test for Convergence
4.3.1.7 Limit Comparison Test
4.3.1.8 The Ratio Test

4.4

Strategies for Series

4.5

Power Series

4.6

Taylor Series and MacLaurin Series

4.6.1 Taylor Theorem

4.6.2 Taylors Formula for Functions of Two Variables
4.7

Summary

4.8

Answers to Activities

4.0 OVERVIEW

In this chapter we study sequences and infinite series. Series play an important role in the
field of ordinary differential equations and without series large portions of the field of
partial differential equations would not be possible.

4.1

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Sequences? Series? Avoid the mess !!!!!!!!

A sequence is a list of
numbers written in a
specific order
whereas a series is the
summation of a list of
numbers or sequence.

No need to
bother,
Same Stuff!

Wrong !

Right!

Sequences
General sequence terms are denoted as follows,
{a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , K, a k , K}
In the notation above we must be cautious with the subscripts. The subscript of n+1
denotes the next term in the sequence and NOT one plus the nth term! In other words,
a n +1 a n + 1
So, when writing subscripts to make sure that the +1 does not migrate out of the
subscript!

Series
Consider a sequence

{a n }n = 1 = {a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , K, a k , K}

and then add up all the terms of the sequence, so as to get a series :

a1 + a 2 + a 3 + K + a k + K = a n .
n =1

Thus, as mentioned previously, a series is the summation of a list of numbers or

sequence. Since we started out with an infinite sequence we sum up an infinite list of
numbers. Because of this the series above is sometimes called an infinite series. The n is
often called an index of summation or just index for short.
Examples of sequences are :

n + 1
3 4 5 6

2 = 2, , , , , K ,
n n = 1 4 9 16 25

( 1)n + 1
1 1 1 1

= - 1, , , , , K
n

2
n = 0 2 4 8 16
and

{b n }n = 1 , where b n = n t h digit of
Remark :
in the first two series, to get the first few terms, we need to plug in values of
n into the corresponding formula. This sequence is different from the
first two in the sense that it does not have a specific formula for each term.
However, it does tell us what each term should be. Each nth term should be the
nthdigit of . We know that = 3.14159265359 The sequence is then

{3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5, 3, 5, 9, K}

4.2

SEQUENCES

Definitions
1.

We say that

lim a n = L

if we can make a n as close to L as we want for all sufficiently large n. In other

words, the value of the a n s approach L as n approaches infinity.
2.

We say that

lim a n =
n

if we can make a n as large as we want for all sufficiently large n. That is, the
value of the a n s get larger and larger without bound as n approaches infinity.
3.

We say that
lim a n = -
n

if we can make a n as negative as we want for all sufficiently large n. That is, the
value of the a n s get negative and larger without bound as n approaches infinity.
4.

If lim a n exists and is finite we say that the sequence is convergent. If lim a n
n

does not exist or is infinite we say the sequence diverges.

Next we investigate how to find the limits of sequences. We will use the
following theorems and facts.
Theorem 1

Given the sequence {a n } if we have a function f (x ) such that f (n ) = a n and

lim f (x ) = L then lim a n = L .
x

This theorem basically tells us that we take the limits of sequences much like we
take the limit of functions.

Theorem 2

If lim a n = 0 then lim a n = 0

n

This theorem is convenient for sequences that alternate in signs and note that it
will only work if the sequence has a limit of zero.
Theorem 3

{ }

The sequence r n
Also,

n =1

converges if 1 < r 1 and diverges for all other value of r.

0 if - 1 < r < 1

lim r =
n
1 if r = 1

Note that the sequence in this theorem will converge for r = 1and diverge for r = -1

Theorem 4 (also known as the squeeze theorem)

Suppose that {an}, {bn} and {cn} are sequences such that
1.

an bn cn for all n greater than some positive integer N,

and

2.

lim a n = lim c n = L

then
lim b n = L

Facts
Let {an} and {bn} be convergent sequences and let c be a real number. Then
lim (a n + b n ) = lim a n + lim b n

lim c a n = c lim a n

lim (a n b n ) = lim a n

) (lim b )
n

lim a n
an
= n , provided lim b n 0
n
n b
lim b n
n
lim

Example 1.
Determine if the following sequences converge or diverge. If the sequence
converges then determine its limit.

(a)

3 n2 1

2
2
10 n + 5 n n = 2

(b)

e2 n

n n =1

(c)

(- 1)n

n n =1

Solution

(a)

We factorize the largest power of n from the numerator and denominator and then
take the limit. Thus, we get
3 n2 1
n 10 n + 5 n 2

lim

1
n 2 3 2
3 2
n
= lim
n
= lim
n
n 10
10

+5
+ 5
n2
n
n

=
(b)

3
5

Using Theorem 1,
e2 x
e2 n
= lim
,
n n
x x
Applying LHopitals rule, we get
lim

2 e2 x
e2 x
= lim
=
x x
x
1
lim

So, the sequence diverges.

(c )

Using Theorem 2,
lim

(- 1)n

= lim

(- 1)n
n

and the right hand side of the latter equation can be written as lim

is obviously zero. Therefore, lim

(- 1)n
n

1
. This limit
n

= 0 and hence the corresponding sequence

converges to zero.

Example 2

Find the following limits

(- 1)n
lim
(a)
n
n
cos(n)

(b)

lim

(c)

{(- 1) }

n
n =1

Solution

(a)

This sequence converges to zero by Theorem 2.

(b)

Recall that

1 cos (n ) 1 ,

for all integers n. Hence,

1
n

Since lim

(c)

1
n

= lim

1
n

cos (n )

1
n

= 0 , applying Theorem 4, lim cos (n ) = 0

n

By Theorem 3, this sequence converges to 1 .

Activity 1

Find the limit of the following converging sequence :

(a)

n
( 0 and 0 )
1 +
n

n =1

(b)

n 2 n

n n = 1

4.3

SERIES

4.3.1 CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE

4.3.1.1

THE PARTIAL SUM CRITERION

{ }j = 1 = {S1 , S2 , S3 , K, Sk , K, } ,

Consider the following sequence S j

k

where S k =

a n = a1 + a 2 + a 3 + K + a k .

n =1

{ }j =1 is said to be a sequence of partial sums of the infinite series :

The sequence S j

a n = a1 + a 2 + a 3 + K + a k + K

n =1

If the sequence of partial sums is convergent and if we define, lim S k = S , then

k

an =S

n =1

If the sequence of partial sums is divergent (i.e. either the limit does not exist or is
infinite)
then we call the series divergent.

4.3.1.2

GEOMETRIC SERIES

A geometric series may be written in the form

a r

and its partial sum can be written

n=0

a (1 - r n )
Sn =
.
1 r
We now discuss the convergence of a geometric series based on the magnitude of the
common ratio r. The series will converge provided the partial sums form a convergent
sequence. We therefore take the limit of the partial sum, which can be written as follows :
Sn =

a (1 - r n )
a a rn
=
,
1 r
1 r 1 r

so that ,
a
a rn
- lim
n 1 r n 1 r

lim S n = lim

a
a
lim r n .
n
1 r 1 r

Now, from Theorem 3 we know that the above limit will exist and be finite provided
-1 < r < 1. ( r can not be 1 since this leads to division by zero.)Therefore,
a
.
lim S n =
n
1 r
Hence, a geometric series will converge if -1 < r < 1 or r < 1

Example 3
Determine the convergence of the following series.
2n + 7n
9 n
n = 0

(a)

(b)

4 n e -2 n

n=0

(c )

n=0

6
6

4 n -1 4 n + 3

10

Solution
(a)

We express the series as the sum of two geometric series which are convergent.
Hence, the series is convergent. (The sum of two convergent series is also a
convergent one.)

2n + 7 n

9n
n = 0

(b)

-2 n

n=0

(c )

Sn =

k =0

n
2 n
7
=
+

9
n = 0 9
n=0

1
1
+
2
7
119
9

4
1
=
=
, which is a convergent geometric series.
2
4
1n = 0 e
e2

6
6

is series is a telescoping series with partial sums:

4 k -1 4 k + 3

6
6 6
6
6
6
6 6 6
6

Sn = - + - +
+K+
+
4 n + 3 4 (n + 1) - 1
4 (n + 1) + 3
3 7 7 11 11 16
4 n -1
Thus, every term except the first and last term canceled out. This is the origin of
the name telescoping series.

Sn = 2 -

6
4n+3

We determine the convergence of this series by taking the limit of the partial
sums:

lim S n = lim 2 =2
n
n
4 n + 3
The sequence of partial sums is convergent and so the series is convergent and has
a value of 2. That is,

k =0

6
6

=2
4 k -1 4 k + 3

11

Activity 2
Determine the convergence of the following series.

(a)

n=0

(b)

n=0

(c)

n +3n + 2

n +4n+3

n 2 + 4 n + 3

n=0

- 7 n e -5 n

12

4.3.1.3 DIVERGENT SERIES

Geometric series with r 1 are not the only series to diverge.

The series

n is known as the Harmonic Series and this series diverges to

1

n =1

We show graphically that the series is divergent.

1
Consider the graph of y =
on the interval [1 , ) as shown in Fig. 1.
x

y =1
y=1
2
y=1
3

2 3

y=1
N

N N+ 1

Figure 1

The partial sum

N

SN =

n = 1 + 2 + 3 + .... + N
1

n =1

= sum of areas of shaded rectangles

1
area under curve y = from 1 to N+1
x
N +1

1
dx = [ln x ]1N +1
x
= ln(N + 1) ln1 = ln(N + 1).

We find that S N ln(N + 1)

13

Since ln(N + 1) + as N +, we find that

lim S N =

N +

ln (N + 1) = +
n Nlim
+
1

n =1

Since the sequence of partial sums {S N } diverges, the Harmonic Series is a divergent
series.

4.3.1.4

THE NTH - TERM TEST FOR DIVERGENCE

If lim u n 0 or if lim u n fails to exist, then

n

un

diverges.

n =1

This test only says that a series is guaranteed to diverge if the series terms do not go to
zero in the limit. If the series terms do happen to go to zero the series may or may not
converge!

The condition that if

un

converges, then lim u n = 0 is thus a Necessary

n

n =1

condition for convergence and not sufficient condition for the series

un

to converge.

n =1

To see that lim u n = 0 is not a sufficient condition for convergence, we consider the
n +

Harmonic Series

n .
1

n =1

1
We have lim = 0 , but the series
n + n

n diverges.
1

n =1

Example 4
Determine the convergence of the following series.

(a)

1 + 2n
n =1

(b)

n + 1 , for 0
n =1

(c)

1- 2n

n sin n
1

n =1

14

Solution

(a)
(b)

1- 2

Since lim
= lim
n 1 + 2 n n

1
n

2
1

2n

- 1
= 1, the series diverges by the nth term test.

+1

By division, we get
1

n + 1

n
1
n +

-1

Therefore
1

n
1
= lim
lim
n n + 1 n n + 1

1
1
since
0 as n .

n +1

Using the nth - Term Test for divergence,

0.
n + 1 diverges since nlim
n + 1

n =1

(c)

1
sin
1
n ,
lim n sin = lim
1
n
n n
n

applying LHopitals rule, we obtain

-1
1
1
sin
cos
n = lim n 2
n =1
lim
1
-1
n
n
n
n2

Hence, the series diverges.

15

Activity 3

(a)

Determine the convergence of the following series.

4 n2 - n3

10 + 2 n 3
n =1

(b)

Consider the following series :

n +1 n

x
2 n + 3

n =1

(i)
1.

Using the nth-term test for divergence, show that the series diverges when x =

(ii)

Can you use the same test to conclude about the nature of the series with x < 1 ?
Justify your answer.

(c)

n =1

5n
7 n2 + 6

(d)

n 7

n =1

4.3.1.5 THE P-SERIES TEST

Theorem 5

If p is a real constant, the series

np
1

converges if p>1 and

n =1

diverges if p 1.

16

4.3.1.6 COMPARISON TEST FOR CONVERGENCE

Let

un

n =1

(a)

be a series such that u n > 0 for all n .

Test for Convergence

Suppose 0 < u n v n for all n > n 0 where n 0 is some positive integer. If

v n converges, then

n =1

(b)

un

converges.

n =1

Test for Divergence

Suppose 0 < v n u n for all n > n 0 . If

vn

n =1

diverges, then

un

diverges.

n =1

In other words, we have two series of positive terms and the terms of one of the series is
always larger than the terms of the other series. If the larger series is convergent
then the smaller series must also be convergent. Likewise, if the smaller series is
divergent
then the larger series must also be divergent.
Do not misuse this test. Just because the smaller of the two series converges does not say
anything about the larger series. The larger series may still diverge. Likewise, just
because we know that the larger of two series diverges we can not say that the smaller
series will also diverge!
Example 5
Determine if the following series converge or diverge.

(a)

n 2 cos 2 (n )
n

n =1

(b)

n2 + 3

n4 + 5
n =1

17

Solution

(a)

For n large,

Further,

n
n cos (n )
2

1
n
1
and also, 2
> .
2
n
n
n cos (n )

is a harmonic series and is therefore divergent. Hence, by the

n =1

comparison test,

n 2 cos 2 (n ) diverges (or by theorem 5 , the p-series test).

n

n =1

(b)

Observe that

n2 + 3
4

n +5

<

n2 + 3
n

and

n =1

n2 + 3
n

n2 + n4 .
n =1

n =1

Thus, we can write the series as a sum of two series and both of these series are

convergent by the p-series test. Since

n2 + 3

4
n =1 n

is the sum of two convergent series, it is

therefore convergent.
Further, the terms of this series are larger than the terms of the original series. By the
Comparison Test, we conclude that the original series must also be convergent.
Activity 4

Use the Comparison Test to establish the convergence or divergence of each of the
following series.
(a)

1 1 1 1
1
+ + +
+
+K
3 5 9 17 33

(b)

n3 + 4 n2 + 5
1

n =1

18

4.3.1.7

Limit Comparison Test

un
=L .
n v n

Suppose that u n > 0 and v n > 0 for all n > 0 and that lim
(i) If 0 < L < , then the two series

n =1

n =1

u n and v n either both converge or both

diverge.

(ii) If L = 0 and

v n converges, then

n =1

(iii) If L= and

n =1

also converges.

n =1

un

v n diverges, then

u n also diverges.
n =1

No conclusion can be reached otherwise.

Example 6

Use the limit Comparison Test to establish the convergence or divergence of each of the
following series.

(a)

5n

7n n
n =1

(b)

ln n
1

n =2

(c)

n3

n4 + n
n =1

(d)

n+ n

1+ n2
n =1

19

(a)

7 n . Note that

We compare the series with

5n

n =1

lim

7 n - n = lim

5n

7n

7n
7n - n

The latter limit is clearly an indeterminate case and we therefore use LHopitals
rule to simplify it.
7n

lim

7n - n

= lim

7 n ln 7
7 n ln 7 - 1

Since we get another indeterminate case, we apply LHopitals rule again to

obtain
lim

7 n ln 7

= lim

7 n (ln 7 )2

7 n ln 7 - 1 n 7 n (ln 7 )2

= 1.

So that,
5n
lim

5n

7n

7 n - n = 1.

5n

7n

is a convergent geometric series and therefore, by the limit comparison

n =1

test,

5n

7n n

is convergent.

n =1

(b)

We compare the series with

n.
1

The ratio of the general terms for large n is

n =2

given by
1

ln n = lim n .
1
n
n ln n
n
lim

1
Using LHopitals rule, we get lim

(c)

For

large

un
n3
=
vn n 4 + n

n,

un =

n3
n4 + n

ln n = lim n = lim n = .
1
n ln n n
n

behaves

like

1
vn = .
n

v n diverges

and

n =1

n3
1
n4
1
1 > 0 as n . Hence,
diverges.
=
=
4
1
n n4 + n
n
+
n
1+
n =1
n3

20

(d)

n+ n

For large n, u n =
u
test0 . n =
vn

1+
1+

1+ n

behaves as v n =

1
n

12

32

n+ n

1+ n2
n =1

n5 2

converges (p-series

n =1

1 > 0 as n . Hence,

n3 2
n

converges.

Activity 5

Use the limit comparison test to determine the convergence of the series

(a)

1
n2 +1

n =2

(b)

n =1

n -1
1

Hint : Compare it with

n =1

1
n

1
n
e - 1

n =1

(c)

( Hint : compare it with

n.
1

n =1

Indeed, for large n, the MacLaurin series of

term

1
2 n2

(d)

n =1

sin

1
n
e

-1

1
1
. We neglect the
+
n 2 n2

1
n2

21

4.3.1.8

THE RATIO TEST

Let

un

u n +1
=L .
n u n

be a series with u n > 0 and suppose that lim

n =1

Then the series

(a)
(b)
(c)

converges if L < 1
diverges if L > 1.
may converge or it may diverge if L = 1.

Example 7

(a)

3n
Consider the series 2 .
n =1 n

Solution

Here
un =

3n
n2

and u n +1 =

3 n +1

(n + 1)2

u n +1
3 n +1
3n 2
3 n +1
n2 =
=
=
un
(n + 1)2 (n + 1)2 .3 n
(n + 1)2
3n
n2

3n 2

n 2 + 2n + 1
3
=
2
1
1+ +
n n2

Now,
U
3
lim n +1 = lim
n U n
n
2
1
1 + +
n n2

= 3. Since L = 3 > 1, the series

3n

n2

diverges.

n =1

22

(b) Next, consider the series

Solution
We have u n

(
n ! )2
=
(2n )!

u n +1 =

(n ! )2

n =1 (2n )!

and we simplify U n+1 to obtain

((n + 1)!)2 = (n + 1)! (n + 1)!

(2n + 2)!
(2(n + 1))!
=

n!(n + 1) n ! (n + 1)
(2n + 2)(2n + 1)(2n )!

(n !)2 (n + 1)2
(2n )! (2n + 2)(2n + 1)

= un
Thus

(n + 1)2
2(n + 1)(2n + 1)

u n +1
(n + 1) after simplification.
=
un
2(2n + 1)

We then find that

1
1+
u n +1
n +1
n
lim
= lim
= lim
2
n u n
n 4n + 2 n
4+
n
1
= .
4

Here

L=

(n !) converges.
1
< 1 , thus
4
n =1 (2n )!

Next, consider the series

n =1

1
and
n

n2 .
1

n =1

23

We apply the Ratio-Test to both series:

1
U n +1
1
for
, we have lim
= lim n + 1
n
n U n
n 1
n =1
n
n
= lim
n n + 1
1
= lim
1
n
1+
n

=1.

No conclusion can be reached by the Ratio-Test.

However, we know that

n =1

diverges.
1

For

n2
1

u n +1
(n + 1)2
= lim
1
n
n u n
n2

, we have lim

n =1

= lim

n2

(n + 1)2

=1

The Ratio-Test provides no information in this case also. But, we have seen that

n2
1

n =1

is a convergent p-series with p = 2.

u n +1
= 1 , the series
n u n

Thus, we have shown that when lim

un

may either converge or

n =1

diverge.
Activity 6

Do the following series converge or diverge?

(a)

2 n n!
n =1

(b)

n4

2n
n =1

(c)

n =1

2 n

n e

(d)

n3

n!

n =1

24

4.4

STRATEGIES FOR SERIES

Here is a general set of guidelines to help you determine the convergence of a series.
Note that these are a general set of guidelines and because some series can have more
than one test applied to them, we will get a different result depending on the path that we
take through this set of guidelines.
1.

With a quick glance does it look like the series terms do not converge to zero in
the limit, i.e. does lim u n 0 ? If so, use the Divergence Test. Note that you
n

should only do the divergence test if a quick glance suggests that the series terms
may not converge to zero in the limit.
2.

Is it a p-series,

n
n =1

or a geometric series

a r

? If so, then p-series converge

n=0

for p > 1 and a geometric series converges if r < 1 .

3.

Does the series behave as a p-series or a geometric series for large values of n? If
so, use the comparison test.

4.

Is the series a rational expression involving only polynomials or polynomials

under radicals (i.e. a fraction involving only polynomials or polynomials under
radicals)? If so, try the Comparison Test or the Limit Comparison Test.

5.

Does the series contain factorials or constants raised to powers involving n? If so,
then the Ratio Test may work. Note that if the series term contains a factorial then
very often, the most suitable test is the Ratio Test.

25

4.5

POWER SERIES

When studying infinite series, we have given some tests to determine whether a given
series converges or not. In this section, we study infinite polynomials called Power
Series.
Definition

A power series is a series of the form

c ( x a)

n=0

= c0 + c1 ( x a ) + c2 ( x a ) + c3 ( x a ) + ... + cn ( x a ) + ...
2

in which the center a and the coefficients c0 , c1 , c2 ,...,cn ,... are constants.

Example 11

The geometric power series with center 0 is given by

= 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ...+ x n + ...

n=0

The power series converges to

1
when x < 1.
1 x

Example 12
1
1
2
1
The power series 1 ( x 1) + ( x 1) + ...+
3
3
9

( x 1) n +...

1
has center a = 1 and cn = .
3

26

1
1
1
( x 1) + ( x 1) 2 + ...+ ( x 1) n +... in the form
3
9
3
, we find that for a fixed value x, the series is a geometric series.

Expressing 1

3
n= 0

( x 1) n

Thus the series converges provided the common ratio r satisfies r < 1.
Here r =

1
( x 1) , and hence there is convergence when
3

1
( x 1) < 1 , that is, for -2 < x < 4 ,
3

and the sum is given by

1
1

1
( x 1)
3

3
3
=
3 + ( x 1) x + 2

Thus we can write

3
1
1
2
1
= 1 ( x 1) + ( x 1) + ...+
3
2+x
3
9

We find that the function

( x 1) n +...

for -2 < x < 4 .

3
can be expressed as a power series for 2 < x < 4.
2+x

27

4.6

TAYLOR SERIES AND MACLAURIN SERIES

One of the most important theorems in Calculus is Taylors Theorem. This theorem
provides an estimate for the error involved when a function f ( x) is approximated near
the point x = a by the polynomial of degree n in (x - a) which best describes the behavior
of the function f ( x) near that point.

4.6.1 TAYLORS THEOREM

Let f have continuous derivatives up to, and including order n + 1 on some interval
containing the point x = a . Then, if x is any other point in the interval, f(x) can be
expressed in the form
f ( x) = Pn ( x) + R n +1 ( x)
where

Pn ( x ) = f ( a ) + ( x a ) f ' ( a ) +

and

( x a ) n +1
R n +1 ( x ) =
(n + 1) !

n +1

( x a) 2
2!

( )

f " ( a ) +...+

( x a) n
n!

f n ( a)

where a < < x

Pn ( x ) is called the Taylor polynomial of order n generated by f at a and Rn+1 ( x ) is the

remainder term.

Example 13
Find the Taylor polynomial of order 3 generated by f ( x ) =

1
about x = 1. Write down
x

the remainder term.

28

Solution
Here a = 1 and the Taylor polynomial of order 3 is given by
( x 1) 2 "
( x 1) 3 3
P ( x ) = f (1) + ( x 1) f ' (1) +
f (1) +
f (1)
3
2!
3!

We compute f (1) , f (1) , f (1) and f

f ( x) =

1
2
2 = x
x

(1) . We find that f (1) = 1 and

f ' (1) = 1

"

( x ) = 2 x 3

f " (1) = 2

( x ) = 6x 4

(1) = 6

( x) = 24 x 5

(1) = 24

We then have P ( x ) = 1 + ( x 1)( 1) +

( x 1) 2
2!

Thus, the cubic approximation to the function

( 2) +

( x 1) 3
3!

( 6) .

1
about x = 1 is given by
x

P ( x ) = 1 ( x 1) + ( x 1) ( x 1) .
2

The remainder term is R4 ( x ) =

Thus

R4 ( x ) =

( x 1) 4
4!

( x 1) 4 24
24

( )

where 1 < < x .

( x 1) 4

Thus we can write

f ( x ) = 1 ( x 1) + ( x 1) ( x 1) +
2

( x 1) 4
5

29

Example 14

Find the Taylor polynomial of order 4 generated by f ( x ) = e x at a = 0. Write down the

remainder term.
Solution

f ( x) = e x

f ( 0) = e 0 = 1

'

( x) = e x

f ' (0) = e 0 = 1

"

( x) = e x

"

(0) = e 0

( x) = e x

( 0) = e 0 = 1

( x) = e x

( 0) = e 0 = 1

=1

The Taylor polynomial of order 4 is

P4 ( x ) = f ( 0) + ( x 0) f (0) +
'

( x 0) 2
2!

"

(0) +

( x 0) 3
3!

(0) +

( x 0) 4
4!

(0)

x2
x3
x4
x2 x3 x4
(1) + (1) + (1) = 1 + x + + +
= 1 + x(1) +
2!
3!
4!
2 ! 3! 4 !
The remainder term R5 ( x ) is given by R5 ( x) =

Since f

( x ) = e x , we obtain

R5 ( x ) =

( x 0) 5
5!

f 5 ( )

where a < < x

x5
e .
5!

Thus we can write

e x = 1+ x +

x2 x3 x4 x5
+
+
+
e where 0 < < x.
2 ! 3! 4 ! 5!

30

Activity 7
Find the Taylor polynomial of order 4 generated by f ( x ) = cos x at a =

The Taylor series corresponding to a = 0 is called a Maclaurin series.

31

4.6.2

TAYLORS FORMULA FOR FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES

In this section, we extend Taylors formula introduced in Section 4.6, to functions of two
variables.

Taylors Formula for f ( x , y) at the point (a,b)

Suppose f ( x , y) and its partial derivatives are continuous throughout an open
rectangular region R centred at a point (a,b). Then throughout R

f ( a + h, b + k ) = f ( a , b) + h

f
f
( a , b) + k ( a , b) +
y
x

2f
2f
1 2 2f
2
(
)
(
)
h
+
+
a
b
hk
a
b
k
,
,
2
2
2 ( a , b )
x y
2! x
y

3f
3f
3f
1 3 3f
2
2
3

+ h
+ 3h k
+ 3hk
+k
+...
3! x 3
x2 y
x y 2
y 3 ( a ,b )
or

for ( x , y) R
f ( x , y ) = f ( a , b) + ( x a )

f
f
( a , b) + ( y b) ( a , b) +
x
y

2
2
2

f
f
f
1
2
( x a) 2

(
)
( a , b) + ( y b)
2 ( a , b) + 2 x a ( y b)
2 ( a , b) +...
x y
2!
x
y

32

Example 15

Use Taylors formula to find a

f ( x , y) = sinh x sinh y near the origin.

quadratic

polynomial

that

approximates

Solution

The required quadratic polynomial

f ( x , y ) f ( 0,0) + ( x 0)
+

f
f
(0,0) + ( y 0) (0,0)
x
y

2f
2f
f
1
2
2
(
)
(
)
(
)
x

+
xy
+
y
,
,
0
0
0
2
0
0

2
2 ( 0,0) .
x y
2!
x
y

f ( x , y ) = sinh x sinh y

f (0,0) = sinh 0 sinh 0 = 0

f
= cosh x sinh y
x

f
(0,0) = cosh 0 sinh 0 = 0
x

f
= sinh x cosh y
y

f
(0,0) = sinh 0 cosh 0 = 0
y

2f
= sin x sinh y
x2

2f
(0,0) = 0
x2

2f
= cosh x cosh y
x y

2f
(0,0) = cosh 0 cosh 0 = 1
x y

2f
= sinh x cosh y
y2

2f
(0,0) = 0
y2

Thus
f ( x , y ) 0 + ( x 0).0 + ( y 0).0 +

1 2
x .0 + 2 xy.1 + y 2 .0 xy
2!

The quadratic polynomial is xy.

33

Example 16
Use Taylors formula to find a quadratic polynomial that approximates e x ln (1 + y ) near
the origin.

Solution
Here
f (x, y ) = e x ln(1 + y )

f (0,0 ) = e 0 ln (1 + 0 ) = 1ln1 = 0

f
= e x ln (1 + y )
x

f
(0,0) = 0
x

f
ex
=
y 1 + y

0
f
(0,0) = e = 1
y
1+ 0

2f

2f

= e x ln (1 + y )

2f
ex
=
x y 1 + y

2f
y2

(0,0) = e 0 ln1 = 0

2f
(0,0) = 1
x y

ex

2f

e0

(1 + y )2

(1 + 0)2

(0,0) =
2

= 1

The required quadratic polynomial is

f (x, y ) 0 + (x 0 ).0 + (y 0 ).1 +

y+

1
2xy y 2
2

1
(x 0)2 .0 + 2xy.1 + (y 0)2 . 1
2!

34

 y + xy

1 2
y
2

Activity 8
Use Taylors formula for f (x , y ) at the origin to find a quadratic polynomial
approximation of f near the origin :
(i) f (x , y ) = e 2 x cos 3 y
(ii) f (x , y ) = cos (x + y )
(iii) f (x , y ) =

1
1 x y

35

4.7

SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt the following:

1. An infinite series is an expression of the form

u1 + u2 + + un + = u n .
n =1

The sum given by S N =

un

n =1

gives a sequence of partial sums {S N } .

2. An infinite series is said to be convergent to the limit L if the sequence of partial

sums converges to the limit L. Otherwise, it is said to be divergent.
3. A geometric series is convergent if

r < 1 and divergent if r 1

4. The nth Term Test for Divergence:

The series

un

n =1

is divergent if for the nth term un , lim u n is non zero or does

n +

not exist.

36

5. Comparison Test for Convergence

Let

u n be a series such that Un > 0 for all n.

n =1

(i) Suppose 0<un vn for all n > n 0 , where n 0 is some positive integer. If

vn

n =1

un

converges, then

converges.

n =1

(ii) Suppose 0 < v n u n for all n > n 0 . If

The series

np

n =1

n =1

v n diverges, then u n

diverges.

converges if p>1 and diverges if p 1

n =1

6. Limit Comparison Test

un
= L.
n + v n

Suppose that u n > 0 and v n > 0 for all n > 0 and that lim
(iv) If 0 < L < , then the two series

n =1

n =1

u n and v n either both converge or both

diverge.
(v) If L = 0 and

v n converges, then

n =1

(vi) If L= and

v n diverges, then

n =1

un

also converges.

n =1

u n also diverges.

n =1

(vii) No conclusion can be reached otherwise.

37

7. Ratio Test

Let

u n be a series with u n > 0 and suppose

n =1

u n +1
= L , then
n + u n
lim

(i) The series converges if L < 1.

(ii) The series diverges if L > 1.
(iii) The series may converge or diverge if L = 1.

8. Taylors Theorem
Let f have continuous derivatives up to, and including order n+1 on some interval
containing the point x = a. Then, if x is any other point in the interval,

f (x ) = Pn (x ) + R n +1 (x )
where the Taylor polynomial is given by
Pn (x ) = f (a ) + (x a )f (a ) +

(x a )2 f (a ) + ... + (x a )n f n (a )
2!

n!

and the remainder term is given by

R n +1 (x ) =

(x a )n +1 f n +1 ()
(n + 1)!

for a < < x .

9. Taylors formula a function f (x,y) of two variables x and y at the point (a,b).
Let f (x,y) and its partial derivatives be continuous throughout a region R centered at
a point (a,b). Then for (x,y) R ,
f (x , y ) = f (a , b ) + (x a )

f
(a , b ) + (y b ) f (a , b ) +
x
y

2
2

2f
1
2 f
2 f
(
)
(
)(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
+

a
,
b
2
x
a
y
b
a
,
b
y
b
a
,
b
(x a )
+ ...
x y
2!
x 2
y2

38

4.8

ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1

(a)

Note that
n

n ln 1 +

lim 1 + = lim e n ,
n
n
n

by the continuity of the exponential function,

lim

n ln 1 +
n

lim n ln 1 +
n
n

=e

1
, we then get x 0 as n and
n
Therefore,
Let x =

lim n ln 1 +
n

e
n

lim

= e x 0

ln (1 + x )
x
.

Applying LHopitals rule, we hence obtain

ln (1 + x )
lim
lim
x

0
x 0
1
+
x = e
x
e
=e

(b)

e 2

39

Activity 2
(a)

Write the term of the series as partial fractions :

1
1
1
=
2
n + 3 n + 2 n +1 n + 2

n + 1 We write the terms of the general partial sum for this series using the partial
fraction form to get

1 1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1

Sn = - + - + - + K +
+

n +1 n +1
n + 2
n
1 2 2 3 3 4
This is a telecosping sum and the partial sum is given by :
1
Sn = 1 n+2
1

lim S n = lim 1 =1
n
n
n + 2
The sequence of partial sums is convergent and so the series is converges to 1.
5
same procedure as in (a). convergent and limit is
.
12

(b)

(c)

n=0

- 7 n e -5 n =
2
n +4n+3

n=0

2
n +4n+3

7 n e -5 n

n=0

and this is the sum of two convergent sequences. Hence it is a convergent sequence.
Activity 3

(a)

lim

4 n2 - n3

10 + 2 n

=-

1
. The limit of the series terms is not zero and so by nth-term
2

test for divergence the series diverges.

2

1
n +1
as n . Therefore, u n 0 as n
4
2 n + 3

(b)(i) I When x = 1, u n =

In that case, u n 0 as n and we can not conclude anything about the

convergence/divergence of the series. This is neither a sufficient condition for
convergence nor does it indicate that the series diverges. We need to revert to
other tests.

(ii)

(c) lim

5n

7 n2 + 6

= lim

5
7 +

5
7

n2

Hence the series diverges by the nth term test for divergence.
40

(d)

1
lim n 7 = lim 7 n = 1

Hence the series diverges by the nth term test for divergence.
Activity 4

(a)

0 un =

1
n

2 +1

1
2

2n

, for all n . Since

converges (it is a geometric

n =1

1
series with common ratio r = ), it follows, by the comparison test
2

2n + 1
1

n =1

converges
(b)

For all integers n > 0,

1
3

n +4n +5

<

1
n

. Also,

n3
1

is a convergent series by

n =1

the p-series test. Therefore, by the comparison test,

n3 + 4 n2 + 5
1

is

n =1

convergent.
Activity 5

(a)

We compare this series with the series

n.
1

n =1

lim

Since

n
1

n
= lim
n +1 1 n
2

1
1+

=1.

n2

is divergent, the series is also divergent

n =1

(b)

Divergent

(c)

Divergent

41

(d)

For large n, sin

is approximately equal to

u n = sin

We take

1
n

and v n =

1
n2

1
n

as

1
n2

is small.

Then
un
= lim
n v n
n

sin

n2
1

lim

n2

sin x
x 0 x
cos x
= lim
x 0 1

= lim

cos 0
=1
1

The series

n2
1

by putting x =

1
n2

by lHpitals Rule

(0 < L < )

converges (this is a p-series with p = 2 > 1).

n =1

Therefore

sin n 2
1

also converges.

n =1

Activity 6

(a) Convergent

(b) Convergent

(c) Divergent

(d) Convergent (by the comparison test) as

sin 2 n 1
3
n3
n

since sin2 n 1 . As

n
n =1

converges,

sin 2 n
converges.
n3
n=1

42

Activity 7
2

1
3
1

x x +
x + x
2 2
3 4
3
12
3
48
3

Activity 8

9y2
2

(i)

1 + 2x + 2x 2

(ii)

(iii)

1 + x + y + x 2 + 2 xy + y 2

1 2
1
x xy y 2
2
2

43