PHYSICS

AS
Unit 1
Quantum Phenomena
Student Copy

Name: __________________________

Physics Group: _____________________

Richard Howland

Page 1 of 60

22 May 2013

Contents
Lesson

Page Number

Contents

Lesson 1

3 11

The Photo-electric Effect

Lesson 2

12 - 15

Stopping Potential

Lesson 3

16 - 25

Energy Levels

Lesson 4

26 - 30

Emission and Absorption Spectra

Lesson 5

31 - 38

Wave-Particle Duality

Lesson 6

39 - 42

Fluorescent Tubes

Lesson 7

43 - 48

This is only REAL if it is observed

Appendix 1: Specification (Quantum Phenomena)

p. 49

Appendix 2: Conversions of Units

p. 50

Appendix 3: Prefixes

p. 51

Appendix 4: Is light a Particle or Wave?

pp. 52 54

Appendix 5: The Ultra-Violet Catastrophe

pp. 55 59

Appendix 6: The Electron-Volt

p. 60

Richard Howland

Page 2 of 60

22 May 2013

Lesson 1: The Photo-electric Effect

Point 1: Discovery of the Photo-electric Effect

In 1887, the physicist Heinrich Hertz discovered that a spark (discharge of

electrons) moved more easily if Ultra-Violet light was shining on the
electrodes.

A year later (1888), the physicist Wilhelm Hallwachs (assistant to Hertz) did
additional research and stated that:
Negatively Charged Zinc Plates lose their charge when illuminated by Ultra
Violet light but there is no effect if the plates are Positively Charged.
He concluded that UltraViolet light causes the plates to emit negative
charges.

In 1899, physicist Philipp Lenard showed that negative charges in the Photo
Electric Effect are electrons.

Point 2: Understanding the Photo-electric Effect

UltraViolet light

Electromagnetic Radiation carries energy from one place to another (a progressive

wave). When the EM Radiation is shone onto the SHINY Zinc Plate, the electrons
absorb the energy. According to Classical Physics (pre 1900), the electrons should
continuously absorb energy from the EM Radiation until they have enough energy to
leave the Zinc Plate.
In other words, given enough time, the electrons would have absorbed enough energy
to escape the metal. They would also need some extra energy (in the form of Kinetic
Energy) to actually move away from the Zinc Plate.

Richard Howland

Page 3 of 60

22 May 2013

The Equation for this process is:

E=

+ KEmax

Where:
E = The Energy absorbed from the EM Radiation.

= Work Function (this is the Minimum Energy needed to escape from the Zinc).
KEmax = the extra energy the electrons need to actually move away from the metal
(There is a range of Kinetic Energy since the electrons can lose energy in
collisions while trying to leave the metal. The Maximum KE is where the
electron doesnt lose any energy in trying to leave.)

In this experiment the following variables were changed (one at a time)

The Intensity of EM Radiation (Intensity is Power per Unit Wavelength per

Unit Area).
The Frequency of EM Radiation.

The Work Function is always the same for Zinc since it is a property of Zinc and not
the electrons or EM Radiation. So Lenard measured the Maximum KE of the emitted
electrons (since this was the dependent variable).
If the laws of Classical Physics are correct, then the following results would be
expected:
The more time that elapses, the more EM Radiation is absorbed.
Eventually electrons should be released.

The Maximum KE of the electrons should depend on the Intensity of the EM

Radiation (more EM Radiation means more Energy absorption and since the
Work Function is constant, only the KE of the electrons will vary).

The Maximum KE of the electrons should not depend on the frequency of the
EM Radiation (in Classical Physics, frequency is not a factor of the EM
Radiations energy).

Richard Howland

Page 4 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 3: The actual results of the Photo-electric Effect

In 1902 Philipp Lenard published his results and they astounded the world of Physics.
The passage below is the experimental results obtained by the physicist Philipp
Lenard in 1902 (awarded the Nobel Prize in 1905).

The electrons were only emitted when UV Radiation was shone on the Zinc
Plate and they were emitted instantly.
The electrons were not emitted for any Intensity of Visible Light regardless to
how long it was shining.

The Maximum KE of the electrons was independent of the Intensity of UV

Radiation.

The Maximum KE of the electrons was dependent on the frequency of the UV

Radiation.

Number of electrons emitted is proportional to the Intensity of UV Radiation.

The Photoelectric effect defied the laws of physics for the following reasons:

It suggested that the colour of light determined its energy.

Energy was not continuously absorbed it was instant or never happened.

The intensity of UV light only affected the number of emitted electrons and
not their Kinetic Energy.

KEY POINTS
Lenard showed with real data that the known laws of physics did not work.
The Photoelectric effect defied the laws of Classical Physics since it suggested
that the colour of light determined its energy in Classical Physics all EM Radiation
had the same energy.
This experiment is showing that the FREQUENCY of EM Radiation determines its
energy.
It also tells us that there is no continuous absorption of energy otherwise the
electrons would eventually gain enough energy to leave the Zinc.

Richard Howland

Page 5 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 4: Einsteins solution to the Photo-electric Effect

The Solution came from Albert Einstein. He proposed the use of Max Plancks
equation E = hf. This may not seem like a giant leap in Physics, but it was
The equation E = hf states that light isnt continuously absorbed; instead it is either
absorbed in one chunk (called quanta) or not at all.
For instance, if you ate a bar of chocolate

In the Classical World of Physics, you would eat the chocolate piece by piece
(or if you were really hungry/greedy all at once). Your body would then break
the chocolate down into individual atoms and molecules and process them.

In the Quantum World of Physics, you would eat the chocolate and instantly
have all the atoms and molecules exactly where they should be. No time would
be required for this to happen. It would be instant or you would never be able
to eat the chocolate.

The Equation for Photoelectric Effect

In 1905, Einstein used the Equation E = hf and put it into the Photo-electric
equation:
E=

+ KEmax

Becomes:

hf =

+ KEmax

Where:
E = hf = the Energy of the EM Radiation

= Work Function = the Minimum Energy required to emit the electron from the
metal
KEmax = the Maximum excess energy of the electron when it leaves the metal

Richard Howland

Page 6 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 5: To find h and

hf =

+ KEmax

Rearrange the
equation
KEmax = hf

Using the form:

y = mx + c
y = KEmax
x=f
c=
m=h
Photoelectric Effect Graph
KEmax / J

Gradient = y / x = h

f / Hz

f0

f0: Fundamental Frequency

KEY POINTS
The Gradient is always Planks constant, h (6.63x10-34 Js)
The intercept on the x-axis, f0 is the Fundamental Frequency (the MINIMUM
frequency required to emit electrons).
The intercept on the y-axis (below Zero) is the Work Function,
MIMIMUM energy required to emit electrons).
Richard Howland

Page 7 of 60

(which is the

22 May 2013

Point 6: Questions
Question 1
Define the following:
a) Quanta:
b) Photon:
c) Work Function:
d) KEmax:
Question 2
The frequency of the incident radiation = 1.8x1015 Hz, Maximum KE of electrons = 3.3
eV. Calculate the Work Function of the Metal (in Joules and eV).
[6.6x10-19 J,4.1 eV]

Question 3
The frequency of the incident radiation = 6.2x1014 Hz, Work Function of the Metal =
2.4 eV. Calculate the Maximum KE of the emitted electrons (in Joules and eV).
[3.0x10-20 J,0.2 eV]

Richard Howland

Page 8 of 60

22 May 2013

Question 4
The Work Function of the Metal = 4.8 eV. Calculate the minimum frequency of the
incident EM Waves to release the electrons.
[1.2x1015 Hz]

Question 5
Each photon has the same energy (frequency is constant). So why is there a range of
Kinetic Energy (up to a maximum)? [Hint: Where is the energy going?]

Question 6
The wavelength of the incident radiation = 700 nm, the Work Function of the Metal =
7.1x10-19 J. By performing a calculation, explain why electrons would not be emitted
from the material.
[2.84x10-19 J]

If the classical wave theory was correct, then after a period of time, the electrons
would have continuously absorbed enough energy to be released. If the light was
shone onto each atom of the metal at a rate of 2 photons per second, how long would
it take (through continuous absorption) for the electrons to get enough energy to
leave the metal?
[1.25 s]

Richard Howland

Page 9 of 60

22 May 2013

Question 7
Explain why the Classical Laws of Physics do not explain the Photo-Electric Effect
but the Quantum Laws of Physics (E = hf) do explain the Photo-Electric Effect.
(Your answer should also include the key observations of the experiment).

Richard Howland

Page 10 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 7: The Problem with Classical Physics (pre 1900)

So what exactly is the Big Deal with the Photo-electric Effect?
Example- Cooking a Chicken in an oven

Classical Physics:
Controls: Temperature and Time.

Set the temperature and then wait an appropriate amount of time for the
chicken to cook.
The higher the temperature you set, the more waves are sent into the oven and
the chicken will cook faster.
The longer you leave the chicken in the oven, the more waves of energy that
are absorbed and the more the chicken is cooked.
But the Chicken isnt cooking.
No matter how long the chicken is left in the oven, nothing happens.
No matter how hot the oven is, nothing happens. Ever!

Quantum Physics: The controls are the Frequency of the EM Waves.

Controls: Frequency of the EM Waves.

Below a certain FREQUENCY, the chicken never cooks no matter how long it is
in the oven.
Once a certain (THRESHOLD) FREQUENCY is reached, the chicken cooks
INSTANTLY!

Richard Howland

Page 11 of 60

22 May 2013

Lesson 2: Stopping Potential

Point 1: The Problem
To verify Einsteins view of the Photo-electric effect, we need to measure the
Maximum Kinetic Energy of the emitted electrons. That would mean measuring their
mass and velocity as they leave! This would be an extremely difficult task today so it
would have been impossible in 1905.
A different approach is needed. We need to know the electrons Maximum Kinetic
Energy by any method. And the following is the method used to do just that.

Point 2: The Solution

Rather than finding the Kinetic Energy of the Electrons as they leave the Zinc, a
circuit is set up like this:
Ultraviolet

- -

cathode

anode

Electrons can
only flow this
way

DIODE
Power
Supply

As the electrons leave the Cathode, they hit the anode and create a Current. The
Potential Difference generated between the Cathode and Anode can be measured.

Richard Howland

Page 12 of 60

22 May 2013

The technique used is to apply a REVERSE Potential Difference. If the same size
reverse Potential Difference is applied, no electrons will move, so the Current will be
zero. We can record the value of this reverse voltage (Stopping Potential) and from
this find the Work Function, Fundamental Frequency and a value for Plancks
constant. We want the REVERSE Potential Difference to JUST STOP the electrons.

Point 3: Stopping Potential

The definition for the Volt is:
1 Volt = 1 Joule per Coulomb of Charge
If we re-arrange the equation:
1 Joule = Charge on 1 electron x 1 Volt
From this, we can say that:
Energy gained by an electron = Charge on 1 electron x Potential Difference
In symbols:

E = eV

The Stopping Potential is the Voltage needed to JUST STOP the electrons from
moving. When this is multiplied by e (charge on an electron) we have the Kinetic
Energy of the electrons (in Joules).
So:

eV = KEmax

So all we do is multiply the Voltage reading on the Power Supply by the charge on 1
electron.
For example, if the Voltage (Stopping Potential) is 1.2 V,

Then the Maximum Kinetic Energy is 1.2 eV

Or, 1.2 x 1.6x10-19 J = 1.9x10-19 J

Richard Howland

Page 13 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 4: Questions
1) Which part of the EM Spectrum causes the Photo-electric Effect?

2) Why wont visible light work?

3) Why must the Zinc be SHINY?

4) Why is a DIODE placed in the circuit?

5) Why will a REVERSE Potential Difference reduce the current?

6) What is the definition of Stopping Potential?

7) If the Reverse Potential Difference is larger than the energy supplied by the
UV photons, will the electrons travel in the opposite direction in the circuit?
Explain your answer.

Richard Howland

Page 14 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 5: Graph
frequency / 1015 Hz

Stopping Potential / V

1.05

0.03

1.10

0.24

1.15

0.44

1.20

0.65

1.25

0.86

1.30

1.06

1.35

1.27

1.40

1.48

1) Plot a graph of Frequency (x-axis) against Stopping Potential (y-axis).

2) What is meant by the term Fundamental Frequency?

3) From your graph, obtain a value for the Fundamental Frequency.

4) Find the gradient of your graph.

5) How can you use this value for the Gradient to obtain a value for Plancks
Constant? Clearly show your working.

6) How does your value for Plancks constant compare to the published value?

7) What is meant by the term Work Function?

8) Use your graph and calculated values to obtain a value for the Work Function
of the metal (in J and eV). Clearly show your working.
Richard Howland

Page 15 of 60

22 May 2013

Lesson 3: Energy Levels

Point 1: The origin of atom
The following is taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom

The earliest references to the concept of atoms date back to ancient India in the
6th century BCE. The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools developed elaborate theories of
how atoms combined into more complex objects (first in pairs, then trios of pairs).
The references to atoms in the West emerged a century later from Leucippus whose
student, Democritus, systemized his views. In approximately 450 BCE, Democritus
coined the term tomos, which means "uncuttable" or "the smallest indivisible particle
of matter", i.e., something that cannot be divided. Although the Indian and Greek
concepts of the atom were based purely on philosophy, modern science has retained
the name coined by Democritus.
Summary
Everything is made up of an indivisible particle: the atoma

Point 2: Alchemy
The following is taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
The best-known goals of the alchemists were the transmutation of common metals
into gold (called chrysopoeia). Certain Hermetic schools argue that the transmutation
of lead into gold is analogical for the transmutation of the physical body (Saturn or
lead) into Solar energy (gold) with the goal of attaining immortality. This is described
as Internal Alchemy. Starting with the Middle Ages, Arabic and European alchemists
invested much effort in the search for the "philosopher's stone", a legendary
substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those
goals. Alchemists were alternately persecuted or supported through the centuries.

Summary
The key for alchemists was that they believed that you could chemically change one
element into another because they believed that everything was made of the SAME
ELEMENT. Even Sir Isaac Newton tried this (for a while) and failed. No-one was able
to change one element into another through chemical change.
Richard Howland

Page 16 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 3: The Dalton view of atoms

The following is taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom

In 1803, English instructor and natural philosopher John Dalton used the concept of
atoms to explain why elements always react in a ratio of small whole numbers: the
law of multiple proportions, and why certain gases dissolve better in water than
others. He proposed that each element consists of atoms of a single, unique type, and
that these atoms can join together to form chemical compounds.
Summary
There are different types of atoms. Gold is made from Gold Atoms and Silver is made
from Silver atoms. This explained why the Alchemists had failed to turn one element
into another.
Gold

Silver

Point 4: The JJ Thomson view of atoms

The following is taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom

The physicist J. J. Thomson, through his work on cathode rays in 1897, discovered
the electron and its subatomic nature, which destroyed the concept of atoms as being
indivisible units. Thomson believed that the electrons were distributed throughout
the atom, with their charge balanced by the presence of a uniform sea of positive
charge (the plum pudding model).
Summary: The Plum Pudding Model
The atom has a large positive charge and electrons are stuck on top of this object.

Large centre of
positive charge

Richard Howland

Small Negative charges

stuck on the positive charge

Page 17 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 5: Rutherfords Alpha Scattering Experiment

In 1909, Ernest Rutherford published results on work that his team of researchers
had been doing at the Physics Laboratories at Manchester University. The team fired
alpha particles at a piece of Gold Leaf and then measured how many alpha particles
were detected at different places around the Gold Leaf.
The results showed something that was completely unexpected:
Result: The Majority of the Alpha Particles went straight through.
Explanation: Most of the Gold Leaf is empty space: so the Atoms must be far apart.
Result: A few of the Alpha Particles were deflected.
Explanation: Centre of the Atoms was the same charge as Alpha Particles (Positive).
Result: 1 or 2 Alpha Particles came straight back.
Explanation: High concentration of material in the Nucleus.
Tiny negative charge at a
distance of 10-10 m away
from the nucleus
Tiny positive charge
(about 10-15 m in diameter)

This meant that the Plum Pudding Model of the atom had to be wrong. The alpha
particles couldnt travel through the atoms if atoms were solid!

Richard Howland

Page 18 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 6: The problem the Atom shouldnt work!

In 1862, James Clerk Maxwell published (the now famous) Maxwell Equations of
Electromagnetism. These equations unified (joined) the equations and laws of
Magnetism, Electricity and Electromagnetism.
From these equations, there are 2 key points that are important for understanding
why this new model of the atom shouldnt work:

Opposite charges attract, like charges repel

Accelerating charges emit or absorb energy

With J.J. Thomsons Model

Large centre of
positive charge

Small Negative charges

stuck on the positive charge

The charges are touching each other, so none of the 2 laws of electromagnetism are
broken.
With Rutherfords Model

Tiny negative charge at a

distance of 10-10 m away
from the nucleus
Tiny positive charge
(about 10-15 m in diameter)

The 2 opposite charges are separated. Both these charges are attracted to each
other, so they should move towards each other. But that would mean that they cant
stay apart which is what every experiment was showing.

Richard Howland

Page 19 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 7: A solution that shouldnt work

An obvious idea is that the electrons could orbit the nucleus in the same way that
planets orbit the sun. The opposite charges are attracted to each other but because
they are in orbit, they never touch.
However
Accelerating Charges

We know from Maxwells Theory on Electromagnetic Waves that if a charged

particle accelerated, it emitted or absorbed Energy.
Acceleration
Electromagnetic radiation

If the electron is orbiting, then it is constantly changing its direction, so it is

constantly changing its velocity, so it is accelerating.
From Electromagnetism, if a charged particle accelerates, it emits
electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic Radiation contains energy.
If the charged particle emits Electromagnetic Radiation, it is losing energy.
If it loses energy, it will slow down, and so it will fall closer to the atom since it
isnt going fast enough.
The charged particle will fall towards the nucleus.
The time taken for this is about 10-7 seconds.

Electrons cant Orbit

The new model of the atom doesnt work.

Electrons cant orbit the nucleus.
But there is no other mechanism for two oppositely charged particles to stay
apart other than to orbit each other.
But charged particles cant travel in circles without losing energy.
Electrons cant orbit.
Orbiting electrons are unstable.
But clearly, the electrons are 10-10 m away from the nucleus otherwise there
wouldnt be chemical reactions.
And we do know that electrons have set positioning (Shells).

Richard Howland

Page 20 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 8: Niels Bohrs Solution for Rutherfords Experiment

Electrons cant orbit!

And they cant stand still!
In a desperate attempt to solve this problem, many physicists looked at the data of
the frequencies of emitted photons to try and find patterns. In 1911, a physicist
called Niels Bohr added to Rutherfords model of the atom by suggesting that
electrons orbit the nucleus but ONLY in CERTAIN PLACES.
He noticed that the different frequencies of emitted photons could be written as
multiples of E = hf. So he proposed that the emitted photons were governed by the
equation E = hf From this, he produced his theory and new model of the atom. He
received the Nobel Prize in 1922 for his contribution to this work.

Point 9: The Niels Bohr View of the Atom

Electron Shells

Electrons can orbit a nucleus only if they go in a certain place.

When electrons move from one place to the other, they release or absorb a
photon which contains 1 Quantum of Energy.
So when electrons moved from one place to another, a Quantum of energy
was released or absorbed.

The Niels Bohr Atom

Electrons orbit the nucleus in Electron Shells.

The Shells are Discrete and not Continuous.
Shells are also referred to as Orbitals and Energy Levels.
Electrons are only ever found in these places and
for some unknown reason (an answer came many years
later) they can orbit the nucleus and not emit
energy.

Richard Howland

Page 21 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 10: Energy Levels in Atoms

Energy Levels in the Hydrogen Atom

(Energy values are for Hydrogen).

Ionisation ( n = )
Excited States (n = 2, 3, 4 )

1.5 eV
3.4 eV

13.6 eV

Ground State (n = 1)
Electron is in the lowest Energy Level

(Energy values are for Hydrogen).

Ionisation
Excited States

1.5 eV
3.4 eV

Electron is in the next Energy Level

it has gained energy (E = hf = 10.2 eV)
13.6 eV

Richard Howland

Ground State

Page 22 of 60

22 May 2013

(Energy values are for Hydrogen).

Ionisation
Excited States

1.5 eV
3.4 eV

Electron is Ionised it has gained energy (E = hf = 13.6 eV)

13.6 eV

Ground State

At ionisation, there is no attraction between the nucleus and freeelectron

(within the atom) so the energy between them is ZERO.
The numbers are negative since you gain energy to go up an Energy Level, and
the final energy has a value of ZERO.

Absorption of Energy

When Electromagnetic Radiation is absorbed by the electron, it can do so only

by following the equation E = hf.
An electron can be raised to ANY Energy Level (shell) provided that it
corresponds to the equation E = hf.

Emission of Energy

When Electromagnetic Radiation is emitted by the electron, it can do so only

by following the equation E = hf.
An electron can be lowered to ANY Energy Level (shell) provided that it
corresponds to the equation E = hf.

Richard Howland

Page 23 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 11: Questions

1) An electron is in the Ground State in a Hydrogen atom and absorbs a photon. It
is now in the 1st Energy Level (n = 2). What was the frequency of the absorbed
photon?
[f = 2.5x1015 Hz]

2) An electron is in the 2nd Energy Level (n = 3) of a Hydrogen atom. It eventually

falls down to the Ground State. Deduce the 2 different mechanisms for falling
to the ground state and the frequencies of the photons released in each of the
possible processes.
[f = 2.9x1015 Hz, f = 4.6x1014 Hz & f = 2.5x1015 Hz]

3) A photon is absorbed by an electron in the Ground State of a Hydrogen atom.

If the Hydrogen is just ionised, calculate the wavelength of the absorbed
photon.
[ = 9.1x10-8 m]

4) Why are Energy Levels written with a - sign?

Richard Howland

Page 24 of 60

22 May 2013

5) How many Energy Levels are there between the Ground State and Ionisation?
What can you say about the Energy Gap between these levels as you approach
Ionisation?

6) When the electrons are given or lose energy (in the form of an absorbed or
emitted photon), how does the electron actually get from one Shell to another
if it is not allowed to exist between Shells?

7) Explain how a light bulb shines when electricity is passed through it. Also
explain why the light bulb appears white.

Richard Howland

Page 25 of 60

22 May 2013

Lesson 4: Emission and Absorption Spectra

Point 1: The Emission Spectrum

When an electron drops down an energy level, a single photon is released.

A Spectrum means that a range of frequencies of different photons are
released this requires many electrons to be falling which means many atoms
have to be present.
The Spectrum produces many single lines each line corresponds to an electron
that has fallen down an energy level.
Photons are then emitted in any (random) direction.

Point 2: The Continuous Spectrum

Technically, a CONTINUOUS VISIBLE SPECTRUM does not exist.

This is every frequency of Visible Light.
Although there are an infinite number of Energy Levels in any atom, only
certain drops correspond to visible radiation.
This means that there is a limited amount of Energy drops available which
produce Visible light photons.
Hot objects not only emit light (through electrons falling down energy levels)
but their atoms vibrate vigorously this means that as the photons are
emitted, they are Doppler shifted.
This Doppler Effect means that individual emission lines are broadened.
Objects which produce Continuous Spectrums are called Black Bodies.

Richard Howland

Page 26 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 3: Questions
1) What is meant by the term Spectrum?

2) Explain (in full detail) how an Emission Spectrum is produced.

3) Which direction are photons released?

4) What (exactly) is a Continuous Spectrum?

5) Why (in reality) can a Continuous Spectrum not exist?

6) What are the (theoretical) objects called that emit a Continuous Spectrum of
Photons?

7) Name an object that (almost) produces a Continuous Spectrum.

Richard Howland

Page 27 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 4: Spectral Lines

Each material/atom produces a unique set of Spectral Lines.

This is used to identify unknown elements and compounds through a process
called Spectroscopy.
The element Helium was first discovered by using Spectroscopy on sunlight
the name Helium is derived from Helios (the Sun God).

The following is a series of photographs taken from a variety of elements that are
emitting photons.
Website link: Strasbourg Astronomical Observatory
http://astro.u-strasbg.fr/~koppen/discharge/index.html

Hydrogen
Carbon
Oxygen
Sodium
Iron
Silicon
You can clearly see that each element has its own unique bands of emission lines.

Sodium has a very distinctive YELLOW line which can be clearly seen with older
street lamps.

Hydrogen has distinctive Purple, Cyan and Red lines which can be clearly seen in
Nebula in space.

When you see a fireworks display, all the different colours correspond to
different metallic elements which have their electrons excited. When the
electrons jump down Energy Levels, photons with the above colours are emitted
in random directions.

Richard Howland

Page 28 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 5: The Absorption Spectrum

This occurs through a combination of a Continuous Spectrum passing through a

material and that material producing an Emission Spectrum.
If a stream of photons from a Black Body Source passes through a material,
the electrons in the atoms of the material will absorb certain photons of a
particular frequency and jump up Energy Levels.
Some time later, these electrons will jump back down and emit photons.
These photons are emitted in different directions randomly.
The amount of photons that pass straight through the material (without being
absorbed) is far greater than the number of emitted photons from the
material.
As a result, these emitted photons appear as darker lines in the resultant
spectrum that passes through the material.

Important note
These lines are darker and not black! There are photons there, but far less than
non-absorbed photons from the rest of the continuous spectrum.
This diagram is taken from: Oglethorpe University
http://www.oglethorpe.edu/faculty/~m_rulison/Astronomy/Chap%2004/Light%20an
d%20Matter%20II.htm

A hot source is an object

where the atoms are vibrating
enough to excite electrons to
higher energy levels.
So stars, light-bulbs, &
flames are hot sources
Richard Howland

Page 29 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 6: Questions
1) Explain how an Absorption Spectrum is produced.

2) Explain why:
a. A star produces a Continuous Spectrum

b. A glowing (hot) Gas Cloud produces an Emission Spectrum

c. A stream of photons passing through a cold Gas Cloud produces an

Absorption Spectrum

Richard Howland

Page 30 of 60

22 May 2013

Lesson 5: Wave-Particle Duality

Point 1: What are Waves and Particles?
Wave Behaviour

Particle Behaviour

Non-Localised
(not fixed in a particular place)

Localised
(In a fixed position)

No mass

(Can) Have mass

No charge

(Can) Have charge

Interference & Superposition

(Can pass through each other)
Diffraction
(Waves spread-out after passing
through a gap)
Polarisation
(Transverse waves only)

Collisions
(Cant pass through each other)
No Diffraction
(Objects stays fixed in shape)
N/A

As can be seen from the table, Wave behaviour and Particle Behaviour are exactly
opposite.

Point 2: Louis de Broglie

After considering the fact that Electromagnetic Waves can behave like particles (in
the form of photons), Louis de Broglie considered the idea that objects considered to
be particles could behave like waves.
He applied equations from Special Relativity (by Einstein) and combined them with
Plancks equation: E =hf to produce:

=h/p
/ m: The associated wavelength of the object.
h / J s: Plancks constant (6.63 x 10-34 J s).
p / kg m s-1: momentum of the particle (p = mass x velocity).
His interpretation was that every moving particle has an associated wave. He called
this a MATTER-WAVE. From this, a new branch of physics emerged: Quantum
Mechanics. De Broglie received the Nobel Prize in 1929 for his contributions to
Quantum Physics.
Richard Howland

Page 31 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 3: Questions
For the following particles, calculate the associated wavelength of the matterwave:
1) Mass of electron = 9.11x10-31 kg, velocity = 3.00x107 m s-1
[ = 2.43 x 10-11 m]

2) Mass of electron = 9.11x10-31 kg, velocity = 2.60x108 m s-1

3) Mass of proton = 1.67x10-27 kg, velocity = 3.00x107 m s-1

4) Mass of atom = 1.00 x10-26 kg, velocity = 1000 m s-1

5) Mass of a person = 64.5 kg, velocity = 1.00 m s-1

[ = 2.80 x 10-12 m]

[ = 1.32 x 10-14 m]

[ = 6.63 x 10-11 m]

[ = 1.03 x 10-35 m]

Point 4: What does this mean?

Since h is so small (6.6x10-34 Js) we dont notice the effect of the matter-waves on
everyday objects because the associated matter-waves are too small to detect
(but they are still there).
However, in the atomic world, the associated matter-waves are much larger and of a
comparable size to the space in which these particles exist.
On the atomic level, we cant ignore the matter-waves and the WAVE-PARTICLE
DUALITY ALWAYS has to be considered!
Richard Howland

Page 32 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 5: What if Plancks constant was 100 Js?

For a typical person: Mass = 70 kg, Velocity = 1 m s-1 (walking pace)
New h = 100 J s
= h / p = 100 / (70 x 1) = 1.4 m
The associated wave would have a wavelength of 1.4 m. This is about the width of a
corridor.
So if you walked through a corridor and someone else walk towards you, you would
pass through each other and the result would be the addition of your heights!

Point 6: The Electron Diffraction Experiment

If matter-waves are real, then particles should show wave behaviour under the
right conditions. And experiment can be done to validate this idea of wave-particle
duality.

Electron
going into 1
gap of the
Double Slit

Electron hits
the screen

Particle Behaviour
If the electron behaves like a particle throughout the experiment, then it will hit the
screen in any location. If we record the position that the electron hits the screen
then the majority should hit the screen opposite each gap.
Wave Behaviour
If the electron behaves like a wave, then it will interfere with itself and there will be
an interference pattern produced on the screen. The electron will not appear on some
parts of the screen because it will destructively interfere. There will be a series of
light and dark patches on the screen corresponding to a Double-Slit interference
pattern for waves.
Richard Howland

Page 33 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 7: The Hitachi Experiment

The Hitachi Coporatation have designed and built equipment to test this theory.
The weblink is: http://www.hitachi.com/rd/research/em/doubleslit.html .
This is a diagram of the equipment used by Hitachi:

This is a time-lapse recording of their results:

Richard Howland

Page 34 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 8: Electron Diffraction What does this mean?

As can be clearly seen, there is an INTERFERENCE PATTERN on the screen. This can
ONLY be created by WAVE BEHAVIOUR. This means that the electrons must be
behaving like waves at some point during the experiment.
At the Double-Slits
The electron has to enter through one of the slits. This is particle behaviour since
the electron is localised (in one position/location).
At the Screen
The electron hits one part of the screen. This is particle behaviour.
Between the Double-Slits and the Screen
Since an Interference Pattern is created on the screen, the electron must be
behaving as a wave between the Slits and the Screen. This is the only explanation for
producing the interference pattern.
This experiment demonstrates and proves that electrons can behave like particles
and waves! (Not at the same time).
This is known as WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY.
This experiment has also been done for protons and neutrons both show WaveParticle Duality. Scientists have also been able to show Wave-Particle Duality for
small numbers of Sodium Atoms.

The world is not as it appears to be!

Point 9: Waves and Particles
This experiment (and the Photo-electric Effect) shows that there is no such thing as
waves or particles. There is Wave Behaviour and Particle Behaviour but
Electromagnetic Radiation, electrons, protons, neutrons, nuclei, atoms, etc cant be
pigeon-holed into the categories of wave or particle.
Sometimes they behave like waves and at other times they behave like particles.

Richard Howland

Page 35 of 60

22 May 2013

Electron Diffraction Experiment

Wave
behaviour

Particle
behaviour

Electron going
into 1 gap of the
Double Slit

Richard Howland

Particle
behaviour

Electron hits the

screen and
releases a photon

Page 36 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 10: Exam Question

1) Explain how the Double-Slit experiment for electrons demonstrates WaveParticle Duality. (You must clearly state what the evidence is and whether this
indicates particle or wave behaviour).

2) Explain the Dual nature of EM Radiation (in terms of Wave-Particle Duality)

Richard Howland

Page 37 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 11: The Quantum World

The equation E = hf indicates that energy and interactions are QUANTISED. This
means that these interactions are DISCRETE (only specific values are allowed).
In the world of Classical Physics (before the equation E = hf was realised) all
interactions were CONTINUOUS (every value was allowed).
The Atom
The difference between Discrete and Continuous is important. For the atom,
electrons only exist on Energy Levels not in-between. This means that they have to
(somehow) instantaneously disappear and reappear in a different position.
Then there is the issue of PROBABILITY. In the atom, when an electron drops down
an Energy Level a photon is emitted in a RANDOM direction. There is no way to
determine (in advance) which direction the photon will travel. In Classical Physics, we
would always be able to work out where the photon would go in advance.
Also, if the electron is able to fall down more than one Energy Level, there is no way
to predict the method that it will use to (eventually) reach the Ground State. Nor
how long it will take to perform this task.
The Electron Diffraction Experiment
In the Electron Diffraction experiment, the electrons have to interfere with each
other to produce the Interference Pattern. But, the electrons are sent through one
at a time.
So what are they interfering with, if there is only 1 electron in the experiment?
Can the electron really be in two places at the same time?
Classical and Quantum Worlds
In the world of Classical Physics, the equations/laws give you an exact set of answers
to a problem.
In Quantum Physics, the equations/laws give you a probability of an answer occurring.
And it is the probability issue that EINSTEIN hated. He refused to believe that
events only had a probability and that nothing was ever certain.
Think about it it means that if you run into a wall, there is only a probability that
you will bounce back! You could appear at the others side! Or in Paris!
Richard Howland

Page 38 of 60

22 May 2013

Lesson 6: Fluorescent Lamps

Point 1: The Fluorescent Tube
The central part of a fluorescent lamp is a sealed glass tube.
The tube contains a small bit of mercury and an inert gas (typically argon). This inert
gas is kept under very low pressure to avoid too many internal collisions with freeelectrons (the free-electrons need to get from one end of the tube to the other).
The tube also contains a phosphorus powder, coated along the inside of the glass.
The tube has two electrodes (one at each end), which are wired to an electrical
circuit. The electrical circuit is hooked up to an alternating current (AC) supply.

Richard Howland

Page 39 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 2: Producing Ultraviolet photons

When you turn the lamp on, current flows through the electrical circuit to the
electrodes. There is a considerable voltage across the electrodes, so electrons will
migrate through the gas from one end of the tube to the other.
These free-electrons will collide with the liquid Mercury and transfer energy. This
energy changes some of the Mercury in the tube from a liquid to a gas.
As electrons and charged atoms continue to move through the tube, some of them will
collide with the gaseous mercury atoms. These collisions excite the atoms, bumping
electrons (of the gaseous mercury atoms) up to higher energy levels.
When the electrons return to their original energy level, they release photons. The
electrons in mercury atoms are arranged in such a way that they mostly release
photons in the Ultra-Violet wavelength range.

Point 3: Producing Visible Photons

Phosphors are substances that give off light when they are exposed to Ultra-Violet.
When an Ultra-Violet photon hits a phosphorus atom, one of the phosphorus's
electrons jumps to a higher energy level and the atom heats up.
When the electron falls back to its normal level, it releases energy in the form of
another photon. This photon has less energy than the original photon, because some
energy was lost as heat (Infra-Red).
In a fluorescent lamp, the emitted light is in the visible spectrum: the phosphor gives
off white light (range of frequencies) we can see. Manufacturers can vary the colour
of the light by using different combinations of phosphors.

Point 4: Questions
1. Why does a current flow across the electrodes in the tube?

2. Which inert gas is usually placed inside the tube?

Richard Howland

Page 40 of 60

22 May 2013

3. Give 2 reasons why this gas is in the tube.

4. Why is the gas kept at a low pressure?

5. Why is the mercury a liquid at the start of the process?

6. Why does the mercury turn into a gas?

7. What happens to the electrons in the gaseous Mercury atoms when the freeelectrons hit them?

8. What happens next in the mercury atoms?

9. What happens to the electrons in the phosphorus atoms when Ultra-Violet

photons hit them?

10. What two types of photons are being (mainly) emitted when the electrons
return to the ground state? How do you know this?

Richard Howland

Page 41 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 5: Longer Exam Question

You are going to explain why the Classical Wave Theory does not explain the
observations of the Photoelectric Effect but the Photon Model of Light does explain
the observations.
[To answer this question thoroughly, the following KEY WORDS must be in your
explanation: Ultra-Violet Photons, Shiny Zinc, Maximum Kinetic Energy, Work
Function, Electrons, Continuous Absorption, Intensity, Quanta, Photons,
Instantaneous].
Part 1 What is the physics of the Photo-electric Effect?

Part 2 Why does Classical Physics FAIL to explain the observations?

Part 3 Why does Quantum Physics explain the observations?

Richard Howland

Page 42 of 60

22 May 2013

Lesson 7: This is only REAL if it is observed

If you do; you dont.
If you dont; you do.
Understand; that is!?
Point 1: The Atom
1) Instantaneous jumps.
When an electron absorbs a photon, it is not allowed to travel from one Energy
Level to another. It has to instantaneously vanish from its current Energy Level
and then appear in its new Energy Level.
So if you were an electron, and the seats in the room where Energy Levels, you
wouldnt be able to move until a photon arrived with the EXACT energy required to
move you from your existing seat to another. You then absorb that photon and
instantly teleport to another seat.
2) What are you looking at?
To see an atom, an electron jumps down Energy Level(s) and emits a photon. That
photon is then detected by your eye. You dont see atoms or electrons. The
photon is the result of the electron losing energy. You dont see anything.
Look at your hand. The photons that come from your hand are from electrons
falling down Energy Levels.
You never see anything!
3) How do electrons wave?
How can electrons be waves? What is waving?
You are made of electrons are you a wave?
And if protons, neutrons and everything else can behave as waves, what exactly
are all these particles that we are made of?

Richard Howland

Page 43 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 2: The Electron Diffraction Experiment

1) Can electrons be in 2 places at once?
In the Electron Diffraction experiment, an interference pattern appears on the
screen. But this is only possible if the electron wave interferes with another
IDENTICAL electron wave. But the electrons are sent through one at a time. So
what is the electron wave interfering with?
Can the electron be in 2 places at the same time?
You could argue that the electron waves are SPREAD OUT. So when the electron
passing through the Double-Slit it is spread out across both slits hence
producing 2 Electron-Waves.
Unfortunately, when the electron passes through the slit it is acting as a particle
since this is a localised event. So it would need to pass through both slits at the
same time!
2) Electrons know you are looking at them!
We are PHYSICISTS!
Lets do an experiment!
Lets find out if electrons can go through 2 slits at the same time!
The experiment is simple:
Experiment 1: Observe the electrons passing through the slits (and see which slit
they go through) and then observe the pattern on the screen.
Experiment 2: DO NOT observe the electrons passing through the slits and then
observe the pattern on the screen.
Results:
Experiment 1: The interference pattern disappears the electrons behave as
particles at all times.
Experiment 2: The interference pattern appears.
The electrons only behave as waves when you DO NOT look at them!
How do electrons KNOW that you are looking at them?

Richard Howland

Page 44 of 60

22 May 2013

3) Electrons know what you are going to do before you do!

Again, we are physicists how can electrons know that you are looking at them?
This is nonsense. Lets do a new experiment.
Lets put the screen much closer to the Double-Slits and then move the
experiment much further away. This now means that the electrons will hit the
screen BEFORE a photon will travel to us to tell us which Slit the electron passed
through.
This means that the electron will have passed through the Double-Slit and hit the
screen before we know which slit the electron passed through.
Now lets catch them out!
We can randomly open and close our eyes so that we randomly choose to look at
which Slit the electrons pass through.
And we do this after the electrons have hit the screen.
Surely we can now find out how the electrons are doing this?!
Well, no.
The electrons will ALWAYS produce an interference pattern if we DO NOT
LOOK and not produce and interference pattern if we do.
ALWAYS!
This means that the electrons would have to know whether or not we are going to
look at them before they hit the screen. That means that they know if we are
going to RANDOMLY look at them before we do!

The electrons know what we are going to do before we do!

What happened to FREE WILL?

Richard Howland

Page 45 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 4: Observation
1) What is a wave anyway?
The Wave Equations for particles involve the MATHEMATICAL letter i. This is
a COMPLEX NUMBER i is the IMAGINARY SQUARE ROOT of -1!
This means that Matter-Waves are Imaginary and not real. And you are made of
these matter-waves! So what are we?
2) What is the difference between a Particle and a Wave?
The key is OBSERVATION. If an observation takes place, then you have
PARTICLE behaviour. If there is not an observation, you have WAVE behaviour.
3) I have no friends what am I?
If no-one observes you then you will be a wave. The reality is that you are made of
many particles so the chances are that in any given time some observations will
take place. But if you dont find friends soon then you will always be a wave. And
then you could re-appear anywhere at any time! (Unless you can observe
yourself).
4) Psychic electrons they know what the other is thinking
In a Helium atom, 2 electrons orbit in the first Energy Level. Each electron has a
property called SPIN. Each electron must have the opposite spin to the other. So
one has an UP SPIN and the other has a DOWN SPIN.
If you then bash this atom and both electrons fly off into space, neither electron
is SPIN UP or DOWN until they are OBSERVED. And when ONE of them is
observed, the other INSTANTLY takes the opposite value even though there is no
time for a message to be passed between them!
5) Schrdingers Cat
Schrdingers created a thought experiment to highlight the absurdity of the
Wave-Particle situation.
A cat, radioactive isotope, a Geiger Detector and a poison are placed inside a box
(as you do). If any particles decay from the isotope, the Geiger Detector will
detect it and the poison will be released which will then kill the cat (a bit harsh
but thats life really).
Richard Howland

Page 46 of 60

22 May 2013

The question is: After 1 half-life (time for HALF the particles to decay), is the
cat dead or alive?
Since the decay of a nucleus is governed by probability, then you cannot say that
the cat is DEAD or ALIVE until you OBSERVE it. Until then, the cat is a wave and
is neither DEAD or ALIVE.
6) If a tree falls in a wood, does it make a sound?
For many years this philosophical question kept some people occupied in
intellectual debates. And physicists just said Yes.
But now we realise that unless there is an observer, then all that exists is a
Probability Wave and no answer is real. Once an observer arrives, then the
Probability Wave collapses to a single answer yes or no. Until that point
there are no answers.
7) What is an Observer?
An Observer is something that makes the Probability Wave collapse to a single
value. In other words, it causes the Wave behaviour to change to Particle
Behaviour.
8) When did the Universe become real?
This is a difficult question, and it depends on what is allowed for an Observer. If
an Observer is ANYTHING, then the Universe became REAL once an observation
took place. If an Observer has to be a Conscious Being then the Universe only
became REAL once the Conscious Being observed it!
9) Orbitals Why can electrons break laws of physics in Orbitals?
When an electron absorbs or emits a photon, there is an interaction this is
particle behaviour. When the electron is on its own there is no observation so it
behaves like a wave. If we plot where the electron is observed each time, then we
trace out the path of an orbital.
The question: How can electrons travel in circles without losing energy? is the
wrong question. Between observations, the electron behaves as a wave and isnt
travelling or moving its an imaginary wave. Its only when it is observed that it
has an actual place. Electrons dont orbit or stand still they simply appear when
observed!
Richard Howland

Page 47 of 60

22 May 2013

10) Quantum Tunnelling

Ever wanted to get out of a room without moving? Well you can! If no-one
observes you, then you behave like a wave. This wave extends to infinity. When
someone observes you, the imaginary wave collapses to a single value particle
behaviour. You just need someone to observe you outside the room!
Think this is nonsense!? Well it isnt. All the electronic gadgets that you own (e.g.
iPod, mobile phones, XBOX 360) contain micro-chips and they use electrons. Since
electrons behave as particles or waves (depending on observation), the micro-chips
have to be designed to treat the electrons as particles and waves!
11) Many Worlds theory
If an object is not observed, it behaves as a wave. These waves are imaginary and
extend to infinity. When an observation takes place, this wave collapses (vanishes)
and the object is located in a single position. But why that particular value?
It is all governed by probability. There is a probability that the object will be
found in a certain place. But how was that place chosen?
This has led to some scientists to consider the Many Worlds Theory. It
considers the idea that when the (imaginary) wave collapses to ONE value every
possible value occurs but in a NEW UNIVERSE. Each Universe is created
PERPENDICULAR (not Parrallel!) to this one. This would mean that every
observation (anywhere, anytime) creates an infinite number of universes 1 for
each possible outcome.

Point 5: Are you making this up?

No. Einstein hated the consequences of Quantum Physics and always refused to
believe (interesting choice of words for a scientist commenting on a scientific theory)
that the universe was governed by probability. Einstein famously stated God does
not play Dice!
Heisenberg and Bohr realised that the only way to solve the experimental data was
using the mathematics of probability and statistics which meant that nothing was
ever certain. Every outcome had a probability and this was given by the WAVE
EQUATION. A solution (mathematically speaking) occurs when the equation is
operated on in PHYSICS we call that an observation (or interaction).
Richard Howland

Page 48 of 60

22 May 2013

Appendix 1 Specification (Quantum Phenomena)

The Photoelectric Effect
Work function , threshold frequency f0,
photoelectric equation h f = + EK
the stopping potential experiment is not required.
Collisions of electrons with atoms
The electron volt.
Ionization and excitation; understanding of ionization and excitation in the
fluorescent tube.
Energy levels and photon emission
Line spectra (e.g. of atomic hydrogen) as evidence of transitions between discrete
levels in atoms.
h f = E1 E2
Wave particle duality
Candidates should know that electron diffraction suggests the wave nature of
particles and the photoelectric effect suggests the particle nature of
electromagnetic waves; details of particular methods of particle diffraction are not
required.
de Broglie wavelength, = h m v
where m v is the momentum.

Richard Howland

Page 49 of 60

22 May 2013

Appendix 2 Conversions of Units

Distance
1 km = 1000 m
1 cm = 0.01 m
1 mm = 0.001 m

Mass
1 tonne = 1000 kg
1 gram = 0.001 kg

Time
1 year = 365.24 days
1 year = 3.16 x 107 seconds
1 milli-second = 0.001 seconds

Area
1 cm2 = 1 cm x 1 cm
= 0.01 m x 0.01 m
= 10-2 m x 10-2 m
= 10-4 m2
1 mm2 = 1 mm x 1 mm
= 0.001 m x 0.001 m
= 10-3 m x 10-3 m
= 10-6 m2

Volume
1 cm3 = 1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm
= 0.01 m x 0.01 m x 0.01 m
= 10-2 m x 10-2 m x 10-2 m
= 10-6 m3
1 mm3 = 1 mm x 1 mm x 1 mm
= 0.001 m x 0.001 m x 0.001 m
= 10-3 m x 10-3 m x 10-3 m
= 10-9 m3
Richard Howland

Page 50 of 60

22 May 2013

Appendix 3 Prefixes
Name

Symbol

Standard Form

Yotta

1024

Zeta

1021

Exa

1018

Peta

1015

Tera

1012

Giga

109

Mega

106

kilo

103
100

milli

10-3

micro

10-6

nano

10-9

pico

10-12

femto

10-15

atto

10-18

zepto

10-21

yocto

10-24

You need to know the symbols for 10-9 to 109 and how to use them.

Richard Howland

Page 51 of 60

22 May 2013

Appendix 4 Is light a Particle or Wave?

Point 1: What are Particles and Waves?
Waves can pass through each other, they are not localised (not positioned in one
place), they have no mass, and no charge.
Particles cant pass through each other, they are localised (they are in one place),
and they can have mass, and can have charge.
An object cant be a wave or a particle at the same time since they are exact
opposites.

Point 2: Is Light a Wave or a Particle?

1621 Snells Law of Refraction
Snell finds derives the relationship between wave speeds in different mediums.
1665 Dispersion of Light Francesco Grimaldi
Grimaldi did experiments that showed that light could spread out if passed through
a very narrow slit.
1666 Light is a Particle Sir Isaac Newton
Newtons theory of light was particular (this was the accepted view in England). The
supporting evidence for this was:
The existence of Shadows. Fine edges indicated particles since waves can bend
around objects.
Light can travel in a vacuum. Particles can do this but at this time (1660s) no
wave could do this.
Dispersion was explained by the idea of white light being made up of 7
different coloured particles which split.
1678 Light is a Wave Christiaan Huygens
Huygens proposed that Light is type kind of wave motion. Light can pass through
other light and emerge without being affected. This is a wave characteristic.
Newtons Particle Theory was the accepted view. Also discovered polarisation of
light polarisation is a (transverse) wave property only. (Published in 1690).
Richard Howland

Page 52 of 60

22 May 2013

1704 Optiks Sir Isaac Newton

Splitting of Light through a prism was explained by Newton in terms of corpsicules
hitting the side of the slit and reflecting to a different place.
1768 Colour of Light Leonhard Euler
Euler suggested that the wavelength of light determines its colour.
1801 Interference of Light Thomas Young
Young proposed that Colours produced by thick films could only be explained if light
were a wave. He even measured the wavelength of Visible Light.
1816 Mathematics of Light Waves Jean Fresnel
Fresnel did a lot of mathematics and demonstrated that we didnt see the diffraction
of light because it has a much smaller wavelength than the object.
1850 The Speed of Light Jean Foucalt
Fouclat measured the speed of light in air and water. He found that the speed of
light in water was slower than the speed of light in air. A particle theory of light
suggests the opposite to this result. A wave theory of light predicts this.
1873 Light is Electromagnetic Radiation James Clerk Maxwell
Maxwell describes (with equations) that light is a type of Electromagnetic Radiation.
Year

Scientist

1666

Isaac Newton

1678

Christiaan Huygens

1704

Isaac Newton

1768

Leonard Euler

1801

Thomas Young

1816

Jean Fresnel

1850

Jean Foucalt

1873

James Clerk Maxwell

Is light a wave or particle?

In the year 1899, was light considered to be a particle or a wave?

Richard Howland

Page 53 of 60

22 May 2013

Point 3: The Electro-magnetic Spectrum

1800 The Sun William Herschel
Herschel discovers that the Sun has an InfraRed region.
1801 Ultra Violet Radiation Johann Wilhelm Ritter
Discovery of Ultra Violet Radiation.
1865 Electromagnetic Waves can travel through a Vacuum James Clerk Maxwell
Maxwell did a lot of mathematics and proved that Electromagnetic Waves could
travel through a vacuum and that they all travelled at the Speed of Light.
1867 Fluorescent Lamp Becquerel
Becquerel invents the Fluorescent Lamp (emits Ultra Violet).
1887 Discovery of Radio Waves Heinrich Hertz
This was the first demonstration of the existence of Electromagnetic Waves. Hertz
also calculated the speed of these Radio Waves using c = f and found the value of c
agreed with Maxwells theoretical value.
1895 X Rays Roentgen
Roentgen discovers X Rays (which he called Roentgen Rays)
Year

Scientist

Part of the EM Spectrum

Discovered / Discovery

1800
1801
1865
1873
1887
1895
In 1899, what does the EM Spectrum contain? What is missing?

Richard Howland

Page 54 of 60

22 May 2013

Appendix 5 The Ultra-Violet Catastrophe

Point 1: The Ultra-Violet Catastrophe
Blackbody Radiation
1862 Gustav Kirchoff
EM Radiation enters the Cavity (Box) and
is reflected. Given enough time, it will be
absorbed by the walls of the box. The
absorption of energy will increase the
Cavitys temperature.

A Black Body absorbs all the radiation that falls onto it.
Black bodies radiate energy which is only dependent on their temperature.
The radiation emitted from a Black Body is called Black Body Radiation.
From experiment, a graph of Black Body Radiation can be plotted.

Black Body Radiator

Intensity
(Power per
Unit Wavelength
per Unit Area)

Wavelength / m

Richard Howland

Page 55 of 60

22 May 2013

Classical Physics The Theory

From Classical Physics Theories (Electromagnetism and Statistical Mechanics)

an equation was derived to predict the behaviour of a Black Body Radiator.
The equation (known as the RayleighJeans Law) was very successful at low
frequencies but did not work for high frequencies.

The Black Body Theory

A simplified version of the theory is as follows:

Every possible frequency of radiation can exist inside the walls of the Cavity.
These EM Waves will be continuously reflected inside the Cavity and will
interfere with themselves.
Following the laws of the Interference of Waves, Standing Waves will be
generated inside the Cavity.
Clearly, the shorter the wavelengths (higher frequencies) the more modes
(think of nodes and anti-nodes) that can fit inside the Cavity.
It was believed that each mode carried energy, so the more modes, the more
energy in the standing wave.
Clearly, the higher the frequency of the EM Waves, the more modes so the
more energy it contained.
From this scientists Rayleigh and Jeans formulated an equation to calculate the
Intensity of the EM Waves being released.

The RayleighJeans Law

I is Intensity
2, ,c,k are all constants
T is Temperature
is the Wavelength of the Radiation

If the Temperature rises, the Intensity of the Radiation given out rises
(makes sense the hotter something is the more heat energy it gives out).
If EM Waves have a wavelength of less than 1 metre, the Intensity will
increase, and as the wavelengths approach 0 metres, the Intensity approaches
INFINITY!

Richard Howland

Page 56 of 60

I = 2ck T / 4

22 May 2013

Comparison to Theory
From the Rayleigh-Jeans law:
Objects emit electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths and the Intensity of
the radiation depends on its wavelength.
The shorter the wavelength the more energy it emits.
Therefore, the graph for a Black Body would look something like this

Intensity
(Power per
Unit Wavelength
per Unit Area)

RayleighJeans Radiator

Exponential rise towards

infinity

Area under the graph is

the total Energy emitted
by the object.
This is infinite!
Wavelength / m

At short wavelengths, any object would be emitting an infinite amount of

energy
So as you go towards the short wavelength end of the spectrum (the Ultra
Violet end as it was known at the time) the energy emitted is infinite and
clearly, no object in the world around you is emitting an infinite amount of
energy

Richard Howland

Page 57 of 60

22 May 2013

Intensity
(Power per
Unit Wavelength
per Unit Area)

Black Body Radiator (from experiment)

Area under the graph is the total

Energy emitted by the object
This is finite

Intensity goes to
zero

Wavelength / m
The Catastrophe

According to all the Classical laws in Physics, the RaleighJeans law should
work, but clearly it cant and doesnt.
It is called the UltraViolet Catastrophe because any object would emit an
infinite amount of electromagnetic radiation at any time.
No object emits an infinite amount of energy.
So clearly, the Classical Laws of physics are wrong.
And the understanding in Classical Physics is wrong.

Point 7: The Breakdown of Classical Physics (it doesnt work!)

Quantisation of Energy
1900 Max Planck
In an attempt to solve the Black Body Radiation problem, Max Planck tried to
derive an equation for a Black Body Radiator.
The only way he could get the physics to make sense was to state that energy
is emitted in packets.
In other words, energy is not given out in a continuous stream but is given out a
little bit at a time.
The Latin word for packet is QUANTA.
He also found that the energy of each Quanta depends on the frequency of the
radiation.
Richard Howland

Page 58 of 60

22 May 2013

E = hf

E = hf

Since the Energy of radiation is dependent on its frequency, then:

E = Energy in Joules, J
h = Plancks constant = 6.626 x10-34 J s
f = frequency in Hertz, Hz

Black Body Radiation

The implications are that on the atomic scale, Classical Physics can not be
applied.
On the atomic scale, Energy is quantised.
This means that in the Atomic World things will work in a completely different
way to the Macroscopic World.
This was the birth of QUANTUM PHYSICS.

The Ultra-Violet Catastrophe

By using E = hf in the same theory for the Black Body Radiator, Planck derived a
different equation:
And this works!

Richard Howland

I=

2hf3

c2

ehf/kT - 1

Page 59 of 60

22 May 2013

Appendix 6 The Electron-Volt

If an electron is passed through a Potential Difference of 1 Volt, it gains the

energy of 1 Electron Volt or 1 eV.
For example, in a cell of 1 V, the electron would gain energy equivalent to 1
electronvolt.
The value of 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J.
This is the energy that an electron would actually have.
Since the number 1.6 x 10-19 J is so small, the unit eV is used.
Energy in an atom or in Particle Physics is given in eV.

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Another way to think of the Electron-Volt is from ELECTRICITY:
Potential Difference = Work done per Coulomb of Charge
In Symbols:

V=E/Q

Re-arranging:

E=QV

Since:

Q = charge on 1 electron = e = 1.6x10-19 C

Then:

E = 1 eV = 1.6x10-19 C x 1 V = 1.6x10-19 J

Hence:

1 eV = 1.6x10-19 J

Richard Howland

Page 60 of 60

22 May 2013