SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR MODELS FOR THE SIMULATION

OF ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

by

Vladimir

Brandwajn

B . S c , T e c h n i o n , I s r a e l i I n s t i t u t e o f Technology, 1971
M . S c , T e c h n i o n , I s r a e l i I n s t i t u t e o f Technology, 1973

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

i n t h e Department
of
E l e c t r i c a l Engineering

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s

as c o n f o r m i n g t o

the r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

A p r i l , 1977
c

V l a d i m i r Brandwajn, 1977

In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s

thesis

an advanced degree at

further

fulfilment

of

the

requirements

the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I a g r e e

the L i b r a r y s h a l l make it
I

in p a r t i a l

freely

available

for

reference

agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying o f

of

this

It

thesis f o r financial

this

thesis

gain s h a l l not

of

be allowed without my

z.

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia

2075 Wesbrook Place

Vancouver, Canada
V6T 1W5

Date
1

~r\

or

i s understood that c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n

written permission.

Department

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and s t u d y .

f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head o f my D e p a r t m e n t

by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s .

for

ABSTRACT

Techniques f o r modelling of synchronous

generators i n the

simulation of electromagnetic transients are described.

F i r s t of a l l ,

an adequate mathematical model of the generator i s established.

I t uses

the conventional set of generator data only, which are r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e ,

but i t i s f l e x i b l e enough to accommodate a d d i t i o n a l data, i f and when
such become available.

The r e s u l t i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of the

generator are then transformed into l i n e a r algebraic equations, with a

time varying c o e f f i c i e n t matrix, by using the numerically stable trapez o i d a l rule of i n t e g r a t i o n .

These equations can be interfaced with the

equations of an electromagnetic transients program i n one of two ways:

(a)

Solve the equations of the generator simultaneously with the

equations of a three-phase Thevenin equivalent c i r c u i t of the
transmission network seen from the generator terminals.

(b)

Replace the generator model with a modified Thevenin equival e n t c i r c u i t and solve the network equations with the generred
ator treated as known voltage sources e ^
red
stant resistances [R , ].
pn

(t-At) behind con-

A f t e r the network s o l u t i o n at each

time step, the stator quantities are known and used to solve
the equations f o r the rotor windings.
These two methods cover, i n p r i n c i p l e , a l l possible i n t e r f a c i n g techniques.

They are not t i e d to the trapezoidal rule of i n t e g r a t i o n , but can

be used with any other i m p l i c i t integration technique.

The r e s u l t s

obtained with these two techniques are p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l .

Inter-

facing by method (b), however, i s more general since i t does not require a Thevenin equivalent c i r c u i t of the network seen from the generator

ii

terminals.

The numerical examples used i n this thesis contain compari-

sons with f i e l d test results i n order to v e r i f y the adequacy of the

generator model as w e l l as the correctness of the numerical procedures.
A short discussion of nonlinear saturation e f f e c t s i s also
presented.

A method of including these e f f e c t s into the model of the

generator i s then

proposed.

Typical applications of the developed numerical

procedures

include dynamic overvoltages, t o r s i o n a l vibrations of the turbinegenerator shaft system, resynchronization of the generator a f t e r pole
s l i p p i n g and detailed assessment of generator damping terms i n transient
s t a b i l i t y simulations.

i i i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT

i i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

iv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

vi

LIST OF TABLES

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ix

1.

INTRODUCTION

2.

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR MODEL

2.1

General Remarks about Physical Device Modelling

2.2

Model of the E l e c t r i c Part

2.3

Calculation of Parameters for the Model of the E l e c t r i c

3.

4.

Part

12

2.4

Recent Proposals for Improvements i n Parameter Accuracy .

17

2.5

Model of the Mechanical Part of the Generator

19

2.6

Conclusions

23

NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF THE GENERATOR EQUATIONS

25

3.1

Choice of Integration Method

25

3.2

Physical Interpretation of the Trapezoidal Rule of

Integration for a Lumped Inductance

30

3.3

Choice of Coordinate System

36

3.4

Multiphase Equivalent Networks

38

3.5

Three-Phase Equivalent C i r c u i t of the Generator

41

INTERFACING THE GENERATOR MODEL WITH THE TRANSIENTS PROGRAM

45

4.1

Problem Formulation

45

4.2

Method I - Interface by Means of a Thevenin Equivalent

C i r c u i t of the Transmission Network

47

4.3

Limitations of Method I

50

4.4

Method II - Interface with a Modified Thevenin Equivalent

C i r c u i t of the Generator

51

4.5

Remarks about Method II

56

4.6

Numerical Examples

60

iv

Page
5.

I N I T I A L CONDITIONS, DATA SCALING AND SATURATION

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

6.

73

C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e I n i t i a l C o n d i t i o n s f o r a Synchronous
Generator

73

C o n s i s t e n t P e r U n i t (p.u.) System and C o n v e r s i o n t o

Physical Units

77

S a t u r a t i o n i n the S t e a d y - S t a t e O p e r a t i o n of a Synchronous
Generator

83

D e f i n i t i o n s o f S a t u r a t i o n i n the S i m u l a t i o n of E l e c t r o magnetic Transients

86

I m p l e m e n t a t i o n i n t h e T r a n s i e n t s Program

90

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

92

REFERENCES

94

APPENDIX 1

99

APPENDIX 2

103

APPENDIX'3

\ . .

105

APPENDIX 4

107

APPENDIX 5

109

APPENDIX 6

112

APPENDIX 7

116

APPENDIX 8

118

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure

Page

Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a synchronous g e n e r a t o r .

Comparison of the s i m u l a t e d f i e l d c u r r e n t i ^ .

16

I d e n t i c a l r e s u l t s f o r c u r r e n t i i n the f a u l t e d phase
w i t h approximate and a c c u r a t e parameter c o n v e r s i o n .

17

T o r s i o n a l model of a t u r b i n e - g e n e r a t o r u n i t .

19

Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a t h r e e r o t a t i n g masses
system.

25

Three phase-to-ground f a u l t a t g e n e r a t o r

28

Comparison of s i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s f o r the f i e l d c u r r e n t
i n case o f a three-phase f a u l t .

29

Comparison of s i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s f o r the f i e l d c u r r e n t
i n case of a l i n e - t o - g r o u n d f a u l t .

30

I n d u c t a n c e between nodes k and m.

31

10

Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of l o s s l e s s , s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d
transmission l i n e .

32

11

R e l a t i v e a m p l i t u d e e r r o r of the t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e o f
integration.

34

12

Phase e r r o r of the t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e o f i n t e g r a t i o n .

35

13

Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a t h r e e - p h a s e Thevenin e q u i valent c i r c u i t .

40

14

Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f two connected n e t w o r k s .

45

15

Flow c h a r t of s o l u t i o n w i t h method I .

49

16

Flow c h a r t of the i t e r a t i o n scheme.

55

17

Comparison of f i e l d c u r r e n t w i t h v a r i o u s p r e d i c t i o n
techniques.

58

18

Comparison of s t a t o r c u r r e n t i n phase " a " w i t h v a r i o u s

p r e d i c t i o n techniques.

59

19

Line-to-ground

61

20

Simulated

f a u l t at g e n e r a t o r

terminals.

terminal.

c u r r e n t I, i n the u n f a u l t e d phase "b".

vi

62

Figure

Page

21

System diagram.

63

22

Comparison of s t a t o r c u r r e n t s between s i m u l a t i o n and

f i e l d t e s t f o r a three-phase f a u l t .

64

23

System diagram.

66

. 24

Comparison of the s i m u l a t e d and measured

f i e l d current.

66

25

Comparison of t h e s i m u l a t e d c u r r e n t i n the f a u l t e d phase

"a".

67

26

Comparison of the s i m u l a t e d f i e l d c u r r e n t .

68

27

System diagram.

69

28

Comparison of the s i m u l a t e d c u r r e n t f o r f a u l t e d phase "a". 70

29

Comparison of the s i m u l a t e d t h r e e - p h a s e i n s t a n t a n e o u s
power.

71

30

Comparison of the s i m u l a t e d f i e l d c u r r e n t .

72

31

Phasor diagram o f a synchronous g e n e r a t o r f o r b a l a n c e d ,

steady s t a t e operation.

74

32

Typical open-circuit characteristic.

81

33

L i n e a r i z a t i o n through the o r i g i n .

85

34

Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s .

88

35

S t r a i g h t - l i n e a p p r o x i m a t i o n of the f l u x - c u r r e n t
characteristic.

89

3.1

S c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the network.

105

6.1

Flow c h a r t of computer program f o r m a t r i x r e d u c t i o n .

115

7.1

S c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of an unloaded g e n e r a t o r . ^

117

8.1

System diagram.

118

8.2

Model of the s h a f t system.

118

8.3

S i m u l a t e d e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c t o r q u e of the g e n e r a t o r .

119

8.4

S i m u l a t e d m e c h a n i c a l speed o f the g e n e r a t o r r o t o r .

119

8.5

S i m u l a t e d t o r q u e on the s h a f t between the g e n e r a t o r

r o t o r and the e x c i t e r .

119

vii

LIST OF TABLES
Table
I

Page
Comparison of data conversion with d i f f e r e n t methods.

viii

15

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would l i k e to express my deep appreciation to
Dr. H.W. Dommel for h i s unflagging patience, advice and most importantly
f a i t h through a l l phases of this work.
Thanks are also due to Dr. A.C. Soudack for h i s cooperation i n this project.
The f i n a n c i a l support from the National Research Council
of Canada and the University of B r i t i s h Columbia i s g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged.

ix

1.

INTRODUCTION

The importance of general-purpose

computer programs for the

simulation of electromagnetic transients i n power systems i s constantly

increasing.

Some of the elements of power systems can now be represented

with a high degree of sophistication, e.g., overhead l i n e s with

dependent l i n e parameters [1],

frequency

Some other elements, however, are not yet

represented i n enough d e t a i l , including synchronous generators.

sinusoidal voltage sources E" cos (cot + p ) behind impedances R
max
a
6

have been used to represent generators i n transient studies.

Normally,
+ jwL'
d

In the

derivation of t h i s approximate model, i t i s assumed that rotor fluxes do

not change immediately

after the disturbance, and that subtransient

saliency of the generator can be ignored.

This simple model i s quite

adequate for certain types of studies during the f i r s t cycle or so a f t e r

the disturbance which i n i t i a t e s the transient phenomena, e.g., switching
surge studies, transient recovery voltage studies, and other types of
studies involving fast transients [2].

It i s also adequate i f the gen-

erator impedance i s only a small part of the t o t a l impedance between the

generator and the location of the disturbance.
Recent interest i n electromagnetic transient phenomena which
p e r s i s t over longer time spans makes i t worthwhile to implement more
accurate models f o r synchronous generators into programs for e l e c t r o magnetic transients [2-4].

Potential applications include studies of

subsynchronous resonance [4-5], dynamic overvoltages, accurate assessment

of damping terms i n transient s t a b i l i t y studies (due to d.c. o f f s e t ,
harmonics, and

asymmetries i n s h o r t - c i r c u i t currents), and other studies.

This thesis discusses the major problems of i n t e r f a c i n g generator models with an electromagnetic transients program and proposes new

2.

solution techniques.

F i r s t l y , the choice of an appropriate generator

model and the calculation of i t s parameters are discussed.

This discuss-

ion and a description of numerical problems i n the simultaneous

of the generator equations and the equations of the connected

solution

transmiss-

ion network provide the necessary background for the introduction of

i n t e r f a c i n g techniques - around which the major research e f f o r t of the
thesis was

concentrated.

The proposed

techniques cover i n p r i n c i p l e a l l

the possible approaches to interface problems.

used to test the v a l i d i t y of the proposed

Numerical examples are

techniques.

Some additional

problems related to the solution of generator equations, e.g.,

proposed

treatment of saturation e f f e c t s , are described i n the f i n a l chapter of

this thesis.
The contributions

of this thesis to power system analysis

con-

s i s t of:
(a)

a c r i t i c a l review of synchronous generator models and selection

of a model appropriate f o r the simulation

of electromagnetic

transients,
(b)

a new method f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n of synchronous generator parameters from test data,

(c)

a new physical interpretation of the d i s c r e t i z a t i o n error for

the trapezoidal rule of integration

applied to series inductances,

which shows that the r e s u l t i n g difference equations are exact

solutions of equivalent l o s s l e s s stub l i n e s ,
(d)

the development of two alternative i n t e r f a c i n g techniques f o r

solving the generator and network equations simultaneously, with
one being s i m i l a r to a technique developed i n industry concurrently

2 a .

with the research project of this thesis and the other one being
a new
(e)

technique with l e s s r e s t r i c t i o n s than the f i r s t one, and

an analysis and proposed treatment of saturation e f f e c t s i n the

synchronous generator.

3.

2.
2.1

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR MODEL

General Remarks about Physical Device Modelling

In general, the derivation of a mathematical model of any phy-

s i c a l device consists of the following steps [6]:

(1)

Selection of a model structure based upon observations

and phy-

s i c a l knowledge;
(2)

f i t t i n g of parameters of the chosen model to available data;

(3)

v e r i f i c a t i o n and testing of the model;

(4)

application of the model to i t s given purpose.

The basic decisions are made at the f i r s t stage.

I t i s , f o r example,

necessary to decide whether the physical device can be treated as a

l i n e a r system.

I f so, a l i n e a r system of equations ( d i f f e r e n t i a l or

algebraic) i s used to describe the basic physical phenomena relevant to

the device.

Therefore,

of the physical r e a l i t y .

this stage involves some necessary s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s

At the next stage, relationships between the

parameters of the model and the available data have to be established.

At this stage, therefore, some additional s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s may have to be
introduced.

The l a s t two stages serve as v e r i f i c a t i o n of the developed

model, and may r e s u l t i n some changes i n the model, i f necessary. I t

should, therefore, be remembered that any mathematical model of a physic a l device always involves simplifications of physical r e a l i t y .
2.2

Model of the E l e c t r i c Part

The generator i s assumed to be an " i d e a l synchronous machine"

i n the sense of Park's d e f i n i t i o n [7].

The basic assumptions for this

i d e a l generator can be summarized as follows:

(1)

Saturation e f f e c t s are neglected.

This allows the application

of the s u p e r p o s i t i o n p r i n c i p l e , because the model i s t h e n

linear.

Neglecting

the s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s i s a common p r a c -

t i c e i n the t h e o r y o f a l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t machines

[8-9].

Techniques f o r i n c l u d i n g n o n l i n e a r e f f e c t s w i l l be

discussed

later

on.

The magnetic c i r c u i t and a l l r o t o r w i n d i n g s are assumed t o be

s y m m e t r i c a l b o t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o the d i r e c t a x i s , w h i c h l i n e s
up w i t h the c e n t e r - l i n e through the f i e l d p o l e s , and
q u a d r a t u r e a x i s 90

to

the

b e h i n d i t (the recommended p o s i t i o n of

the

q u a d r a t u r e a x i s l a g g i n g 90 b e h i n d the d i r e c t a x i s i s adopted
[10]).
A c u r r e n t i n any w i n d i n g i s assumed t o s e t up a magneto-motive
f o r c e s i n u s o i d a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n space around the a i r
Any

magneto-motive f o r c e may

the two

axes ( d i r e c t and

b u t i o n does n o r m a l l y
i s considered.

be r e s o l v e d i n t o components a l o n g

quadrature).

imply

gap.

The

sinusoidal d i s t r i -

t h a t o n l y the fundamental component

In connection

w i t h t h i s assumption, i t should

be n o t i c e d t h a t the e f f e c t s of harmonics i n the f i e l d

b u t i o n are s m a l l i n a w e l l d e s i g n e d machine [ 1 1 ] ,

distri-

[12],

I t i s assumed t h a t a magneto-motive f o r c e a c t i n g a l o n g

the

d i r e c t a x i s produces a s i n u s o i d a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d f l u x wave w h i c h
a l s o a c t s a l o n g the d i r e c t a x i s .

S i m i l a r i l y , a quadrature axis

magneto-motive f o r c e produces a s i n u s o i d a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d quadrature axis f l u x .

and

The

f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g magneto-motive f o r c e

f l u x a r e , however, d i f f e r e n t on the two axes i n a s a l i e n t

p o l e machine [ 1 1 ] .
I t i s assumed t h a t the damper b a r s can be r e p r e s e n t e d

as

two

5.

concentrated hypothetical windings, one i n the d i r e c t axis (D)

and the other i n the quadrature axis (Q) [8], Another hypot h e t i c a l winding (g) i n the quadrature axis i s normally added
for round rotor machines to represent the deep flowing eddy
currents.

Consequently, the machine consist of seven windings:

three a.c. stator windings, one f i e l d winding for d i r e c t axis,

one hypothetical winding D for d i r e c t axis and two hypothetical
windings g, Q f o r the quadrature axis.
This " i d e a l machine" i s schematically shown i n F i g . 1.

F i g . 1.

Schematic representation of a synchronous

generator (position of windings i s shown
in space).

A system of seven linear d i f f e r e n t i a l equations describes the

relationship between the voltages and the currents i n the seven windings
of the i d e a l i z e d generator.

The voltage equations of the generator, i n

6.

phase

c o o r d i n a t e s * , have

the f o l l o w i n g

form**:

(1)
where

the v e c t o r

of fluxes _

aa

[L]i =

^ b

^ c

ac

aD

.
cf

cf

M
eg

The

matrix

[L] i s always
The

harmonic

self

L
L

aa
bb
cc

L
L
L

position

fD

ag

cQ

eg

Qg

[12],

Qg

(2)

L
g

i r r e s p e c t i v e of rotor

and m u t u a l i n d u c t a n c e s

terms o f r o t o r

symmetrical,

aD

cD

fD

cQ

as:

% %

cD

aQ

\f

cc
M

af

ac

af

i n general

ab

ab
M
_ =

i s given

position

o f the armature c o n t a i n

3.

even

e.g.,

ao

(3)

bo

ch

C2

CO

and

M
M

ab
ac

^ c

= M , + M , eos2B + M , , cos4g + ...

abo
ab2
3
ahh
3
=M

+M

aco

" ^co

cos2g

ac2

bc2

C O s 2 0

+M

, cos4g

ac4

*W

S 4 6

+ ...

(4)

Phase c o o r d i n a t e s r e f e r t o a c t u a l c u r r e n t s and v o l t a g e s i n t h e 3 phases

a, b , c o f t h e s t a t o r and t o a c t u a l c u r r e n t s and v o l t a g e s i n t h e r o t o r
windings.

** C a p i t a l
straight

letters
lines

i n square brackets
underneath l e t t e r s

[ ] indicate matrix
indicate

vector

quantities;

quantities.

7.

where
3i

= tot + <S + ir/2

= S i - 2ir/3

= Bj + 2TT/3

(5)

The s e l f and mutual i n d u c t a n c e s o f t h e r o t o r L,., L_, L, L ,

f
D
Q
g
M ,, and M a r e c o n s t a n t . The m u t u a l i n d u c t a n c e s between armature and
fD'
Qg
T

r o t o r c o n t a i n odd harmonic terms, e.g.,

M
af
aD

= M

aQ

"

M
ag

cosB

afl

a D 1

aQl

S l n 6

agl

af3
C

a D 3

S l n 3 e

+ .

cos3g

aQ3
a g 3

s 3 e

+ .

sin33

(6)

+ .
+ .

S i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t f o r t h e o t h e r two phases b and c [ 1 2 ] .

P r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a l l o w a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e number o f parameters
appearing i n (2)-(6).
implies

F o r example, a p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d b a l a n c e d machine

f u l l symmetry o f t h e phases a, b , and c, e.g.,

L
L

= bo
L

ao

= L

= L
CO

s
=
L
= C2
a2 \ b 2
m
= M
= M
^bco
abo
s
aco
= M
= M
ab2
ac2
bc2
L

(7)

Other s i m p l i f y i n g assumptions a r e made t o a d j u s t t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e

model t o t h e amount o f d a t a w h i c h i s u s u a l l y a v a i l a b l e .

Some o f these

can r e s u l t i n n o t i c e a b l e e r r o r s , as demonstrated l a t e r .

The f o l l o w i n g

l i s t summarizes
(1)

t h e most common s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s :

A l l harmonic terms o f o r d e r h i g h e r than 2 a r e n e g l e c t e d [ 8 ] ,

[12].

T h i s assumption does n o t seem t o cause any n o t i c e a b l e

errors [12].

8.

(2)

Mutual inductance M ^

(field-to-damper) i s assumed to be equal

to the mutual inductances M - and M

(armature-to-field and
afl
aDl
c

armature-to-damper, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , when expressed i n p.u.

i.e.,

afl

= M

aDl

[13],

= M_ = M,
fD
f

(8)

The same assumption i s made f o r the quadrature axis.

These

assumptions can sometimes cause s i g n i f i c a n t errors i n the simul a t i o n of rotor quantities [14].
(3)

The second harmonic terms i n s e l f and mutual inductances of the

armature are assumed to be equal, i . e . , M

= L^. This assump-

tion s i m p l i f i e s the model s i g n i f i c a n t l y , since i t eliminates

the coupling among the d i r e c t , quadrature, and the zero axes
[15].

This s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i s p r a c t i c a l l y always made and seems

to be j u s t i f i e d [12], [16], but i t should, nevertheless, be

remembered as a possible source of errors.
Inclusion of the assumptions mentioned above results i n the following,
s i m p l i f i e d inductance matrix [ L ] :
L

aa
ab

bb

"be

ac
[L] =

ab

\ f

af
M
af
M
aQ
M
aQ

ac

af

^c

\ f

cc
M

"bf

cf
M .
cf

cQ
cQ

af

aq

cf

cf

cQ

cQ
0

Q
q

(9)

M
q
L
g

where
L

aa

= L + L cos28
s
m
1
n

L,, = L + L cos2B
bb
s
m
2
L

cc

= L

+ L cos26
m
3

(10)

9.

M , = M + L cos2g
ab
o
m
3
M

= M

ac

+ L cos2g
m
2

(ID

M, = M + L cos2g.
be
o
m
1
and
M . = M.cosg
at
f
1
\

= M cos6
f

(12)

M . = M.cosg
cf
f
3

aQ
n

= M sing
q

(13)

M . = M sing
cQ
q
3
The
has

resistance matrix

[R] i s s i m p l y a d i a g o n a l m a t r i x , w h i c h

t h e f o l l o w i n g form f o r a b a l a n c e d

design:

R
R
[R] =

(14)

R,
R.
R

The model o f a synchronous g e n e r a t o r d e r i v e d above i s b e l i e v e d

to be the b e s t , p r e s e n t l y p o s s i b l e compromise between t h e a v a i l a b l e
amount o f t e s t d a t a and t h e d e s i r e d a c c u r a c y o f s i m u l a t i o n s .

Results

o b t a i n e d w i t h t h i s model agree q u i t e w e l l w i t h f i e l d t e s t s , w h i c h v e r i f i e s t h e adequacy o f t h i s model [ 3 ] .

The m a t h e m a t i c a l model o f a synchronous g e n e r a t o r i n phasecoordinates

i s f u l l y d e f i n e d by (1) and ( 9 ) - ( 1 4 ) .

I t i s , however, common

10.

practice i n the power industry to describe the generator i n a d i f f e r e n t

reference frame, namely i n d,q,0-coordinates

[7],

In this reference

frame, a l l inductances defined by (9)-(13) are constant.

I t should be

emphasized, however, that introduction of higher harmonics or unequal

second harmonic terms i n the armature inductances w i l l r e s u l t i n a timevarying inductance matrix [L] even i n d,q,0-coordinates

[15].

Before proceeding with transformations to the new reference

frame, i t i s useful to rewrite (1) into the following form:

v = - [ R ] i - [L]^= - ~ ( [ L ] ) i

(15)

The transformation i s defined as follows:

(16)

ip - [ ] ' i
p

and s i m i l a r l y :
V

~p

[P]-v

(17)

where the subscript "p" denotes Park's d,q,0-quantities.

The transformation matrix [P] has the following general form:
I
|w

0
(18)

[P] =

where

L-

[I] = i d e n t i t y matrix of dimension

4x4:

and the matrix [W] i s given as [17]:

cosBj

[ W ] = / T smt

cosB

sin

cosB.

sine

(19)

Park's o r i g i n a l transformation matrix and that of many other authors has

2
^ as a factor, and a negative sign i n the second row.

The l a t t e r i s due

11.

to the assumption that the quadrature axis i s leading the d i r e c t axis by

90, rather than lagging behind by 90. The p a r t i c u l a r choice of the
transformation

matrix (19) makes the transformation

power invariant and

i t s matrix orthogonal, i . e . ,
IP]"

= [P]

(20)

Application of this transformation

,-ld .
dt^p

v. = " [P][L]([P]

-P

+.^dd_(tl P r S _ p )

to (15) y i e l d s :

- [P]^([L])[P] ^

- [R]ip

,d
= - [L ]j-
- [R]i - [L ' ] i
p dt-p
p
P ~V

(21)

where

-1
[ L ] = [P][L][P]

f f

2 f
M

2 q
M

I I

(22)

f /

and
[ L

^^[Pl^tPltLUP]
L

- [P]^([P] [L ])
_ 1

-J M / 1 M '
2 qV 2 q

0
q

-L

0 - / f M

-/f M

= Ui

0
0

(23)

12.

2.3

Calculation of Parameters for the Model of the E l e c t r i c Part

As already explained,

any mathematical model of a physical de-

vice i s an approximation of physical r e a l i t y .

Some of the s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s

made i n modelling a synchronous generator were discussed

i n section 2.2.

Here, additional s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s which are often introduced

l a t i o n of parameters w i l l be discussed,

i n the calcu-

as well as a technique for avoi-

ding them.
The
e.g.,

functional relationship between measurable parameters,

R ,X
X ' X " , T, ', and T, " i n the d i r e c t axis, and the desired
a
d
d ' d * do
do
J }

set of resistances and s e l f and mutual inductances (or reactances) i s

p a r t l y nonlinear

[8], [9].

Approximations are normally made to obtain

l i n e a r i z e d relationships which are easy to solve [11], [18].

These

approximations are based upon the knowledge of machine dimensions, which

are normally unknown to the system analyst, and were only j u s t i f i e d for
hand calculations.
i f data conversion

There i s r e a l l y no reason any more to introduce them,

i s done by a d i g i t a l computer.

The model of a synchronous generator was defined i n F i g . 1.

The inductance matrix [1^] (

i n

d,q,0-coordinates) was shown i n (22) and

the matrix of resistances i n (14).

As shown i n Appendix 1, the measured

d i r e c t axis machine constants are related to the entries i n the matrices

[ L ] and [R] i n the following way
p

M,

3
=d ~ I f

fV f

1/ f
L

2 M

"D ~
2
M

D 2

< >
25

(positive sign of root for T j ' , negative sign for

(

")

13.

The above equations are nonlinear and their solution by hand

is difficult.

Introduction of approximations based on the knowledge of

machine dimensions leads to a w e l l known, s i m p l i f i e d set of equations

[11], [19].
The equations (24)-(26) may be solved d i r e c t l y as a system of
nonlinear equations by means of Newton's method.

F i r s t , (24)-(26) are

rearranged to the following form:

G(x) = 0
where G_ = [ g

l f

(27)

g , g , g^]^ represents the vectors of functional r e l a 2

T
tionships, x = [R^, L^, L^, R^]
meters, assuming

represents the unknown machine para-

i n p.u. i s found from:

X

= X, + .M

(28)

Sometimes, the f i e l d resistance R^ i n p.u. i s given by the manufacturer.

In this case, the vector x i s given as:
x = [M , L , L , R ^
f

(29)

The following relationship i s obtained by taking the f i r s t term

in Taylor's series expansion and equating i t to zero:
G(x) = G(x*) + [G'(x*)].(x - x*) = 0

(30)

where x represents the approximate solution point of the newest i t e r a t i o n

step and x* the approximate solution of the preceding i t e r a t i o n step (or
the

o r i g i n a l guess).

From (30) i t follows that

x = x* - [G'(x*)] -G(x*)
_1

(31)

Eq. (31) i s used i t e r a t i v e l y u n t i l convergence i s reached.

The

i n i t i a l guesses are found with the approximate linear relationships, as

normally used before.

This procedure converges quite f a s t .

only 2 i t e r a t i o n steps are required.

Typically,

14.

A set of equations analogous

to (24)-(26) may be obtained for

the quadrature axis, which are again solved with Newton's method to
obtain the model parameters from the test data.
data f o r the quadrature axis i s incomplete.
nor T^ '
o

are given.

Quite often, the set of

In many cases, neither X

It i s then necessary to reduce the complexity of

the model by omitting the g-winding.

Equations (24)-(26) are then re-

placed by the following set of equations [11] (for d e t a i l s see Appendix 1):
M

L " = L - |- -9q
1
Q

Quite often, the manufacturer's

do

(32)

" = 2R

(33)

data sheets show that T

' ^ T
qo

X^'

", but
qo

The program would f a i l i n this case because the two assump-

tions contradict each other (the f i r s t implies the existence of a gwinding, whereas the second implies that there i s no g-winding).

The

following equation:
L
L

- L * = M (1 q
q
q

- M

9-) = 0

(34)

L
o

would then not have a r e a l solution except f o r

g- and Q-winding.

= 0, which implies no

This special case can be solved without program modi-

f i c a t i o n s , however, by setting X^' nearly equal to X^,

X ' = 0.99 X
q
q

(X ' must always be less than X ).

q
q

for example,

Since measurement

accuracy i s t y p i c a l l y 5%, this assumption

i s acceptable.

To i l l u s t r a t e the impact of l i n e a r i z a t i o n on the calculation of

parameters,
[11]:

a 30 MVA

machine was

considered with the following data

15.

V
V
II

results

0.707 p.u.

0.214 p.u.

X "
q

0.1524 p.u.
( c a l c u l a t e d from o t h e r

7.8 s

do

The

0.149 p.u.

do
rn

1.443 p.u.

II

rn

data)

0.3412 s

qo

0.0701 s

314 rad- Is

0.00064 p.u.

(no g-winding)

c a l c u l a t e d i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t ways are compared i n T a b l e I .

Table I .

Comparison o f d a t a c o n v e r s i o n w i t h d i f f e r e n t methods.

C o n v e r s i o n method

a q

(p.u.)

(p.u.)

(p.u.)

(p.u.)

(p.u.)

S (p.u.)

(p.u.)

a)

approximate conversion

1.3879

0.6520

0.0550

0.1795

0.2298

0.1145

0.01766

0.00715

b)

exact conversion
( w i t h Newton's method)

1.3533

0.6173

0.0897

0.1368

0.1133

0.0698

0.01026

0.00641

c)

K i l g o r e ' s method

1.338

0.602

0.105

0.13

0.0678

.0.0515

0.0079

0.0061

While

the d i f f e r e n c e s between parameters found from the e x a c t

and approximate data c o n v e r s i o n methods are n o t g r e a t , the d i f f e r e n c e s

i n the s i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s o f r o t o r q u a n t i t i e s can be s i g n i f i c a n t .

The

s i m u l a t e d f i e l d c u r r e n t i ^ i n case o f a s i n g l e l i n e - t o - g r o u n d f a u l t f o r
the g e n e r a t o r used i n Table I i s shown i n F i g . 2 f o r approximate and
exact data conversion.
Chapter
mately

3.

The i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h i s case a r e g i v e n i n

As p o i n t e d out by o t h e r s

[12-14],

the r e s u l t s w i t h a p p r o x i -

c a l c u l a t e d parameters have s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower amplitudes

l a t i o n s o f r o t o r q u a n t i t i e s , b u t the p o s s i b l e improvements w i t h
parameter c o n v e r s i o n has not been r e c o g n i z e d .

of o s c i l exact

The s i m u l a t e d s t a t o r

quantities,

F i g . 2.

Comparison of the simulated f i e l d currents i ^ .

on the other hand, were i d e n t i c a l for approximate and exact parameters.

This agrees with r e s u l t s published by others [ 1 3 ] , [ 1 4 ] . F i g . 3 shows
the simulated current 1^ i n the faulted phase for the single l i n e - t o ground f a u l t with approximate and exact parameters (indistinguishable
from each other).

16.0
r

TIME

Fig. 3.

2.4

(s)

Identical results f o r current i i n the faulted phase

with approximate and accurate parameter conversion.
c

Recent Proposals for Improvements i n Parameter Accuracy

Additional improvements i n the model of a synchronous generator

are not possible without introduction of additional test data.

New

ting procedures require, however, a long time to become accepted as

standards.

tesnew

Model improvements occur, therefore, very slowly, but the

data conversion algorithm described above can e a s i l y be changed to

accommodate additional test data i f and when they become a v a i l a b l e .
The f i r s t improvement i s made i f unequal mutual inductances
^ M^p

k Mp^

are permitted.

This was done by a number of researchers.

In 1969, Canay [ 1 4 ] explained some of the causes of discrepancies between

18.

f i e l d measurements and s i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s o f r o t o r q u a n t i t i e s .
posed an improved

He p r o -

e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t o f t h e g e n e r a t o r , b u t he r e q u i r e d t h e

knowledge o f g e n e r a t o r dimensions

f o r o b t a i n i n g i t s parameters.

I n 1971,

Yu and Moussa [20] suggested another improved model o f a g e n e r a t o r .

They

r e q u i r e d i n t r o d u c t i o n o f an e x t r a t e s t ( t i m e c o n s t a n t T^ o f damper
winding)
Adkins

t o determine

[13] suggested

t h e parameters

o f t h e i r model.

I n 1974, Takeda and

t o o b t a i n a d d i t i o n a l d a t a from t h e measurement o f

the u n i d i r e c t i o n a l f i e l d c u r r e n t .

I n t h e same y e a r , S h a c k s h a f t [21]

came up w i t h a s i m i l a r , b u t s l i g h t l y more c o m p l i c a t e d approach.

In a l l

c a s e s , the a d d i t i o n a l d a t a can e a s i l y be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e d a t a conv e r s i o n a l g o r i t h m , independent

o f t h e way i n w h i c h i t was o b t a i n e d .

It

i s b e l i e v e d t h a t the d a t a c o n v e r s i o n a l g o r i t h m w i l l reduce t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s between s i m u l a t i o n and f i e l d t e s t s even more, s i n c e i t a v o i d s t h e

commonly used l i n e a r i z a t i o n o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
Some r e s e a r c h e r s have suggested
d i r e c t l y i n phase c o o r d i n a t e s [ 1 5 ] , [ 2 2 ] .
p l e t e l y s o l v e the problems,

measuring

the parameters

Such methods w i l l n o t com-

s i n c e some w i n d i n g s a r e i n a c c e s s i b l e .

They

may, however, be v e r y u s e f u l f o r i m p r o v i n g the a c c u r a c y o f t h e model.

d i f f e r e n t approach has e v o l v e d i n the l a s t few y e a r s .

I t i s b a s e d upon

parameter e s t i m a t i o n e i t h e r i n t h e time domain [12] o r i n t h e f r e q u e n c y

domain [ 2 3 ] , [ 2 4 ] ,

I t i s t h i s a u t h o r ' s o p i n i o n t h a t t h e parameter

mation method w i l l e v e n t u a l l y r e p l a c e a l l the o t h e r approaches.

however, be a l o n g time b e f o r e t h i s happens.
to be i m p o r t a n t t o develop

esti-

I t may,

I t was, t h e r e f o r e , b e l i e v e d

a s i m p l e method making

the e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e , c o n v e n t i o n a l s e t o f t e s t d a t a .

e f f i c i e n t use o f

19.

2.5

Model of the Mechanical Part of the Generator

It i s common practice i n transient s t a b i l i t y studies to re-

present

the rotating part of the turbine-generator

erator and turbine rotors) as one lumped mass.

unit ( i t s shaft, gen-

This approach i s , however,

unacceptable i n some studies of transient performance of the generator,

where the r o t a t i o n a l vibrations of d i f f e r e n t parts of the shaft system
are important [3], [4].

As i n the case of the e l e c t r i c a l part of the

generator, the complexity of the model depends on the amount of a v a i l a ble data.

The actual number of lumped masses may,

case to case.

therefore, vary from

The techniques for modelling mechanical systems of rota-

ting lumped masses are r e l a t i v e l y w e l l developed.

The description of

the mechanical part w i l l , therefore, be r e l a t i v e l y short.

I t should

noted, however, that some of the mechanical parameters are very

be

difficult

to obtain, not unlike some of the e l e c t r i c a l parameters.

F i g . 4 shows a t y p i c a l example of a turbine-generator

unit with

seven lumped masses, which i s based upon an actual case [3],

HP

F i g . 4.

IP

LP A

LPB

LPC

GEN

EXC

Torsional model of a turbine-generator u n i t . (HP - high

pressure turbine, IP - intermediate pressure, LPA, LPB low pressure units, GEN - generator, EXC - e x c i t e r ) .

The dynamic equations of a rotating mechanical system can be derived from

Newton's second law

[25].

for each rotating mass:

The following general equation can be written

20.

dt^

(35)

where
J = moment of i n e r t i a
6 = angle (rotational displacement)
][ T. = sum of a l l
i

torques acting on the rotating mass

To i l l u s t r a t e the use of eq. (35), the three-mass system of F i g . 5 w i l l

be used.

Assume that

r,

T-

MASS I

L
K

MASSH
D

Fig.

5.

i,i+l
D. .

i,i 1

2 2

3 3

Schematic representation of a three rotating masses system.

shaft s t i f f n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t (between masses i and i+1);

i);

viscous mutual damping-coefficient (between masses i and i+1);

moment of i n e r t i a (of the mass
angle (of the mass

T.

3 ,

1%

J.

MASSm

2 3

viscous s e l f damping c o e f f i c i e n t (of the mass

ii
D

2 ,

2 3

i);

i);

external torque (applied to mass

i).

21.

Starting with mass 1, the following three equations can be written: f o r

mass 1,
d e.

de,
ndr

i~Tdt

+ D

i2f - i- 2
( 0

i2( i- ) = l

(36)

for mass 2,
\
2
dt"
d

._
2
22^"
d 6

._ d
12dt: 2- i>
(e

23

( 6

2dt-

12< 2- 1>
e

= 2

(37)
and f o r mass 3,

de
2

3^T

de.
+

3 3 ^

2 t- 3- 2)
(e

(38)

23( 3- 2) = 3
9

Equations (36)-(38) assume that the system i s l i n e a r , which i s an acceptable s i m p l i f i c a t i o n f o r r o t a t i o n a l vibrations of small amplitude.
A three-mass system has a l l the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c features of an
n-mass system.

Therefore, equations (36)-(38) can be generalized to

obtain the following system of equations f o r any system of n rotating

masses:

[j] - e
dt

[D]
d

[K]

"

e=
~

(39)

where
[J] = diagonal matrix of moments of i n e r t i a ;
T^ = vector of external torques applied to the system;
Q_ = vector of angular displacements;
[ D ] = matrix of damping c o e f f i c i e n t s , which has the following form f o r the
case of F i g . 5,
D

CD]

-D

12

-D

+ D

-D

12
1

23

+ D

-D

+ D
3 3

23
23

(40)

22.

[K] = m a t r i x o f s t i f f n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t s , w h i c h has the f o l l o w i n g form f o r

the case o f F i g . 5,
K

[K] =

12

-K

1 2

" 12
K

12

2 3

" 2 3
K

0
" 2 3
K

(41)

2 3

I n the case o f t u r b i n e - g e n e r a t o r u n i t s , t h e e x t e r n a l t o r q u e s
are o f two t y p e s :
(1)

m e c h a n i c a l i n the t u r b i n e s t a g e s ;

(2)

e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n the g e n e r a t o r and e x c i t e r r o t o r s .

The c a l c u l a t i o n o f m e c h a n i c a l t o r q u e s i n t r a n s i e n t s t a b i l i t y s t u d i e s can
be s i m p l e o r v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d .

I n t h e former c a s e , i t i s assumed t h a t

m e c h a n i c a l t o r q u e o r power remains c o n s t a n t a f t e r the d i s t u r b a n c e . I n

the l a t t e r c a s e , t h e dynamics o f the speed governor and a s s o c i a t e d c o n t r o l
systems must a l s o be m o d e l l e d [ 2 6 ] , [ 2 7 ] . I n e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c t r a n s i e n t
s t u d i e s , w h i c h i s t h e s u b j e c t o f t h i s t h e s i s , the i s s u e i s l e s s c o m p l i c a t e d due t o much s h o r t e r time spans i n v o l v e d ( n o r m a l l y , cases a r e o n l y
s i m u l a t e d up t o 1 s e c . a f t e r the d i s t u r b a n c e ) .

I t i s then p o s s i b l e t o ass

c o n s t a n t m e c h a n i c a l power i n p u t and c a l c u l a t e t h e t o r q u e from t h e f o l l o w ing relationship:

(42)

T =
where
P
_

= m e c h a n i c a l power p r i o r t o d i s t u r b a n c e ,
m

= a n g u l a r speed o f the m e c h a n i c a l

system.

I t has been shown t h a t t h e assumption o f c o n s t a n t m e c h a n i c a l t o r q u e p r o duces s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s [ 4 ] , b u t c o n s t a n t m e c h a n i c a l power seems t o

be a more r e a s o n a b l e assumption than c o n s t a n t m e c h a n i c a l t o r q u e .

23.

The e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c t o r q u e developed i n t h e r o t o r o f a s y n chronous

g e n e r a t o r i s e q u a l t o t h e a i r gap t o r q u e produced b y t h e r o t a -

t i n g electromagnetic f i e l d

[9] and may be d e s c r i b e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g

formulas:
(a)

i n Park's d,q,0-coordinates [ 9 ] :

(b)

" Vd '
}

e - <V q

( 4 3 >

i n phase-coordinates [ 2 8 ] :

e = ^=

f*a b " V
( 1

" V

*c

( i

a " V

( 4 4 )

where
n = number o f p o l e s o f t h e g e n e r a t o r .
The t o r q u e i n t h e e x c i t e r ( i f i t i s a d.c. g e n e r a t o r d i r e c t l y c o u p l e d t o
the t u r b i n e - g e n e r a t o r s h a f t ; n o t m o d e l l e d i n o t h e r cases such as motord r i v e n g e n e r a t o r s o r r e c t i f i e r s ) i s determined by t h e amount o f e l e c t r i c
energy produced by t h e g e n e r a t o r and i s g i v e n a s :
T

ex

2 co

(v,-i. + R i b
f f
ex f

(45)

where
co

= a n g u l a r speed o f t h e e x c i t e r ;

v^ = v o l t a g e a t e x c i t e r t e r m i n a l s ;
i ^ = excitation current;
R

ex

= armature r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e e x c i t e r ,

The e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c t o r q u e c a r r i e s a s i g n o p p o s i t e t o t h a t o f the mechanical

torque, s i n c e i t represents a load to the mechanical

2.6

system.

Conclusions
An i d e a l i z e d , l i n e a r model o f a synchronous

generator, which i s

d e s c r i b e d by r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e e q u a t i o n s , has been p r e s e n t e d i n s e c t i o n s
0

24.

2.2 and 2.5.

The model o f t h e m e c h a n i c a l p a r t was o n l y i n c l u d e d f o r

c o m p l e t e n e s s , s i n c e t h e r e s t o f t h e t h e s i s i s p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h
the e l e c t r i c p a r t o f t h e synchronous generator<
T h i s model o f a synchronous g e n e r a t o r has been shown t o be
adequate even f o r such complex problems as subsynchronous resonance [ 3 ] ,
[4].

I t s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d , however, t h a t t h e r o t o r q u a n t i t i e s a r e

n o t always r e p r o d u c e d a c c u r a t e l y [ 1 3 ] , [ 1 4 ] . The problem l i e s i n o b t a i n i n g enough and s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e d a t a .

The n u m e r i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s ,

on t h e o t h g r hand, can be c a r r i e d o u t w i t h v e r y h i g h a c c u r a c y .

The com-

p l e x i t y o f c a l c u l a t i o n s s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , be r e l a t e d t o t h e a c c u r a c y o f
measurements [ 2 9 ] , s i n c e t h e r e i s n o t much sense i n c r e a t i n g a v e r y comp l e x model f o r i n a c c u r a t e d a t a .

Lack o f r e l i a b l e data o f t e n forces the

a n a l y s t t o use s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s . i n t h e model.
S a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s have been n e g l e c t e d i n the development o f
t h i s model.

However, as shown l a t e r , i n s e c t i o n 5.5, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o

i n c l u d e them w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g t h e s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e model.
The e l e c t r i c p a r t o f a synchronous g e n e r a t o r was d e s c r i b e d i n
two systems o f c o o r d i n a t e s .

These two d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t f o r

theoretical considerations.

F o r n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n s , however, one system

of c o o r d i n a t e s may o f f e r advantages o v e r the o t h e r system.

w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 3.3.

T h i s problem

25.

3.
3.1

NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF THE GENERATOR EQUATIONS

Choice o f I n t e g r a t i o n Method
The dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f a synchronous g e n e r a t o r i s d e s c r i b e d

by two s e t s o f d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s , one s e t f o r the e l e c t r i c p a r t ,

and a n o t h e r s e t f o r the m e c h a n i c a l p a r t .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o b e a r i n mind

t h a t no d i g i t a l computer s o l u t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s can g i v e a
c o n t i n u o u s h i s t o r y o f t h e t r a n s i e n t phenomena.
sequence o f "snapshot

I t can o n l y g i v e a

p i c t u r e s " a t d i s c r e t e time i n t e r v a l s A t .

Such

d i s c r e t i z a t i o n causes t r u n c a t i o n e r r o r s , w h i c h can l e a d t o n u m e r i c a l
instability

[30].

The s t e p s i z e A t s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , b e s m a l l enough t o

a v o i d b u i l d - u p o f t r u n c a t i o n e r r o r s , b u t n o t t o o s m a l l t o a v o i d unnecessa r y computer t i m e .
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r the s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f the
g e n e r a t o r e q u a t i o n s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e c h o i c e o f the s t e p s i z e A t .
The system o f e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e e l e c t r i c p a r t o f the g e n e r a t o r and f o r
the e l e c t r i c n e t w o r k , t o which i t i s connected, i s s t i f f , i . e . the time
c o n s t a n t s o f the system a r e w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d [ 3 1 ] ,

In typical

transient

s t a b i l i t y s t u d i e s , t h e r a t i o o f t h e l a r g e s t t o t h e s m a l l e s t time c o n s t a n t
3
may be i n the o r d e r o f 10

4
o r 10

[ 3 2 ] . The r a t i o s i n s t u d i e s o f e l e c t r o -

magnetic t r a n s i e n t s , w i t h w h i c h t h i s t h e s i s i s concerned,

are s i m i l a r .

Even the time c o n s t a n t s o f t h e g e n e r a t o r e q u a t i o n s a l o n e may, i n t h i s

rn

case, have a r a t i o i n t h e o r d e r o f 10^ o r 10"*, e.g.,

T

the g e n e r a t o r from

s e c t i o n 2.3.

= 1.12*10^ f o r
do

I n order to avoid numerical

instability

(due t o b u i l d - u p o f t r u n c a t i o n e r r o r s ) , most i n t e g r a t i o n methods, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e which a r e e x p l i c i t , r e q u i r e an i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p s i z e A t w h i c h

i s s m a l l e r than t h e s m a l l e s t time c o n s t a n t .

For instance, fourth-order

26.

Runge-Kutta methods require a stepsize which i s approximately less

than

1/5 of the smallest time constant.

Such a small stepsize i s r e -

quired i n s p i t e of the fact that i n s t i f f systems the components associated with the smallest time constants are normally n e g l i g i b l e f o r most
of

the simulation time span.

The o v e r a l l behaviour of the system, which

i s of primary i n t e r e s t , i s determined by the largest time constants.

The time span of the simulation i s , therefore, determined by the largest
time constant.

A very small stepsize At i s , therefore, very expensive i n

simulating s t i f f systems.
Round-off errors create additional problems i n the numerical
s o l u t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations.

They may

become worse for a solution

with a very small stepsize At than f o r a s o l u t i o n with a larger

one.

Round-off and truncation error problems are i n t e r r e l a t e d and are normally

considered together as one problem of numerical s t a b i l i t y c f the solution.
Any p r a c t i c a l method of numerical integration should not only
be numerically stable, but also reasonably accurate and e f f i c i e n t .
Therefore, the numerical integration method needed i n the case of e l e c tromagnetic transients should provide a compromise between:
(a)

numerical s t a b i l i t y ;

(b)

accuracy;

(c)

numerical e f f i c i e n c y .
The i m p l i c i t trapezoidal rule of integration seems to be the

best compromise f o r these sometimes contradictory requirements

[31], [33].

This method does not s u f f e r from the smallest time constant b a r r i e r , i . e . ,

the stepsize At i s not controlled by i t .

The stepsize At i s r e s t r i c t e d

mainly by accuracy of the s o l u t i o n , and not by i t s numerical s t a b i l i t y

[34].

A fundamental theorem due to Dahlquist [35] states:

Theorem:

Let a method be called A-stable, i f , when i t i s applied to

dy
the problem

- ~ = Ay, X < 0, i t i s stable f o r a l l At > 0.

Then:
(1)

No e x p l i c i t l i n e a r multistep method i s A-stable;

(2)

no i m p l i c i t l i n e a r multistep method of order greater

than two i s A-stable;

(3)

the most accurate A-stable l i n e a r multistep method

of order two i s the trapezoidal r u l e :
y ( t + A t ) - y ( t ) = ^ | { f ( t , y ( t ) ) + f(t+At,y(t+At))}

(46)

for an equation

(47)

= f(t,y)

The A - s t a b i l i t y property was the main reason f o r the choice of this part i c u l a r integration method.
Some additional, important facts speak i n favour of the trapezoidal r u l e .

F i r s t of a l l , i t i s very simple to program, and does not

require past h i s t o r y points except f o r those of the immediately

time step.

I t i s , therefore, s e l f - s t a r t i n g .

preceding

I t i s also important to

note that the trapezoidal rule with a constant stepsize At creates constant state t r a n s i t i o n matrices f o r l i n e a r systems with constant c o e f f i c ients.

This property reduces s i g n i f i c a n t l y the amount of calculations

involved i n the solution process.

F i n a l l y , i t i s worth mentioning

that

the use of this integration method assures consistency with the Transient
Program [34], which uses the same solution method.
A number of d i f f e r e n t solution techniques were suggested i n the
l i t e r a t u r e , but none of them seems to have clear advantages over the
trapezoidal rule [3], [32], [36-39],

Two cases were r u n t o compare t h e t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e w i t h t h e

f o u r t h - o r d e r Runge-Kutta method f o r g e n e r a t o r

equations.

d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 2.3 was used i n b o t h cases.

s h o r t - c i r c u i t was s i m u l a t e d as shown i n F i g . 6.

The

generator

F i r s t , a three-phase
The v o l t a g e o f the i n -

f i n i t e b u s b a r was 2.0/0 p.u., and the i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f the generat o r were 1.734/-5.2 p.u. s t a t o r c u r r e n t and 3.56 p.u. f i e l d
The network parameters were R

Fig.

6.

current.

= 1.0 p.u.

Three phase-to-ground f a u l t a t g e n e r a t o r

terminals.

The s i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s f o r a time s t e p o f A t = 100 us were

p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l f o r the f o u r t h - o r d e r Runge-Kutta method and the
t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e o f i n t e g r a t i o n , b u t some d i f f e r e n c e s were v i s i b l e f o r
At = 1 ms.

F i g . 7 compares the r e s u l t s f o r the f i e l d c u r r e n t

i^.

As a second t e s t case, a l i n e - t o - g r o u n d f a u l t o f an unloaded

g e n e r a t o r was chosen, w i t h the same g e n e r a t o r

d a t a as f o r t h e f i r s t

case.

The f o u r t h - o r d e r Runge-Kutta method became n u m e r i c a l l y u n s t a b l e i n t h i s

case, even f o r A t = 100 us.

The r e a s o n may have been t h e way i n w h i c h

the e x t e r n a l network was s i m u l a t e d , namely as a v e r y l a r g e r e s i s t a n c e R

29.

TRAPEZOIDAL
TRAPEZOIDAL

8 RUNGE-KUTTA,
RULE

RUNGE-KUTTA

0.0
0.0

WITH

At = 1ms

At = 1ms

0.04

0-02
TIME

F i g . 7.

WITH

At=100ps

0.06

fs)

Comparison of simulation results f o r the f i e l d

current i n case of a three-phase f a u l t .

in the two unfaulted phases and zero resistance i n the faulted phase.
The comparison of the results f o r two different stepsizes At i s shown i n
F i g . 8.
Figs.7 and 8 show that an increase i n the stepsize At results
i n decreased accuracy of the solution with the trapezoidal r u l e , but not
i n numerical i n s t a b i l i t y .

Stepsizes greater than 1 ms were not considered,

since the time step for the simulation of r e a l i s t i c cases i s dictated by

the solution of electromagnetic transients i n the external network, where
stepsizes are t y p i c a l l y i n the order of 50 to 100 us.

30.

F i g . 8.

3.2

Comparison of simulation results f o r the f i e l d

current i n case of a line-to-ground f a u l t .

Physical Interpretation of the Trapezoidal Rule of Integration for

a Lumped Inductance
It i s very important to understand the build-up

of d i s c r e t i z a -

t i o n errors when the d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of the generator are replaced

by difference equations*.

As shown e a r l i e r , the generator model consists

of lumped inductances and resistances.

The resistance part does not

* The trapezoidal rule of integration applied to v = L^- i s i d e n t i c a l

with replacement of the derivative by a central difference

quotient.

31.

cause d i s c r e t i z a t i o n errors, since the functional relationship

v = -Ri

(48)

i s solved accurately (except for round-off errors) as a l i n e a r algebraic

equation.

D i s c r e t i z a t i o n errors must only be considered for the induc-

tance part.

To keep the explanation simple, consider a single inductance

L between two nodes "k" and "m"

as shown i n F i g . 9:

m
Fig. 9.

Inductance between nodes k and m.

Application of the trapezoidal rule to

yields:
i(t+At) = i ( t ) + ||{v(t+At) + v(t)}

(50)

I t w i l l now be shown that replacing the d i f f e r e n t i a l equation

(49) by the difference equation (50) i s i d e n t i c a l

to

replacing the

lumped inductance L by a short-circuited, lossless transmission l i n e of

travel time x =

and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c impedance Z =

This l i n e , which

replaces L, has (unavoidable) shunt capacitance C' per unit length which
goes to zero as At goes to zero, and a series inductance L' per unit
length which, when multiplied with l i n e length, i s equal to the value L
of the lumped inductance.

It

is

schematically

shown

in

The equations of the l o s s l e s s l i n e can be solved exactly with

method* [34].

F i g . 10;
Bergeron's

With this method, the following equation can be derived

* Method of characteristics i n mathematical references.

32.

VS=0

HI---

F i g . 10.

Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a l o s s l e s s ,
s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d transmission l i n e .

f o r a f i c t i c i o u s observer

t r a v e l l i n g from t e r m i n a l " 1 " t o "2" i f he

leaves t e r m i n a l "1" at t - A t ,
VjCt-At) + Z i ^ t - A t ) =
and f o r an o b s e r v e r

At,
-Zi (t-^),

l e a v i n g t e r m i n a l "2" towards " 1 " a t t

Zi (t - ~)
2

V l

(51)

(t) - Zi^t)

At
j

,
(52)

Summation o f (51) and (52) y i e l d s

v (t-At) + Z i ^ t - A t ) + v (t) - Z i ^ t ) = 0
x

(53)

w h i c h can be r e w r i t t e n as
At)
Equation

= ijCt-At) +

ICv^t)

+ v (t-At))

(54)

(54) i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h ( 5 0 ) , when
Z =

2L
At

(55)

where Z i s d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s :
Z =

(56)

33.

Equation

(54) i s an e x a c t s o l u t i o n f o r a l o s s l e s s t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e [ 4 0 ] ,

Therefore,

the a p p l i c a t i o n o f the t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e t o a lumped

induc-

tance L i s e q u i v a l e n t t o r e p l a c i n g t h e lumped i n d u c t a n c e w i t h a s h o r t c i r c u i t e d , l o s s l e s s " s t u b " l i n e w i t h d i s t r i b u t e d i n d u c t a n c e L' = L / l e n g t h

and t r a v e l time T = ^

, w h i c h i s then s o l v e d a c c u r a t e l y .

The e r r o r committed by t h i s r e p l a c e m e n t can be e v a l u a t e d

e a s i l y by c a l c u l a t i n g the i n p u t impedance o f a s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d
line.

The s t e a d y - s t a t e b e h a v i o u r

of a single-phase

quite

lossless

transmission

line

can be d e s c r i b e d by the f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l e q u a t i o n s [ 4 1 ] :
V

= cosh(Y&)V

+ sinh(Y^)-I Z

(57)

and
V

= sinh(Y^)-2

cosh(Y^)'I

(58)

w i t h V and I b e i n g phasor v a l u e s .
For a s h o r t - c i r c u i t a t t e r m i n a l "2" ( V

= 0 ) , t h e i n p u t impedance seen

from " 1 " can be d e s c r i b e d as f o l l o w s :

Z

I N

= j

= Z tanh( JD

(59)

F o r t h e l o s s l e s s l i n e , the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c impedance i s :

z
and the p r o p a g a t i o n

(60)

constant i s
y = / j u L * j u C ' = ju/L'C*

(61)

T h i s l e a d s t o the f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p :

I N

The e r r o r i n the frequency

J t o L ,

-~T

(62)

domain can now be a s s e s s e d by c a l c u l a t i n g the

r a t i o of the known t r u e v a l u e ^2.um-ped

g i v e n by ( 6 2 ) :

tan(

AT^ '

^^
a)

t 0

ie

value

Z^

34.

lumped

H(_) =

IN

At-cu
5-

COt

,At-co
( r-)
N

(63)

Equation (63) i s the r a t i o of the impedance r e s u l t i n g from the

application of the trapezoidal rule of integration to the impedance of
the lumped inductance.

I t i s probably more i l l u s t r a t i v e to consider the

r e l a t i v e error
G(co) = H(_) - 1.0
instead of the absolute error H(co) .

(64)

The r e l a t i v e amplitude error

i s plotted i n F i g . 11 as a function of " * ^

n a s

|G(IO)|

e error argG(to)

i s plotted i n F i g . 12 as a function of the same variable.

7T_

3jr
2

2
Fig. 11.

27T

5TT

3JT

Relative amplitude error of the

trapezoidal rule of integration.

Figs. 11 and 12 give a simple physical explanation

for any given stepsize At. Low frequencies

of the error

are reproduced p r a c t i c a l l y

without any error, since

lim
x -> 0

(|x-cot x - i f ) . = 0

(65)

35.

where
x =

org
degrees

coAt
2

(66)

Gfoj)

0
TC
2

Tt

3TC

2n

Tt

57T

Y-180
Fig. 12.

Phase error of the trapezoidal rule of integration.

The error increases with frequency u n t i l an absolute blocking (H = 0) i s

reached for

(67)
For At = 100 us, a t y p i c a l stepsize used i n studies of
transients, the f i r s t blocking frequency i s equal to f

electromagnetic
1

= 5 kHz.

I f the

frequency i s increased beyond f^, then the element i s seen by the solution algorithm as i f i t were capacitive up to 2 f , at which point the
1

element i s seen as a s h o r t - c i r c u i t , reversing to inductive

afterwards.

The next blocking point i s reached at

(68)
From there on, the s i t u a t i o n repeats i t s e l f p e r i o d i c a l l y .
Similar analysis conducted for a lumped capacitance

shows that

application of the trapezoidal rule to i t s d i f f e r e n t i a l equation i s equivalent to replacing the lumped capacitance by an open-ended l o s s l e s s l i n e .

36.

I n t h i s case, the r a t i o becomes:

H ( w )

AtT_

^ >

<69)

I d e n t i c a l r e s u l t s can be a c h i e v e d w i t h " t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n "

approach

[42].
The above f a c t s e x p l a i n the sometimes l a r g e l o c a l e r r o r o f the
solution.

The

o v e r a l l n u m e r i c a l s t a b i l i t y o f the s o l u t i o n , however, i s

unaffected [35], [43].

The

t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e o f i n t e g r a t i o n can thus be

r e g a r d e d as a p r o c e d u r e which changes impedance v a l u e s d i f f e r e n t l y f o r

d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s , b u t s o l v e s the system a c c u r a t e l y w i t h t h e s e modif i e d impedances.

The s o l u t i o n i s o b v i o u s l y s t a b l e , but more o r l e s s

inaccurate.

3.3

Choice of C o o r d i n a t e System
In studying electromagnetic t r a n s i e n t s i t i s not c l e a r a p r i o r i

w h i c h system o f c o o r d i n a t e s i s more advantageous f o r i n t e g r a t i n g t h e

d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s of the e l e c t r i c p a r t .
general-purpose

I t i s c l e a r , however, t h a t

computer programs must i n t e r f a c e the r e s u l t i n g d i f f e r e n c e

e q u a t i o n s o f the g e n e r a t o r w i t h t h o s e o f the network i n phase c o o r d i n a t e s .

Otherwise

the a b i l i t y t o s i m u l a t e any g e n e r a l type of e l e c t r i c network

w o u l d be l o s t , thus e l i m i n a t i n g the g e n e r a l i t y o f the program.

The

inte-

g r a t i o n of the g e n e r a t o r e q u a t i o n s d i r e c t l y i n phase c o o r d i n a t e s would

seem, t h e r e f o r e , t o be the b e s t c h o i c e .

I t must be r e a l i z e d , however,

t h a t t h e t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e w i l l t h e n produce d i s c r e t i z a t i o n e r r o r s even
f o r b a l a n c e d s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s , s i n c e the f l u x and t h e c u r r e n t s i n
the phases change s i n u s o i d a l l y a t fundamental

frequency.

Integration i n

d ^ q , 0 - c o o r d i n a t e s , on the o t h e r hand, would be e x a c t f o r b a l a n c e d

steady-

s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s w i t h the t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e , s i n c e f l u x and c u r r e n t s i n

37.

d,q,O-coordinates

a r e c o n s t a n t i n t h i s case.

I f the l a t t e r approach i s

used, then the r e s u l t i n g d i f f e r e n c e e q u a t i o n s must be t r a n s f o r m e d back t o

phase c o o r d i n a t e s b e f o r e they a r e i n t e r f a c e d w i t h the d i f f e r e n c e equat i o n s o f the network.
F o r g e n e r a l t r a n s i e n t c o n d i t i o n s , the c h o i c e i s n o t a t a l l
clear.

As an example, a s i n g l e l i n e - t o - g r o u n d f a u l t a t the

generator

t e r m i n a l s has phase c u r r e n t s v a r y i n g a t 60 Hz, i f the harmonics and

o f f s e t are ignored.

Currents i n d,q,0-coordinates,

dc-

on the o t h e r hand,

w i l l v a r y a t 60 Hz and 120 Hz, w i t h the l a t t e r caused by n e g a t i v e s e quence components.

The
ciency.

The

f i n a l c h o i c e was made a f t e r c o n s i d e r i n g the n u m e r i c a l

amount o f c a l c u l a t i o n s i n d , q , 0 - c o o r d i n a t e s

effi-

i s significantly

s m a l l e r , s i n c e the i n d u c t a n c e m a t r i x [L ] i s c o n s t a n t i n t h i s case [ 4 4 ] .
P
P r e l i m i n a r y experiments

showed t h a t i n t e g r a t i o n i n

d,q,0-coordinates

g i v e s v e r y s a t i s f a c t o r y answers, and d , q , 0 - c o o r d i n a t e s
f o r the work i n t h i s

were f i n a l l y chosen

thesis.

As shown i n Appendix 2, the t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e o f i n t e g r a t i o n i n

b o t h systems o f c o o r d i n a t e s l e a d s to the same form of l i n e a r

relationships

between v o l t a g e s and c u r r e n t s , and o n l y the d i s c r e t i z a t i o n e r r o r s a r e

different.

The

c h o i c e of system o f c o o r d i n a t e s , t h e r e f o r e , does n o t

change the g e n e r a l approach o u t l i n e d i n t h i s

thesis.

I f space harmonics i n the magnetic f i e l d d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e

taken

i n t o account,

then i n t e g r a t i o n i n phase c o o r d i n a t e s w i l l p r o b a b l y be more

advantageous.

S e l f and m u t u a l i n d u c t a n c e s c o u l d then be d e f i n e d d i r e c t l y

i n phase c o o r d i n a t e s .

The i n d u c t a n c e m a t r i x [L^] i n

d,q,0-coordinates

w o u l d no l o n g e r be c o n s t a n t , i n t h i s case anyhow, thus d i m i n i s h i n g the

main advantage of t h i s system of c o o r d i n a t e s .

38.

3.4

M u l t i p h a s e E q u i v a l e n t Networks
The

a n a l y s i s o f connected subnetworks becomes s i m p l e r i f each

subnetwork has

a l r e a d y been reduced t o a m u l t i p h a s e

equivalent

circuit

i n w h i c h o n l y t e r m i n a l s at the c o n n e c t i o n p o i n t s a r e r e t a i n e d and a l l
other t e r m i n a l s are e l i m i n a t e d .

Such a s i t u a t i o n e x i s t s when

a r e connected t o a t r a n s m i s s i o n system.

On

the g e n e r a t o r

generators

s i d e , only

the

s t a t o r w i n d i n g s are d i r e c t l y connected to the t r a n s m i s s i o n network, i . e . ,

o n l y t h r e e p a i r s o f i t s t e r m i n a l s must be r e t a i n e d i f the g e n e r a t o r
t i o n s a r e t o be s o l v e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h the network e q u a t i o n s .
assumes, of c o u r s e , t h a t the g e n e r a t o r
to e q u a t i o n s

equations

can i n f a c t be

c o n t a i n i n g the r e t a i n e d t e r m i n a l s , o n l y .

p o s s i b l e , as e x p l a i n e d i n c h a p t e r 3.5.
the r o t o r a r e then c o n c e a l e d .
m i s s i o n network.
to each g e n e r a t o r ,

The

equaThis

reduced

This i s indeed

A l l o t h e r p a i r s o f t e r m i n a l s on

s i t u a t i o n i s s i m i l a r i n the t r a n s -

A g a i n , o n l y t h r e e p a i r s o f i t s t e r m i n a l s a r e connected
thus making a l l the r e s t of them c o n c e a l e d ,

provided

t h a t the network can be reduced to the r e t a i n e d t e r m i n a l s o n l y .

the i n t e r f a c e between the e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c

Since

t r a n s i e n t s , w h i c h s o l v e s the

network, and the g e n e r a t o r model i s performed o n l y through the r e t a i n e d

p a i r s o f t e r m i n a l s , i t seems a p p r o p r i a t e t o d i s c u s s i n some d e t a i l
i d e a of a m u l t i p h a s e
Multiphase
l o n g time.

the

e q u i v a l e n t network.
e q u i v a l e n t networks have n o t been used f o r a v e r y

S i n c e a number of good r e f e r e n c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e [ 4 5 ] , [ 4 6 ] ,

o n l y a s h o r t o u t l i n e w i l l be g i v e n h e r e to a i d i n the u n d e r s t a n d i n g
i n t e r f a c e techniques.

The

t h e o r y w i l l f i r s t be e x p l a i n e d f o r s t e a d y

s t a t e , w i t h v o l t a g e s and c u r r e n t s b e i n g p h a s o r s ,
s o l u t i o n of electromagnetic

of

and

then extended to the

t r a n s i e n t s i n s e c t i o n 3.5.

This

extension

becomes s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d w i t h the concept of r e s i s t i v e companion

models [ 4 7 ] .

39.

The generator or the network can either be described by a set

of independent node equations with an admittance matrix, [Y]^V = I_, or
with an impedance matrix, V = [Z]I_ where [Z] = [Y] ^.

Retained terminal

pairs are generally located across only a few independent node pairs.
The node impedance or admittance matrix of the reduced network, which
contains only the retained terminal p a i r s , can be obtained from the f u l l
impedance or admittance matrix by elimination of the concealed variables.
Consider a general network with N independent node pairs and
with R terminal pairs to be retained.

Such a network may be described

by the following nodal equations with an admittance matrix:

Y
_

Y _
RE

RR

^R
(70)

"1

ER

2_

EE
_

or by an inverse relationship with an impedance matrix.

^R

I
-t
I

RR
ER

RE
(71)

EE

where subscript "R" denotes the retained variables, and subscript "E"
denotes the concealed variables, which are to be eliminated.
Elimination of the concealed variables results i n the following r e l a tionships :
-1

,-1
i=

[ REHY
Y

E E

] ^[Y

E R

])V +
R

- i

n^m]

(72)

and
^R=

([Z

RR

- r RE
Z

] [ Z

EE

r l [ Z

ER

] )

iR

(73)

Equations (72) and (73) may be interpreted as generalized forms

of Norton's or Thevenin's theorem.
closer.

Equation (73) w i l l be considered

I t can be rewritten as follows:

40.

(74)
S e t t i n g I,, = 0. g i v e s the o p e n - c i r c u i t t e r m i n a l v o l t a g e s as:
\

[ Z

RE

] t Z

(75)

EE ~\
]

The e q u i v a l e n t impedance [Z ] i s d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s :
= t RR
Z

Equation

^ R E ^ E E

"

(74) d e s c r i b e s , t h e r e f o r e , the m u l t i p h a s e

c i r c u i t of a network.

(76)

Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t

I t i s a reduced network w i t h c o n c e a l e d

terminals

eliminated.

A n a l y s i s i s s i m p l i f i e d i f the impedance m a t r i x [Z ] behind

R
the v o l t a g e sources
i s c o n s t a n t . The Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t o f
RU
(73) i s o n l y u s e f u l i f the v o l t a g e s V,, a c r o s s the concealed node p a i r s

are known, and

(72) i s o n l y u s e f u l i f the c u r r e n t s 1^, a c r o s s the cone

c e a l e d node p a i r s are known.

A three-phase Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t

circuit

i s shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g . 13.

Fig.

13.

Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a three-phase
Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t .

The m u l t i p h a s e

e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t was

d e r i v e d from n o d a l equa-

t i o n s , b u t i t can a l s o be d e r i v e d from o t h e r forms o f network d e s c r i p t i o n ,

e.g.,

from b r a n c h e q u a t i o n s

or mesh e q u a t i o n s .

The
was

derived

ditions.

concept of m u l t i p h a s e Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t

f o r s t e a d y s t a t e above, can a l s o be used f o r t r a n s i e n t

The

e f f i c i e n t c a l c u l a t i o n o f a Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t

the t r a n s m i s s i o n

network has

transient conditions.

already

been e x p l a i n e d

i s done i n the f o l l o w i n g

con-

circuit

for

i n Appendix 3 f o r

T h e r e f o r e , o n l y the Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t

of the g e n e r a t o r must s t i l l be d e r i v e d

3.5

c i r c u i t s , which

circuit

for transient conditions,

which

section..

Three-Phase E q u i v a l e n t C i r c u i t of the

Generator

A f t e r the a p p l i c a t i o n o f the t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e , the n o d a l v o l t age

e q u a t i o n s of a g e n e r a t o r i n d , q , 0 - c o o r d i n a t e s have the

following

form ( f o r d e t a i l s see Appendix 2 ) :

v (t) = [ R
-p
E q u a t i o n (77)
sistances

[R

C O m p

] i ( t ) + e (t-At)
p
p

(77)

can be v i s u a l i z e d as v o l t a g e s o u r c e s e ^ t - A t ) b e h i n d r e C O m

^].

Such e q u i v a l e n t ' r e s i s t i v e n e t w o r k s , w h i c h r e s u l t

from the i m p l i c i t i n t e g r a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s , are

called

" r e s i s t i v e companion network models" i n network t h e o r y [47].

They have

been used i n power systems a n a l y s i s f o r more than 10 y e a r s [ 4 8 ] .

r e s i s t i v e matrix [ R

C O m p

] i s c o n s t a n t i n d , q , 0 - c o o r d i n a t e s , and

v o l t a g e s o u r c e s e^(t-At) are c a l c u l a t e d from the known

terms" of the p r e c e d i n g time s t e p t-At.

The

The
the

"past-history

a b i l i t y to create

such

" r e s i s t i v e companion network models" i s not

l i m i t e d to the

trapezoidal

r u l e o f i n t e g r a t i o n o n l y , but works f o r any

implicit integration

as

shown i n Appendix 4.
E q u a t i o n (77)

r e p r e s e n t s a system o f seven e q u a t i o n s .

f i r s t t h r e e of them d e s c r i b e
the r o t o r w i n d i n g s .

the s t a t o r w i n d i n g s , and

T h e r e f o r e , (77)

the r e s t

can be r e w r i t t e n as

The
describe

follows

42.

( s u b s c r i p t "p" and s u p e r s c r i p t "comp" dropped t o s i m p l i f y n o t a t i o n ) :

v ( t ) = [R ] i ( t ) + [R ] i ( t ) + e ( t - A t )
s
ss s
sr r
s

(78a)

v ( t ) = [R ] i ( t ) + [R ] i ( t ) + e ( t - A t )
r
r s s
rr r
r

(78b)

where s u b s c r i p t " s " denotes s t a t o r q u a n t i t i e s , and " r " r o t o r q u a n t i t i e s .

E l i m i n a t i o n of r o t o r currents ^ ( t )

(rotor terminals

a r e concealed)

r e s u l t s i n the f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p :
v^t)

( [

s s

] -

e^(t-At)

[R

][y [R])i (t
1

g r

) +

+ [R ][R ]" .(e (t-At)

1

s r

r r

As mentioned i n s e c t i o n 3.4, t h e e q u i v a l e n t

'
- v^t))

(79)

c i r c u i t o f (79) i s

r e a l l y o n l y u s e f u l i f c o n c e a l e d v a r i a b l e s a r e known, which i s v^_(t) h e r e .

S i n c e a l l damper w i n d i n g s a r e permanently s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d , t h e v o l t a g e s
a c r o s s these w i n d i n g s a r e always e q u a l t o z e r o , and t h e r e f o r e known.
the f i e l d w i n d i n g r e q u i r e s

special attention.

Only

Depending on t h e type o f

s t u d y , t h r e e approaches can be used:

(a)

F o r many s t u d i e s
J

not

t
i s so s h o r t t h a t t h e e x c i t e r o u t p u t does
max

change w i t h i n t h a t time span.

The v o l t a g e

across the f i e l d

w i n d i n g v ^ ( t ) i s then c o n s t a n t and e q u a l t o t h e p r e - d i s t u r b a n c e
value.
(b)

F o r s t u d i e s o v e r l o n g e r time s p a n s , t h e response o f t h e e x c i t a t i o n system may have t o be t a k e n i n t o account.

e q u a t i o n s a r e then used t o d e s c r i b e
terminal voltage,

voltage

Differential

r e l a t i o n s h i p s between

output v ^ o f t h e e x c i t e r , and p o s s i b l y

supplementary v a r i a b l e s such as s h a f t speed, a c c e l e r a t i o n ,

e l e c t r i c power, e t c . I f i m p l i c i t i n t e g r a t i o n i s a p p l i e d t o
these d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s ( l i n e a r o r l i n e a r i z e d o v e r one

43.

time s t e p ) , then l i n e a r a l g e b r a i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s among these

q u a n t i t i e s are obtained.
for

W i t h a t y p i c a l time c o n s t a n t o f 30

ms

a f a s t e x c i t a t i o n system w i t h r e c t i f i e r s , i t s h o u l d be

p e r m i s s i b l e to c a l c u l a t e the e x c i t a t i o n system output a t time

t from the known i n p u t v a l u e s a t time t - A t , and v ^ ( t ) would
then a g a i n be known i n the s o l u t i o n o f the g e n e r a t o r
T h i s approach was
Standard

equations.

used s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r p r a c t i c a l cases

[49].

IEEE e x c i t a t i o n system models d e f i n e the t e r m i n a l

v o l t a g e as an RMS-value.
t r a n s i e n t s t u d i e s how

T h e r e f o r e , the problem a r i s e s i n

t o d e f i n e RMS-values from i n s t a n t a n e o u s

v a l u e s under t r a n s i e n t c o n d i t i o n s .

T h i s c o u l d , f o r example,

be done by i n c l u d i n g a model f o r the t r a n s i e n t b e h a v i o u r

the t r a n s d u c e r .
(c)

T h i s i s s u e may

require further research,

I f the time d e l a y o f one time s t e p i n t r o d u c e d i n method

above i s u n a c c e p t a b l e ,

of

(b)

then i t becomes n e c e s s a r y t o r e t a i n

the

f i e l d w i n d i n g i n the e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t , which l e a d s t o a f o u r phase e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t of t h e g e n e r a t o r .

The

f o u r t h equa-

t i o n must then be i n t e r f a c e d w i t h the e q u a t i o n s w h i c h d e s c r i b e s

the e x c i t a t i o n system dynamics.
i n t e r f a c e procedures

This w i l l not a f f e c t the

described i n this thesis (for details

see

Appendix 5 ) .
Equation

(79) can now be r e w r i t t e n as

follows:

v (t) = [ R
] i (t) + e ( t - A t )
s
ss s
s
r e d

r e d

(80)

with
a

[ Rss ] =

l l

1 2

22

r 6 d

21

33

(81)

44.

where a l l nonzero elements a r e c o n s t a n t i f A t and co a r e c o n s t a n t ( f o r

d e t a i l s see A p p e n d i x 5 ) , and where e

red

( t - A t ) i s known a t time t from

known p a s t h i s t o r y a t t - A t and v ^ ( t ) .
Equation

(80), a f t e r transformation to phase-coordinates,

three-phase e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t o f t h e g e n e r a t o r
The r e s u l t i n g r e s i s t i v e companion m a t r i x

[ R

com

P ]

1 2

(t)

b <t)

2 2

(t)

3 2

(t)

2 1

3 1

(t)

C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e m a t r i x [R

coordinates.

[R^^] i s t i m e dependent:

b (t)
n

i n those

describes the

1 3

(t)
(82)

3 3

(t)

] a c c o r d i n g t o (79) i s n u m e r i ss

c a l l y v e r y i n e f f i c i e n t and i s b e t t e r done i n p r a c t i c e w i t h a Gauss-Jordan

e l i m i n a t i o n scheme [ 5 0 ] , as b r i e f l y e x p l a i n e d i n Appendix 6.

4.
4.1

INTERFACING THE GENERATOR MODELS WITH THE TRANSIENTS PROGRAM

Problem Formulation
The generators and the network to which they are connected,

can i n p r i n c i p l e be. solved as one system of equations.

However, i t i s

then not easy to write general-purpose computer programs which can

handle any network configuration [ 5 1 ] .

I t i s , therefore, necessary to

devise i n t e r f a c i n g procedures which preserve the generality of the network representation i n the Transients Program.
When e l e c t r i c networks are connected together, then certain
boundary conditions must be s a t i s f i e d for voltages and currents at the
connection points.
in F i g . 14.

The s i t u a t i o n for two three-phase networks i s shown

The conditions, which must be s a t i s f i e d at any time t, are

based upon Kirchhoff's laws, i n this case:

*!

= V
+

3 = \
=

^"3

'

'4
'5
>6

>2
'3

{SUBNETWORK
I
l

/ / /

)/

SUBNETWORK
n

F i g . 14. Schematic representation of two connected networks.

46

These conditions must also be s a t i s f i e d when two computer programs are interfaced, when each of them describes the behaviour of one
subnetwork only.

Subnetwork I could be the generator, and subnetwork II

the transmission system i n a p a r t i c u l a r case.

to

The generator i s connected

the transmission network through three pairs of terminals, i . e . , a l l

the other pairs of terminals of the transmission system are, from the
generator's point of view, concealed.

S i m i l a r l y , looking from the trans-

mission system into the generator, only the three stator pairs of generator terminals are v i s i b l e , and the rotor windings are concealed.
There are, therefore, two possible ways of i n t e r f a c i n g a generator program with a network transients program.

The f i r s t one i s based upon the

calculation of a three-phase Thevenin equivalent c i r c u i t of the transmission network, as seen from the generator's stator terminals, and
solving i t together with the f u l l set of generator equations or with the
reduced set of generator equations, i n which only stator terminals are
retained.

The f i n a l solution i n the transmission network i s obtained by

superimposing

the voltage changes which results from the generator cur-

rents on the solution obtained without generator currents [2]. The

second approach i s based upon the development of a three-phase

Thevenin

equivalent c i r c u i t f o r the generator i n the form of a voltage source

red
behind a time-invariant, symmetrical matrix [ p^ ] T h complete soluR

tion i s then obtained by solving the transmission network with the

red
generator treated as voltage sources behind

] i

n
o

step.

approach results i n a s i g n i f i c a n t l y simpler interface code.

This

47.

4.2

Method I - Interface by Means of a Thevenin Equivalent C i r c u i t of

the Transmission Network
The Transients Program was modified to produce a three-phase

Thevenin equivalent c i r c u i t of the transmission network seen from the

generator

terminals (in i t s o r i g i n a l form i t could only produce s i n g l e -

phase equivalent c i r c u i t s ) .

The equivalent c i r c u i t can be described by

the following equation:

VO

[ ^

] ^ t )

% Q

(t)

(83)

where the subscript "N" denotes network quantities, and the subscript
" 0 " denotes open-circuit quantities.
The.3 x 3 matrix

rR^

e r m

^ ^], i
n a

precomputed before entering the time

step loop, and must only be recomputed when the network configuration
changes due to switching actions or when the program moves into a

new

segment i n the piecewise l i n e a r representation of nonlinear elements [45]

A p r a c t i c a l way

of calculating this matrix, as done i n the Transients

Program, i s b r i e f l y described i n Appendix 6.

The voltage vector y^nCt)

contains the three-phase voltages of the Transients Program solution

without

the

generator.

The generator i s represented by i t s three-phase equivalent

circuit:
v^Ct)

iRj^Vt)

%h

( t

"

A t )

( 8 4 )

where the subscript "ph" denotes generator quantities i n phase coordinates, and where

V
With (85), equations

t ) B

( t )

(83) and

and

V ""^
0

(85)

(84) can be solved for the unknown voltages

48.

and c u r r e n t s .

A f t e r s u b t r a c t i n g (84) from ( 8 3 ) , the f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n -

ship i s obtained:

The

f i n a l network s o l u t i o n i s found by s u p e r i m p o s i n g the v o l t a g e changes

Av(t) - [ l ^
on the p r e v i o u s s o l u t i o n w i t h o u t

e t W O r k

]-Vt>

the g e n e r a t o r .

a l l v o l t a g e s on nodes w i t h o u t v o l t a g e s o u r c e s
work, and
was

[j^

e t w o r

k] ^

r e C 0

C87)
A y ( t ) i s the v e c t o r of

i n the t r a n s m i s s i o n n e t -

m p u t e d n x 3 m a t r i x from w h i c h

[R^

e r m

^" ^]
n a

e x t r a c t e d f o r (84).
The

f i n a l s o l u t i o n o f the g e n e r a t o r

i s found by s o l v i n g f o r

the c o n c e a l e d v a r i a b l e s w h i c h were e l i m i n a t e d i n r e d u c i n g the

to a t h r e e - p h a s e Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t .
the s t a t o r c u r r e n t s t o d , q , 0 - c o o r d i n a t e s ,

equations

A f t e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of

the r o t o r c u r r e n t s a r e found

as f o l l o w s :
i ( t ) = -[R
] [R
] i ( t ) - [R. ]
r
rr
rs s
rr
_1

where'the m a t r i c e s

[R

rr

-1

and

[R

rr

-1

[R

rs

_ 1
v

( v (t) + e (t-At)
r
r

(88)

] were found as b y - p r o d u c t s o f

the r e d u c t i o n p r o c e s s , as e x p l a i n e d i n Appendix 6.
A f l o w c h a r t f o r t h i s s o l u t i o n a l g o r i t h m , w i t h the m e c h a n i c a l
p a r t of the t u r b i n e - g e n e r a t o r

i n c l u d e d , i s shown i n F i g . 15.

The p r e d i c t i o n p a r t of the s o l u t i o n a l g o r i t h m i s o n l y needed

i f the m e c h a n i c a l p a r t i s i n c l u d e d f o r m o d e l l i n g the r e l a t i v e r o t o r
o s c i l l a t i o n s around synchronous speed.
phase c o o r d i n a t e s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y
and the speed u

S i n c e the i n t e r f a c i n g i s done i n

t o know b o t h the a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n 0

o f the r o t o r a t the new

time s t e p i n o r d e r to c a l c u l a t e

the m a t r i x [ R ] and the v e c t o r e , ( t - A t ) .

pn
ph
C

m p

A similar situation

exists

49.

START

: t=0

t = t+At

TRANSIENTS
SOLUTION

~?:>.,\y.
'JITKOUT

GENERATORS

CALCULATE H I S T .

TERMS I

PREDICT ROTOR ANGLES 6

AND SPEEDS 1 %

J
Z

o
CALCULATE CURRENTS, ROTOR ANGLES 6
AND SPEEDS iu WITH TERMINAL INFORMATION
FROM TRANSIENTS PROGRAM

to
pes
O
H

te

YES

SUPERIMPOSE

V O L T A G E S PRODUCED BY GENERATOR

TO T H O S E O B T A I N E D

BEFORE

NO

| STOP

Fig. 15. Flow chart of solution with method I.

50.

when the i n t e r f a c i n g i s done i n d , q , 0 - c o o r d i n a t e s .

I t i s then

to know 6 and OJ i n o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e the m a t r i x [ R

m
p

C O m p

necessary

] and the

three-

phase Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t o f the t r a n s m i s s i o n system i n P a r k ' s

coordinates.

A f t e r the g e n e r a t o r

c u r r e n t s have been c a l c u l a t e d , i t i s

p o s s i b l e to c a l c u l a t e the e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c
the e q u a t i o n s

With t h i s

value,

o f the m e c h a n i c a l p a r t can be s o l v e d t o get updated v a l u e

of the speed t o ^ .

I f these v a l u e s d i f f e r too much from the p r e d i c t e d

v a l u e s , then the s o l u t i o n i s r e p e a t e d
ble.

torque T ^.

u n t i l the d i f f e r e n c e s are

T h i s s o l u t i o n a l g o r i t h m performed s a t i s f a c t o r i l y

[4].

negligi-

Corrections

are not much o f a p r o b l e m i n t h i s s o l u t i o n a l g o r i t h m , anyhow.

4.3

L i m i t a t i o n s o f Method I
The

s o l u t i o n method d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r 4.2

f o r w a r d and n u m e r i c a l l y s t a b l e i f o n l y one
t r a n s m i s s i o n network.

generator

I f t h e r e are more g e n e r a t o r s

i s quite straight-

i s connected to the
connected to the

network, as i s u s u a l l y the case, then the method works w i t h o u t f u r t h e r

m o d i f i c a t i o n s o n l y i f the g e n e r a t o r s
parameter

are separated

through d i s t r i b u t e d -

l i n e s , i . e . , i f t h r e e - p h a s e e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t s o f the

work e x i s t i n d e p e n d e n t l y
l i n e s disconnect

f o r each g e n e r a t o r because

the network [ 2 ] , [ 4 4 ] .

The

net-

distributed-parameter

T r a n s i e n t s Program checks

t h i s c o n d i t i o n a u t o m a t i c a l l y when i t c a l c u l a t e s three-phase e q u i v a l e n t
c i r c u i t s at generator

terminals.

The program c o u l d be changed to c a l c u -

l a t e 6-phase e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t s i f two
network w i t h o u t

generators

are connected to the

s e p a r a t i o n t h r o u g h d i s t r i b u t e d - p a r a m e t e r l i n e s , or 9-phase

e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t s f o r three generators, e t c .

F o r the g e n e r a l case of

m g e n e r a t o r s , however, the programming w o u l d become.too c o m p l i c a t e d

the e x e c u t i o n time would p r o b a b l y become too b i g .

and

51.

A number of alternative methods are possible to overcome this

limitation.

The generators could be separated by short d i s t r i b u t e d -

parameter transmission l i n e s .

This may, however, require a s i g n i f i c a n t

reduction of the stepsize At i n order to keep the length of such

arti-

f i c i a l lines short, since At must be less than the travel time [ 4 8 ] ,

s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t approach has been used successfully by Southern

C a l i f o r n i a Edison Company, whereby transformer leakage inductances of
step-up transformers are approximated

as stub-lines [ 4 4 ] .

I f a group of

generators not separated by transmission l i n e s feeds into the same busbar, then the p o s s i b i l i t y exists of creating one equivalent c i r c u i t f o r
this group of generators, which would be r e l a t i v e l y easy.
can be extended

This method

to groups of generators which feed through unit trans-

formers into the same busbar.

In this case, the generator equation

would have to be expanded to include the transformer equations as w e l l .

The l i m i t a t i o n s mentioned above do not s i g n i f i c a n t l y degrade
the p r a c t i c a l value of method I. They simply imply that c e r t a i n precautions are needed when s p e c i a l cases are simulated.
4.4

Method I I - Interface with a Modified Thevenin Equivalent C i r c u i t

of

the Generator
It i s common practice i n the power industry to represent gener-

ators by sinusoidal voltage sources of the form E" c o s ( o ) t + p ) behind

max
"
subtransient impedances R

jooL^|

i n quasi-steady-state f a u l t studies and

i n some types of transient studies.

In the derivation of this model i t

i s assumed that flux changes i n the rotor windings immediately a f t e r the

distrubance can be ignored, and that subtransient saliency can also be
ignored.

This simple model i s quite adequate for the f i r s t cycle or so

52.

a f t e r the d i s t u r b a n c e w h i c h i n i t i a t e s the t r a n s i e n t phenomena.

Good

r e s u l t s have been o b t a i n e d w i t h t h i s model i n s w i t c h i n g surge s t u d i e s ,

t r a n s i e n t r e c o v e r y v o l t a g e s t u d i e s , and o t h e r types o f s t u d i e s i n v o l v i n g
fast transients.

The r e l a t i v e l y a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d w i t h t h i s

s i m p l e model m o t i v a t e d
The

i d e a was

the r e s e a r c h e f f o r t d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s

to f i n d a way

t o account

chapter.

f o r the changes i n f l u x e s and

to

i n c l u d e the s u b t r a n s i e n t s a l i e n c y w i t h o u t l o s i n g the s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e
model.
B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g w i t h the d i s c u s s i o n , i t may

be u s e f u l t o

r e c a l l some o f the r e s u l t s o f s e c t i o n 3.5, where the r e t a i n e d s t a t o r

v a r i a b l e s o f the g e n e r a t o r were d e s c r i b e d i n d , q , 0 - c o o r d i n a t e s

by

the

equation
v (t) = [ R ^ ] i (t) + e ! ( t - A t )
s
ss s
. s
d

red
and where the m a t r i x [ R
] was

(89)

e d

g i v e n as f o l l o w s :

o o

ll

ss
0
As mentioned i n s e c t i o n 3.5,

12

22

(90)

33

the m a t r i x [ R ^ " ]
ss

becomes t i m e -

dependent when i t i s t r a n s f o r m e d d i r e c t l y to p h a s e - c o o r d i n a t e s .

While

n o d a l network s o l u t i o n s , such as i n [ 3 4 ] , can i n p r i n c i p l e be m o d i f i e d

t o a c c e p t time-dependent r e s i s t a n c e s , program e x e c u t i o n would be
down s i g n i f i c a n t l y i f the network conductance m a t r i x had to be
g u l a r i z e d i n each time s t e p .

slowed

retrian-

A l s o , the conductance m a t r i x becomes asym-

m e t r i c i n t h i s c a s e , w h i c h means t h a t t h e upper as w e l l as t h e l o w e r
t r i a n g u l a r m a t r i c e s would have to be s t o r e d .
age r e q u i r e m e n t s

as w e l l as computation

T h i s would i n c r e a s e s t o r -

time compared w i t h t h e p r e s e n t

53.

method based upon

symmetry where o n l y t h e upper t r i a n g u l a r m a t r i x i s

stored.
A number o f ways were t r i e d out t o approximate (89) i n such a
way t h a t t h e r e s i s t a n c e m a t r i x becomes c o n s t a n t and symmetric i n phase
coordinates.

The f o l l o w i n g scheme seemed t o work b e s t :

red
S p l i t t h e m a t r i x [R
] i n t o t h e sum o f two
ss

(1)

[R
] = [R
1 +
ss
const
r e d

r e d

terms,

[R ]
var
r e d

(91)

red
where t h e m a t r i x [R
] i s g i v e n as
const

r-

+a
11

[ Rc o n s tJ
r e d

22
a

+a
11

22

(92)

33

w i t h c o e f f i c i e n t s a ^ as d e f i n e d i n Appendix 5.
(2)

Transform

red
the m a t r i x [R
1 t o phase c o o r d i n a t e s .
const

The

27 fid

r e s u l t i s a c o n s t a n t symmetric m a t r i x [ R ^ ] o f t h e f o l l o w i n g
form:
b

(93)

b
,red.
The elements o f the m a t r i x [ R ' ] a r e n o r m a l l y much s m a l l e r than
var
J

CU

those

of [ R ^ ;

s t

] , and t h e i r i n f l u e n c e i n (89) can be accounted

f o r by m u l t i p l y -

i n g them w i t h t h e p r e d i c t e d v a l u e s o f s t a t o r c u r r e n t s r a t h e r than w i t h
a c t u a l , y e t unknown, v a l u e s and adding these terms t o the v o l t a g e s o u r c e s .
Therefore, the f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p i n d,q,0-coordinates
v (t) = [ R
J i (t)+ {e (t-At) +
s
const s
s
r e d

r e d

[R
]i
var s
r e d

p r e d

i s obtained:
(t)}
v

(94)

54.

where i ^

r e d

(t)

i s the v e c t o r of the p r e d i c t e d d , q , 0 - s t a t o r c u r r e n t s a t

time t .
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n of (94) t o p h a s e - c o o r d i n a t e s

y i e l d s the d e s i r e d

Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t of the g e n e r a t o r :

'

_p <t)
h

[*pf]iCt) + e j ; ( t ^ t )

(95)

red
S i n c e the m a t r i x [Rp^ 1

i s symmetric and time-independent,

the

genera-

t o r can be r e p r e s e n t e d i n the T r a n s i e n t s Program s i m p l y as a s e t o f

v o l t a g e sources e ^ ^ ( t - A t ) behind r e s i s t a n c e s [ R p j ^ ] .
d

inverse of

red
[Rpk

e n t e r s i n t o the n o d a l conductance m a t r i x o f the t r a n s m i s s i o n

network as any o t h e r r e s i s t i v e b r a n c h , as d e s c r i b e d i n [ 4 8 ] ,
A f t e r the network s o l u t i o n has been found i n the new

time s t e p

a t time t , the s t a t o r q u a n t i t i e s w i l l be known, and the r o t o r c u r r e n t s

can then be found from (88).

T h e r e f o r e , the s o l u t i o n o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n

network t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e g e n e r a t o r s proceeds a t each time s t e p as f o l l o w s ;

(1)

S o l v e the network e q u a t i o n s

t o g e t h e r w i t h the Thevenin e q u i v a -

l e n t c i r c u i t s o f the g e n e r a t o r s reduced
as g i v e n by
(2)

to the s t a t o r

windings

(95);

S o l v e e q u a t i o n (88) o f r o t o r w i n d i n g s , u s i n g the s t a t o r currr

r e n t s found i n the p r e v i o u s s t e p .
There i s a need t o p r e d i c t the a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n 9 and t h e speed

to

o f the r o t o r , j u s t as i n method I .

The problem o f i t e r a t i v e c o r r e c -

t i o n s i s , more complex i n t h i s c a s e , however, s i n c e i t e r a t i o n s w i t h t h e

complete network s o l u t i o n w o u l d be q u i t e c o s t l y .

F o r t u n a t e l y , i t has

a l r e a d y been shown t h a t the a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n 6 can be p r e d i c t e d a c c u r a t e l y

enough w i t h o u t need f o r c o r r e c t i o n s [ 4 ] , [ 3 2 ] .
p r e d i c t i o n f o r the a n g u l a r speed _

A reasonably

accurate

can p r o b a b l y be o b t a i n e d from the

55.

i n t e g r a t i o n of the'mechanical equations, w i t h l i n e a r e x t r a p o l a t i o n of
the e l e c t r i c a l t o r q u e because of t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s t e p s i z e A t used
i n i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r i c p a r t i n comparison w i t h t h e r e l a t i v e l y
big

time c o n s t a n t s

of the mechanical p a r t .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e terms con-

speed co a r e o n l y a s m a l l p a r t o f e , ( t - A t ) i n (95)
m
ph

t a i n i n g the angular

I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , reasonable
s u f f i c i e n t accuracy.

t o e x p e c t t h a t c o can be p r e d i c t e d w i t h
1

I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e to i n t r o d u c e some s o r t o f

i t e r a t i o n loop t o improve t h e s o l u t i o n such as t h e one shown i n F i g . 16.

p r e d i c t 6 and co
m

S o l v e t h e network
together w i t h the
generators

Calculate rotor
c u r r e n t s and
electromagnetical
torques

C a l c u l a t e c o and
9 w i t h t h e new d a t a
m

No

Fig.

16. Flow c h a r t o f t h e i t e r a t i o n scheme.

56.

No s e r i o u s problems are e x p e c t e d .

E x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d by the

G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c Company seems t o prove t h i s statement

[3].

A computer

program developed by t h i s company and t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d w i t h i t seem

to i n d i c a t e t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t e r r o r s a r e i n t r o d u c e d when u s i n g the p r e d i c t e d v a l u e s o f the a n g u l a r speed to .
m
4.5

Remarks about Method I I

As a l r e a d y mentioned,

[R

the elements o f the r e s i s t a n c e m a t r i x

red
red
] are n o r m a l l y much s m a l l e r than the elements o f the m a t r i x [R
1.
var
const
3

T h i s i s t r u e o f t y p i c a l g e n e r a t o r s where s u b t r a n s i e n t s a l i e n c y i s v e r y
small.
[R

v a r

If

] may

d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y from X'"j, the elements o f the m a t r i x

become l a r g e .

T h i s would i n c r e a s e the r e l a t i v e w e i g h t o f the

i n a c c u r a c i e s r e s u l t i n g from t h e p r e d i c t i o n of the s t a t o r c u r r e n t s , which

i n turn could r e s u l t i n inaccurate solutions.

A l t h o u g h such a case seems

t o be h i g h l y improbable f o r any p r a c t i c a l g e n e r a t o r equipped w i t h damper

w i n d i n g s , i t s h o u l d , n e v e r t h e l e s s , be mentioned

as a p o s s i b l e

problem.

E x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t f o r s t e p s i z e s A t i n the o r d e r o f

-4
10

s , method I I works r e m a r k a b l y w e l l .

I t does n o t s u f f e r from t h e

l i m i t a t i o n s t y p i c a l of method I , s i n c e the g e n e r a t o r s a r e s i m p l y m o d e l l e d
as v o l t a g e s o u r c e s b e h i n d r e s i s t a n c e s .

I n the network s o l u t i o n i t i s

p o s s i b l e , t h e r e f o r e , to have any number o f g e n e r a t o r s connected t o the

network, e i t h e r a t the same b u s b a r o r a t d i f f e r e n t b u s b a r s , w i t h o u t l o s s
of g e n e r a l i t y .
The p r e d i c t i o n o f the d,q,Q-?stator c u r r e n t s i ^

r e d

(t)

does

s
i n f l u e n c e t h e a c c u r a c y , of c o u r s e , and can be performed i n a number o f
ways:
(1)

Assume t h a t the v o l t a g e s a t t h e g e n e r a t o r t e r m i n a l s a r e const a n t over the n e x t time s t e p , and use the new

c u r r e n t s found

from (89) as p r e d i c t e d v a l u e s .
(2)

Use s t r a i g h t - l i n e e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f the c u r r e n t s .
f o r two p r e c e d i n g

t i m e s t e p s a t t - 2 A t and

Information

t - A t must then be

stored.
(3)

Use p a r a b o l i c e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f the c u r r e n t s .
three preceding

(4)

Use

any

time s t e p s must then be

combination

Information

for

stored.

o f the t h r e e p r e v i o u s methods,

e.g.,

s t r a i g h t - l i n e e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f the v o l t a g e s combined w i t h
approach 1.
I n a l l the t e s t s conducted f o r t h i s t h e s i s , t h e r e were no v i s i b l e

differ

ences between the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t p r e d i c t i o n methods as

l o n g as some type o f p r e d i c t i o n o f the s t a t o r c u r r e n t s was
setting i | \

r e d

( t ) = 0_ i s too i n a c c u r a t e .

r e n t from the example of s e c t i o n 2.3,

(a)

F i g . 17 compares the f i e l d

The

t e r m i n a l s a r e c o n s t a n t o v e r the n e x t

The
i
s

p r e d

us.

c u r r e n t s from the p r e v i o u s time s t e p are used as p r e d i c t e d

values, i . e . , i

( t ) = i ( t - A t ) , (At = 100 ys) .

s
s
i n f l u e n c e of the term [R
] i (t) i s neglected, i . e . ,
var s
( t ) = 0 (At = 100 y s ) . T h i s amounts t o n e g l e c t i n g the
p r e d

sub t r a n s i e n t s a l i e n c y and speed terms i n the g e n e r a t o r

The

cur-

c a l c u l a t e d i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t ways

time s t e p , w i t h s t e p s i z e A t = 100

(c)

Simply

The p r e d i c t e d c u r r e n t s a r e o b t a i n e d by assuming t h a t the v o l tages a t the g e n e r a t o r

(b)

used.

model.

d i f f e r e n c e s are l a r g e r f o r the s t a t o r c u r r e n t s , as shown i n F i g . 18

f o r one of the u n f a u l t e d phases (phase a ) .

U s i n g c u r r e n t v a l u e s from the p r e v i o u s
f i e d f o r a small s t e p s i z e At.
by t h i s s i m p l e p r e d i c t i o n may
numerical

instability.

time s t e p t - A t can o n l y be

'
justi-

W i t h i n c r e a s i n g A t , the e r r o r i n t r o d u c e d
become i n t o l e r a b l e , and p o s s i b l y l e a d t o

58.

14.0
r

0.0\

,
0.02

,
0.04
TIME

Fig.

17.

,
0.06

fs)

Comparison of f i e l d current with various prediction techniques.

The

low s e n s i t i v i t y to the accuracy of prediction of the stator

currents may serve as an indication of the behaviour of the solution for

inaccurately predicted angular speed _ .
error i n prediction of w
currents.

I t i s possible to interpret the

as an additional error i n the predicted

stator

It i s , therefore, believed that no serious problems w i l l arise

with the introduction of the mechanical part of the generator.

red
The elements of the matrix
entering the time step loop.
tion from one

c a n

r e c a

c u

a t e (

before

Simple matrix m u l t i p l i c a t i o n (transforma-

coordinate system to another) and basic algebra show that:

59.

F i g . 18.

Comparison of stator current i n phase "a" with

various prediction techniques.
a
+ a
+ a
a = -ii
?2
33

and
2 a

3M
3 "

il "
^1

where a and b are elements of the matrix

( 9 6 )

222
2

const
[R ,
] defined i n (93). These
Ph

elements remain constant as long as the stepsize At does not change

and as long as nonlinear saturation effects are ignored.
It i s worth mentioning that neither method I nor method II
are t i e d to the trapezoidal rule of integration.

The a b i l i t y to create

60.

r e s i s t i v e companion network models, and to develop reduced three-phase

equivalent c i r c u i t s from them, i s a general property of any i m p l i c i t
integration scheme, as shown i n Appendix 4.

The trapezoidal r u l e of

integration, however, makes the numerical procedure simple.

This fact,

and the s t a b i l i t y properties of this p a r t i c u l a r integration as discussed

i n section 3.1 f u l l y j u s t i f y i t s use.

4.6

Numerical Examples
I t i s very easy to set up hypothetical generator and network

cases for testing the simulation methods of this thesis.

While this i s

s a t i s f a c t o r y for comparing various approaches, i t does not answer the

question of how closely such simulations agree with f i e l d t e s t s .

Every

e f f o r t was, therefore, made to duplicate published f i e l d test r e s u l t s ,

even though not too many such cases could be found.

In this

connection,

i t should be remembered that the generator model alone does b a s i c a l l y

not need v e r i f i c a t i o n , since this was already done by others [ 4 ] , [11-14].
The test examples are, therefore, mainly used to v e r i f y the various
numerical procedures and i n t e r f a c i n g techniques.
(1)

This was done i n stages:

Preliminary Tests
In the preliminary testing of the methods, the interface with

the general-purpose Transients Program was replaced by a simple threephase Thevenin equivalent c i r c u i t (voltage source behind external r e s i s tance and inductance).

This s i m p l i f i c a t i o n made i t easier to test the

simulation techniques before i n t e r f a c i n g the generator subroutine with

the large Transients Program.
a number of examples.

The program performance was checked for

A simulation program using a fourth-order Runge- ,

Kutta integration routine was also run i n p a r a l l e l as a check on the

61.

s o l u t i o n w i t h the t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e .
presented
(2)

i n s e c t i o n 3.1 ( F i g . 7

Some o f these r e s u l t s were a l r e a d y

and F i g . 8 ) .

Example 1 f o r T e s t i n g Method I
The r e s u l t s o f the p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t s were compared w i t h the

r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d w i t h method I . T h i s p r o v i d e d

a check on b o t h t h e c a l c u -

l a t i o n o f t h e three-phase Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n network

and on method I i t s e l f .

Only one example w i l l be shown, s i n c e t h e r e were

no v i s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s .

The g e n e r a t o r

d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 2.3 was used

w i t h a l i n e - t o - g r o u n d f a u l t a p p l i e d t o one o f i t s t e r m i n a l s .
was s i m u l a t e d as shown i n F i g . 19.
R

+ R
ei

= R , and R

ez

el

The system

The network parameters were R

= 0 . 0 1 p.u.

= 1.0 p

The v o l t a g e o f t h e i n f i n i t e busbar

>

was 2.0/0 p.u., and t h e i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e g e n e r a t o r

1.7341-5.2 p.u. s t a t o r c u r r e n t and 3.56 p.u. f i e l d c u r r e n t .

were
Both t h e

s t a t o r c u r r e n t s and the r o t o r c u r r e n t s were i d e n t i c a l f o r the two d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n s ( w i t h o u t and w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f the Thevenin e q u i valent c i r c u i t ) .

The s t a t o r c u r r e n t i n t h e u n f a u l t e d phase "b" i s shown

i n F i g . 20.

INFINITE
BUSBAR

F i g . 19.

Line-to-ground

f a u l t a t generator

terminal.

62.

F i g . 20.

S i m u l a t e d c u r r e n t 1^ i n the u n f a u l t e d phase "b".

The s i m u l a t e d f i e l d c u r r e n t was a l r e a d y shown i n F i g . 2 and t h e f a u l t

current I
(3)

was a l r e a d y shown i n F i g . 3.
Example 2 f o r Method I
T h i s i s a t e s t case w i t h an e x t e r n a l network f o r w h i c h f i e l d

t e s t r e s u l t s were a v a i l a b l e ,

and w h i c h c o u l d no l o n g e r be s o l v e d w i t h

the program used f o r the p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t s .

The g e n e r a t o r had the f o l l o w -

i n g d a t a (based on 150 MVA

l i n e - t o - l i n e ) [53]:

and 13.8 kV, RMS,

X.

1.85 p.u.

1.76

0.2575 p.u.

X "

0.29 p.u. (assumed a c c o r d i n g t o [53])

0.18

rn

X.,

0.175

0.85 s

p.u.

q
II

p.u.

0.04 s

(assumed a c c o r d i n g t o [53])

q
p.u.

0.385 s

0.198

p.u.

(no g-winding)

63.

The data conversion to [R] and [ L ] was done with the formulas published
p

in

[11].

The generator was

connected to a transmission system, as shown

i n F i g . 21.

13.8/130-8 k V

SINGL E PHA

SE

a
CLOSE

AT

t= o

-i CLOSE
LLl
h

Fig.

The system was

21.

initially

minals was 13.8 kV 7-10 kV (RMS,

AT

= 10ms

TTT

System diagram.

unloaded and the voltage at i t s t e r line-to-line).

A three-phase

fault

on the high side of the delta/wye connected step-up transformer was

studied, with the closing sequence as shown i n F i g . 21.
stator currents are compared with the f i e l d
[54],

i n F i g . 22.

The f i e l d

The simulated

test r e s u l t s , as given i n

current was unavailable for comparison.

The differences i n the i n i t i a l values of the currents r e s u l t

from uncertainty i n the generator data, e.g., the values f o r X^" and

T^"

were assumed rather than measured and may be u n r e a l i s t i c , and lack of

s u f f i c i e n t information about the i n i t i a l conditions, e.g., about the
instant at which the f a u l t was applied.

Because of the l a t t e r reason,

the i n i t i a l conditions had to be varied u n t i l the results came reasonably

64.

(c)
Fig.

22.

Comparison of stator currents between simulation and f i e l d test

for a three-phase f a u l t , (a) = phase "a", (b) = phase "b",
(c) = phase "c", f i e l d test, simulation.

65.

c l o s e t o those o f t h e f i e l d t e s t s .
s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s were i g n o r e d .
agreement i s r e a s o n a b l y
(4)

I t s h o u l d a l s o be remembered

that

I n view o f a l l these l i m i t a t i o n s the

good.

Example 3 f o r T e s t i n g Method I
I t was found by a number of r e s e a r c h e r s t h a t t h e c o r r e c t r e -

p r o d u c t i o n o f s t a t o r c u r r e n t s i s n o t much o f a problem [ 1 3 ] , [ 1 4 ] . I t
i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t , however, t o reproduce r o t o r q u a n t i t i e s c o r r e c t l y .
To i l l u s t r a t e the a c c u r a c y o f the s i m u l a t i o n o f t h e f i e l d c u r r e n t , an
attempt was made t o d u p l i c a t e a f i e l d
generator
Fig.

t e s t [ 5 4 ] , I n t h i s t e s t , the

d e s c r i b e d i n example 2 was connected to a system as shown i n

23, and a three-phase f a u l t was a p p l i e d t o t h e h i g h s i d e o f the

step-up t r a n s f o r m e r .

The network was s i m u l a t e d as coupled

inductances

w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g parameters g i v e n i n [ 5 4 ] :
zero sequence i n d u c t a n c e

p o s i t i v e sequence i n d u c t a n c e
The i n i t i a l v o l t a g e a t t h e g e n e r a t o r
line-to-line),

= 0.22

H,

= 0.096 H.

t e r m i n a l s was 13.8/-30

and t h e i n i t i a l f i e l d c u r r e n t was 620 A.

kV

(RMS,

The s w i t c h i n g

sequence was as f o l l o w s [ 5 4 ] :
Phase "b" a t t = 0 s, phase " c " a t t = 6 ms, and phase " a " a t t = 20 ms.
The s i m u l a t e d f i e l d
i n F i g . 24.

c u r r e n t i s compared w i t h t h e measured f i e l d

(a - f i e l d t e s t , b

current

simulation)

Examples 2 and 3 v e r i f y t h a t the g e n e r a t o r model as w e l l as t h e

numerical

approach o f method I g i v e r e a s o n a b l y

accurate r e s u l t s .

I ti s ,

t h e r e f o r e , p o s s i b l e t o p r o c e e d to a comparison o f method I I w i t h method I .

66.

3 SINGLE
UNITS
13.8/130.8
kV

PHASE

INFINITE
BUSBAR
TRANSMISSION
NETWORK
L

=63.2mH

= 0. 096

FAULTED

F i g . 23.

b-

0.2

Example 4 f o r T e s t i n g Method I I
l i n e - t o - g r o u n d f a u l t was s t u d i e d .

system was s i m u l a t e d as shown i n F i g . 23.

introduced.
(RMS,

0.1

fs)

Comparison o f the s i m u l a t e d and measured f i e l d c u r r e n t .

I n t h i s example, a s i n g l e
The

BUSBAR

10

(5)

System diagram.

TIME

F i g . 24.

0.22H

However, some changes were

The i n f i n i t e busbar v o l t a g e was i n c r e a s e d t o 137.23/-20 kV

l i n e - t o - l i n e ) and the parameter X^" was changed from 0.29 p.u. t o

0.18 p.u., which i s a more r e a l i s t i c v a l u e f o r a g e n e r a t o r w i t h damper

windings,

than the p r e v i o u s one g i v e n i n [ 5 3 ] .

The r e s u l t s were o b t a i n e d

i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t ways:
(a)

Simplified

g e n e r a t o r model ( v o l t a g e source E ^ ^ c o s ( t b t 4 p ) b e h i n d

an impedance
(b)

JOJL^");

D e t a i l e d g e n e r a t o r model i n t e r f a c e d w i t h method I ( s i m u l t a n e ous s o l u t i o n ) ;

(c)

D e t a i l e d g e n e r a t o r model i n t e r f a c e d w i t h method I I (new t e c h nique) .

F i g . 25 compares t h e s i m u l a t e d c u r r e n t i n t h e f a u l t e d phase

" a " , and F i g . 26 compares t h e s i m u l a t e d f i e l d

25.0

-25.0\
0.0

.
0.04
TIME

F i g . 25.
F i g u r e s 25
accurate

current.

i
0-08

i
0.12

(s)

Comparison o f t h e s i m u l a t e d c u r r e n t i n the f a u l t e d phase " a " .

and

26

imply

that the s i m p l i f i e d

f o r s h o r t t i m e s t u d i e s , b u t no

generator

Information

model

c a n be

is

reasonably

obtained

on

68.

f l

0-04

0-08

0.12

TIME (s)

F i g . 26.

Identical results for f i e l d

rotor c i r c u i t quantities.
indistinguishable
(6)

The

current.

r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d w i t h method I I a r e

from the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d w i t h model I .

Example 5 f o r T e s t i n g Method I I
T h i s example s h o u l d p r o v i d e a more s e v e r e

because i t a l s o i n c l u d e s t r a v e l l i n g wave e f f e c t s .
example 4 was
The

t e s t f o r method I I ,
The

generator

from

connected to a system, as shown i n F i g . 27.

t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e had

sequence, " 1 " = p o s i t i v e sequence):

the f o l l o w i n g parameters ("0"

zero

69.

= 0.2026 n/km ,

= 2 . 7 4 9 mH/km ,

= 0.0886 fi/km ,

= 1.005 mH/km.,

and a l e n g t h o f 96.72 km.

=
l

6.326 uF/km

= 11.408 yF/km

The l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e was chosen i n such a

way as t o match t h e p o s i t i v e sequence i n d u c t a n c e o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n

network from example 4.

, 13.8/130.8 kV
(3 single
phase units ^-faulted

A<t

busbar

/TRANSMISSION
LINE

1=4.83 JL-1 3.6 k A

L=63.2mH
/seen from high)
I side
'

infinite
busbar-^
V=137.231^20 kV
(line to line)

F i g . 27. System diagram.

Once more a single line-to-ground f a u l t on the high side of
the step-up transformer was studied.

F i g . 28 compares the generator

current i n the faulted phase "a", calculated i n three d i f f e r e n t ways:

(a)

Simplified generator model;

(b)

Detailed generator model interfaced with method I (simultaneous solution);

(c)

Detailed generator model interfaced with method I I (new

technique).

Again, the results from methods I and I I are p r a c t i c a l l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h able .

F i g . 28 may lead to the conclusion that the simple generator
model i s as good as the detailed model. This i s only true, however, f o r

70.

SIMPLIFIED
SIMULTANEOUS
25.0,

NEW

MODEL
SOLUTION

TECHNIQUE

12.5

ic

Uj
Q:

- 72.5 U

-25.0
8.0
TIME

F i g . 28.

12.0

16.0

20.0

240

(ms)

Comparison of the simulated current for faulted phase "a".

some studies conducted over a very short time span where the flux decay
does not play an important r o l e .

F i g . 29 compares the three-phase i n -

stantaneous power at the generator terminals for the same case and shows
that the simple model i s much less adequate when power i s measured.
F i n a l l y , F i g . 30 shows the f i e l d current calculated with the
two d i f f e r e n t interface techniques.

As for the stator current, methods

I and II give again results which are p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l .

The l a s t two examples prove that the results obtained with
method II agree to a high degree with results obtained with method I.
This i n turn proves the adequacy of method I I .

71.

SIMPLIFIED
MODEL
SIMULTANEOUS
SOLUTION
NEW
TECHNIQUE

TIME

F i g . 29.

(ms)

Comparison of the simulated three-phase instantaneous power.

72.

600

}-

0.009

0.018

0-027

0.036

TIME (s)

Fig. 30.

Identical results for f i e l d current.

The set of numerical examples would not be complete without a

presentation of a case with a multi-mass mechanical system.

A benchmark

test case for such a system became available a f t e r completion of the thesis.
It i s , therefore, not included i n the main body of the text, but i s added
as Appendix 8.

73.

5.

5.1

INITIAL CONDITIONS, DATA SCALING AND

SATURATION

Calculation of the I n i t i a l Conditions f o r a Synchronous Generator

The state of a synchronous generator i s f u l l y described by the

following variables:
(1)

a l l currents and voltages;

(2)

a l l angular displacements and speeds of the shaft system.

The stator currents and voltages are normally obtained from a phasor
solution of the entire system i n which the generator i s represented as
sinusoidal voltage or current sources.
the fundamental frequency only.

This solution usually considers

The rotor c i r c u i t variables have to be

found from the generator equations, which i s straightforward f o r the case

of balanced steady-state operation, but more complicated f o r the unbalanced case.

In the l a t t e r case, harmonics exist not only i n the

rotor c i r c u i t s but also i n the stator c i r c u i t s [8], [9], which leads to

contradictions i f the t o t a l system was solved at fundamental frequency
only.

I t i s common practice, therefore, to assume a balanced steady-

state operation f o r the generator.

In this case, the damper currents

are zero and the f i e l d current i s constant.

The currents and voltages

w i l l vary s i n u s o i d a l l y i n phase coordinates, but are constant i n d,q,0coordinates.

I t i s , therefore, easier to use d,q,0-coordinates

f o r the

c a l c u l a t i o n of the i n i t i a l conditions.
The general voltage equations of the generator were defined i n
section 2.1 (eq. 21). They are shown again to a i d understanding:
v

-[L

]4 i - [R]i
- [L']i
p dt p
p
p p

For the s p e c i a l case of balanced, steady-state conditions, where

(96)
1=0,

74.

they can be r e w r i t t e n as f o l l o w s :
v = -[R]i - [L*]i
~p
-p
p -p

(96a)

W i t h damper c u r r e n t s and z e r o sequence v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t b e i n g z e r o ,

(96a) can be reduced

to the f o l l o w i n g s e t o f three v o l t a g e equations:

v , = -R i , - coL i
d
ad
q q

(97)

= -R i + t o L . i , + u)/- M i
aq
dd
/ 2 f f

(98)

and
V

The c o e f f i c i e n t i n

f. "Vf

(99)

f r o n t o f M^ i n (98) r e s u l t s from t h e n o r m a l i z e d

form o f P a r k ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x [P] as shown i n ( 1 9 ) .

current i ^

To f i n d t h e

and the r o t o r a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n 3(0) o r 6 ( 0 ) , i t i s n e c e s s a r y

t o r e l a t e (97-99) i n d , q , 0 - c o o r d i n a t e s

t o the phasor diagram o f the

machine shown i n F i g . 31.

DIRECT

AXIS

QUADRATURE

AXIS

R E F E R E N C E
AXIS

FOR

NETWORK
PHASOR
SOLUTION

F i g . 31.

Phasor diagram o f a synchronous g e n e r a t o r f o r b a l a n c e d ,

s t e a d y - s t a t e o p e r a t i o n (R and X
X not to scale).
ct

Q.

CJ

75.

From (97) and (98) i t follows that:

^d " - a q
R

" J q q
X

( X

d " V

*d

where

\
For

- 5/l

a balanced steady-state operation, d,q,0-coordinates are related to

phasor values by:

i

+ j i

= v/J'I e

(102a)

j < S

and
v

+ j v = /3 V e~3

(102b)

where I and V are RMS p o s i t i v e sequence phasors.

From (102a) and (102b) i t follows that (100) can be transformed to the reference frame f o r the network phasor solution,
e e
q

j 6

+ (X , - X. ) i , e
d q d

j 6

= V + R l + j X l
a
q
J

(103)

where the phasors e e ^ and (X, - X ) i , , e ^ l i e on the quadrature axis.

q
d q d
Equation (103) allows, therefore, the determination of the angle 6(0), i f
the phasors V and I are known.

The l e f t hand side of (103) i s not impor-

tant i n i t s value, but i t s position i s that of the quadrature axis.

The rest of the e l e c t r i c a l variables can then e a s i l y be calculated from the following relationships:
i

= /3 |7|'sin(Y* - 6)

(104a)

|I| . C O S ( Y '

6)

(104b)

= /3

and
v

= /3 |v| sin(a' - 6)

(104c)

- /3 |v| cos(a' - 6)

(104d)

76.

Finally,

the f i e l d c u r r e n t i ^ can be found from ( 9 8 ) :

v

aq

(105)

2 f
M

c o n d i t i o n s o f the e l e c t r i c p a r t o f the g e n e r a t o r a r e then

f u l l y defined.
for

l3

7
The i n i t i a l

- X,i,

+ R i

= _3

I t remains,

t h e r e f o r e , t o determine

the i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s

the mechanical v a r i a b l e s o f the g e n e r a t o r .

The mechanical e q u a t i o n s o f the g e n e r a t o r were d e f i n e d i n

s e c t i o n 2.5

((35)-(39)).

However, t h e e q u a t i o n f o r mass i i s shown

a g a i n to a i d u n d e r s t a n d i n g :
2

J . - \
1

de

d e.

D . .

dt

D.

.(e.
l d t

i-i>i< i- +i>
e

- e.

i , i

^ " " d t

.) + D.

" i i>
e

"

(e. - e.,.) +

F o r s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s (106) can be s i m p l i f i e d as f o l l o w s :

de.
D. . - + K.
n
d

. ( 6 . - 6. ) + K.
(6. - 9
) = T.
I
i - l ' i,i+l
I
i+l
I
y

(106a)
'

de

The a n g u l a r speed

i s e q u a l f o r a l l r o t a t i n g masses and can be found

from the f o l l o w i n g

relationship:
k

dt

2
. .
n

d 6

where " s u b s c r i p t "m"

f o r k = 1, ... N
'

(107)

denotes mechanical v a r i a b l e s , where n i s the number

of p o l e s i n the g e n e r a t o r , and where CJ i s the a n g u l a r frequency o f the

network.
The

initial

a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n o f the g e n e r a t o r r o t o r can be

c a l c u l a t e d from the angle 5(0) as f o l l o w s :

= (6(0) + f)

(108)

where subscript " r " denotes generator rotor variables.

F i n a l l y , the angle 6^

can be found from the angle

i-1

i-1

T m

"
K

In a similar way,

the angle

0^:

co

(109)

i"l,i

can be found from:

N

Tmj -

Da,
(110)

i,i+1

The sum of the applied mechanical torques Tmj must, of course, equal the
sum of e l e c t r i c a l and speed self-damping torques, so that there i s zero
accelerating torque

initially:
N
y

, -.
J=l
L

N
T

mi
J

>,
j-1

N
Tej +
J

. L,

J=l

D..U>

i i

J J

mi)

where subscript "e" denotes electromechanical torque.

Calculation of the i n i t i a l angular displacement of the masses i n the
shaft system ends the process of i n i t i a l i z a t i o n of the generator variables,
5.2

Consistent Per Unit (p.u.) System and Conversion to Physical Units

The choice of a consistent and simple p.u. system i s , i n

general, r e l a t i v e l y easy.

For rotating machinery, however, the s i t u a -

tion gets complicated i f more than one reference frame i s used.

transformation from one reference frame to another may l i m i t the freedom

i n the choice of base variables, i f symmetry of matrices i s to be preserved.

This i s p r e c i s e l y the case for a synchronous

unnormalized transformation matrices are used.

generator when

78.

I t i s common practice i n the power industry to describe the

generator i n Park's d,q,0-coordinates, as explained i n section 2.2.
conventional unnormalized

The

transformation does not preserve the symmetry

of the inductance matrix [L] of the generator [17].

The r e s u l t i n g

asymmetrical matrix [L ] can be forced back to symmetry with a s p e c i f i c

3
p.u. system i n which base power for rotor quantities i s ^- times base
power f o r stator quantities [17], [55],

A simpler approach, which does

not require complicated scaling procedures to restore the symmetry, i s

presented i n this chapter.

As mentioned i n section 2.2,

the normalized

transformation defined i n (18) and (19) preserves the symmetry of the

inductance matrix [L], i . e . , the r e s u l t i n g matrix [ L ] i s symmetrical no
p

matter which base values are chosen for stator and rotor c i r c u i t s [17].
Then the conversion to p.u. values i s a simple scaling problem with complete freedom i n the choice of base values for each c i r c u i t .
y

Any l i n e a r e l e c t r i c network i n steady-state operation can be

described by one of the following nodal equations:

or
[Z . M .
= V ,
phys -^phys -^-phys

(113)

where the subscript "phys" denotes physical values, and

\

t Z

phys

^Phys "
3

( 1 1 4 )

and where V ,
and I ,
are vectors of nodal voltages and currents
phys
-phys
injected into the nodes, i n V and A

respectively.

The nodal impedance

matrix [Z ^

] i s given i n i t s own physical units, fi.

In general,

a system has more than one voltage l e v e l , with coupling

through transformers.

Therefore, d i f f e r e n t base voltages are normally

79.

chosen f o r the node v o l t a g e s , w h i l e base power i s n o r m a l l y the same f o r

a l l nodes.

I t can e a s i l y be shown t h a t the f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p

h o l d s between the p h y s i c a l and

P . U .

"

the p.u. v a l u e s

[ v

[56]:

b rW V"X
r l

<>
15

or
[Z .
] = [V. ][Z
][V. ] [S, ]
phys
b
p.u.
b
b

1
v

(116)
7

where:
[V^] = d i a g o n a l m a t r i x of base v o l t a g e s ,
[S^] = d i a g o n a l m a t r i x of base powers.
Equations
powers.
if

(115)

and

(116)

a r e v a l i d f o r any

However, symmetry of the m a t r i x

s e t of base v o l t a g e s

and

[Zp^yg] w i l l he p r e s e r v e d o n l y

t h e r e i s o n l y one base power, which i s the normal p r a c t i c e i n power

system a n a l y s i s anyhow.
I t i s customary t o d e f i n e the d a t a o f a synchronous
i n a p.u.

system based

on i t s nameplate r a t i n g s .

s t u d i e s , where each element has

must e i t h e r be

i t s own

generator

F o r g e n e r a l network

nameplate r a t i n g , a l l v a l u e s

c o n v e r t e d to the same bases,

or to p h y s i c a l

quantities.

Per u n i t v a l u e s o f f e r advantages i f a problem i s s t u d i e d on a network

a n a l y z e r , or on a d i g i t a l computer w i t h f i x e d - p o i n t a r i t h m e t i c , because
i n both

cases a l l v a l u e s must be of a c e r t a i n o r d e r o f magnitude. T h i s

problem does n o t e x i s t i n computers w i t h f l o a t i n g - p o i n t a r i t h m e t i c ,

which i s the r u l e nowadays.

Scaling

( c o n v e r s i o n from p.u.

to p h y s i c a l

v a l u e s o r v i c e v e r s a ) has no i n f l u e n c e on the s o l u t i o n p r o c e s s ,
f o r p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n the accumulation

except

of round-off e r r o r s .

a consequence, p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l s o l u t i o n s

As

(except f o r s l i g h t . d i f -

f e r e n c e s i n r o u n d - o f f e r r o r s ) w i l l be o b t a i n e d w i t h p h y s i c a l

quantities

80.

and with p.u. quantities.

The influence of scaling on round-off errors

i s not easy to assess [57].

For a system of l i n e a r equations, however,

the following statement can be proved [58]: "If scaling i s done i n such
a way

that only the exponent changes i n floating-point numbers and i f

the order of elimination i s not changed, then the scaled (p.u.) equations w i l l produce p r e c i s e l y the same s i g n i f i c a n t s i n a l l answers and
in a l l intermediate numbers". After careful examination of a l l advantages and disadvantages i t was decided to convert the machine data to
physical units.

Physical quantities are least confusing and assure con-

sistency with the Transients Program.

Conversion to physical units i s

done as follows:
(a)

Calculate a l l the required generator parameters i n p.u. from

the p.u. data based on nameplate ratings as provided by the
manufacturer;

(b)

Multiply a l l elements of the matrices [L ]

and [R]
by
p p.u.
p.u.
the base impedance of the stator windings, which can be found
J

from the following r e l a t i o n s h i p :

V
z

sb =

<>
117

s?r
bb

where:
=

base impedance of the stator;

^three-phase

rated

i f the stator i s
S

Sb

"<

single-phase
MVA,

power of the stator i n MVA,

onnected i n wye.

rated

power of the stator i n

i f the stator i s connected i n delta.

= l i n e - t o - l i n e rated voltage of the stator i n KV

(RMS)

for both wye and delta connections.

81.

This operation

transforms a l l the stator data to t h e i r o r i -

ginal physical values.

Rotor parameters, as found i n step b

w i l l be i n physical values referred to the stator side of the

generator.
(c)

Multiply a l l the parameters related to the rotor c i r c u i t s

2
which l i e on the diagonal of the matrices [ p l
L

[R] by

P
and those on the off-diagonal of [L^] by n, where:
n = transformer r a t i o between the stator and the f i e l d .

This

number can be calculated i n one of two ways:

(1)

from the physical value of the f i e l d resistance R^, i f

such i s known from measurements [22]:

(118)
or:
(2)

from the open-circuit c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , as schematically

shown i n F i g . 32.

A I R - G A P

L I N E

1.0

Fig.

32.

Typical open-circuit c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

From the generator equations derived i n chapter 2.2, i t follows that the
physical value of the f i e l d - t o - s t a t o r mutual coupling

n
where V

= RMS

i s given by:

J/f-Hj

(119);

value of l i n e - t o - l i n e voltage found on the open-circuit

Lib

characteristic.
From (119), the transformer r a t i o n can be defined as follows:
M
n = -

(120)
fp.u.

Sb

The procedure outlined above assumes that the o r i g i n a l p.u.

data was

a l l based on the same base power, which i s normally true f o r

manufacturer's

data.

Then, the matrix [S^] i s simply a unit matrix

premultiplied by a scalar Sg^ defined i n (117) .

This procedure

also

assumes that there are only two base voltages, one for the stator, and
the other for the f i e l d and damper windings.

The l a t t e r assumption

can

be j u s t i f i e d as follows:
Since the damper windings are hypothetical windings, for an i n t e r connected arrangement of many damper bars, any transformer r a t i o
to them can be assumed.

It i s , therefore, p o s s i b l e to use the

same r a t i o as that from the stator to the f i e l d without loss of

generality.
This s p e c i f i c conversion procedure i s very simple to use and requires
only the available standard data.

A similar approach based upon d i f -

ferent reasoning has been suggested i n [59].

83.

5.3

Saturation

i n the S t e a d y - S t a t e O p e r a t i o n of a Synchronous G e n e r a t o r

S a t u r a t i o n may

have an i m p a c t (sometimes a s i g n i f i c a n t one)

on power system t r a n s i e n t s t a b i l i t y and

t i o n s , as w e l l as on r e a l and
[60].

steady-state

stability calcula-

r e a c t i v e power f l o w c a l c u l a t i o n s

As i s w e l l known i n p r a c t i c e , i t a l s o i n f l u e n c e s

o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c t r a n s i e n t s i n power systems [61].

a nonlinear
ously,

r e l a t i o n between f l u x and

An

On

calculations

the o t h e r hand,

current w i l l , i f treated r i g o r -

c o m p l i c a t e the s o l u t i o n p r o c e s s s i g n i f i c a n t l y .

large nonlinear

the

The

systems becomes then v e r y e x p e n s i v e and

s o l u t i o n of

time consuming.

approximate treatment of s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s i s , t h e r e f o r e ,

accepted.

The

t r e a t i n g the l a t t e r case i n s e c t i o n 5.4,

w h i c h f a l l i n t o the c a t e g o r y of s t e a d y - s t a t e

u n s a t u r a t e d v a l u e s by a c o n s t a n t F

studies,

r e a c t a n c e s by m u l t i p l y i n g
= 0.88.

i t s loading

conditions

d i v i d e d i n t o the f o l l o w i n g b a s i c

be

suggested to
the

T h i s s i m p l e approach i s

a c c u r a t e enough, s i n c e the s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s v a r y w i t h

type of g e n e r a t o r and

The

to present

of the e a r l i e s t approaches towards s a t u r a t i o n i s t o

c a l c u l a t e the v a l u e s of the s a t u r a t e d

(1)

Before

phasor s o l u t i o n s .

found i n [ 1 8 ] , [ 6 2 ] , where on an e m p i r i c a l b a s i s , i t was

can be

operation

i t seems a p p r o p r i a t e

a s h o r t r e v i e w of the e x i s t i n g approaches used i n s t a b i l i t y

c l e a r l y not

commonly

t r e a t m e n t of s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s i n s t e a d y - s t a t e

d i f f e r s from the approach needed f o r t r a n s i e n t s i m u l a t i o n s .

One

[29],

[63].

the

More recent' approaches

groups:

degree of s a t u r a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n of the t o t a l f l u x
f~2

ty = / ij;^ + ij;

2
.

There i s , t h e r e f o r e ,

o n l y one

saturation

c o e f f i c i e n t f o r the t o t a l f l u x [64-66];
(2)

The

degree o f s a t u r a t i o n i n each a x i s i s p r o p o r t i o n a l

components of the v o l t a g e

to

the

source behind P o t i e r (or leakage)

84.

reactance.

There a r e , t h e r e f o r e , two s e p a r a t e s a t u r a t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t s , one f o r each a x i s [ 2 4 ] , [ 6 7 ] ,
A number o f a u t h o r s use f l u x p l o t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s [ 6 0 ] , [ 6 8 ] , The r e s u l t s p u b l i s h e d
approach 1.

i n [68] seem t o f a v o u r

I t i s also worth mentioning that s a t u r a t i o n data f o r a

medium-sized g e n e r a t o r p u b l i s h e d
empirical coefficient F

i n [69] a r e c l o s e t o t h e v a l u e o f t h e

suggested i n [ 1 8 ] .

O t h e r a u t h o r s , however,

suggest d i f f e r e n t s a t u r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h e d- and q-axes.

sum i t up, i t i s n o t y e t known w h i c h p r o c e d u r e i s more a c c u r a t e .
main p r o b l e m l i e s i n t h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a c c u r a t e d a t a [ 2 9 ] .

To

The
A possi-

b l e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s problem c o u l d come from measuring t h e s a t u r a t i o n

e f f e c t s d i r e c t l y i n phase c o o r d i n a t e s

[ 1 2 ] , [ 2 2 ] , b u t more r e s e a r c h i s

needed [ 6 0 ] .
The n o n l i n e a r

f l u x - c u r r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c caused by s a t u r a -

t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t i t i s no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e t o u s e , i n a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d
way, phasor s o l u t i o n s i n the c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e
To g e t around t h i s problem, an " e q u i v a l e n t
e x a c t l y v a l i d i n one p a r t i c u l a r o p e r a t i n g

l i n e a r machine", w h i c h i s
p o i n t and a p p r o x i m a t e l y v a l i d

i n t h e neighbourhood of t h a t p o i n t , i s i n t r o d u c e d

[70].

i s t o l i n e a r i z e t h e problem by parameter m o d i f i c a t i o n .
by r e p l a c i n g t h e n o n l i n e a r
operating

conditions.

The o b j e c t i v e
This i s achieved

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c by a l i n e a r c u r v e through t h e

p o i n t and the o r i g i n , as shown i n F i g . 33.

This

approxima-

t i o n i s , o f c o u r s e , v a l i d o n l y i n the immediate v i c i n i t y o f t h e o p e r a ting point.

The f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e was d e v e l o p e d f o r the i n c l u s i o n o f
s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s i n t o the c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f a
generator:

APPROXIMATE

/ L I N E A R

^ J - C U R V E
10
OPERATING
POINT

Fig.

(1)

33.

L i n e a r i z a t i o n through t h e

C a l c u l a t e the i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s assuming t h a t the

i s unsaturated,

(2)

origin.

generator

as e x p l a i n e d i n s e c t i o n 5.1.

I f the g e n e r a t o r

operates

i n the s a t u r a t e d r e g i o n , the c a l c u -

l a t i o n s are r e p e a t e d w i t h the u n s a t u r a t e d
by t h e i r s a t u r a t e d e q u i v a l e n t v a l u e s .

parameters r e p l a c e d

These v a l u e s can

be

found from the s l o p e of the approximate s t r a i g h t l i n e shown

i n F i g . 33.
The

The

process

i s repeated

u n t i l i t converges.

s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s o f the n e t w o r k found w i t h phasor s o l u t i o n

techniques

do n o t c o n t a i n h a r m o n i c s .

By s i m u l a t i n g the problem i n

s t e a d y - s t a t e (no f a u l t a p p l i e d ) as a t r a n s i e n t case f o r a p e r i o d o f a
few c y c l e s , s t a r t i n g from the i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s w i t h the
generator,

a new

s t e a d y - s t a t e w i t h harmonics s h o u l d be reached i f

s a t u r a t i o n i n generators
Program [ 4 5 ] .

linearized

and t r a n s f o r m e r s i s m o d e l l e d i n the

Transients

T h i s approach worked q u i t e w e l l i n a case where the

t r a n s f o r m e r s a t u r a t i o n generated

harmonics [ 7 1 ] , but i t has not y e t been

t e s t e d f o r generator s a t u r a t i o n .

A s i m i l a r approach c o u l d be used f o r

86.

unbalanced

c a s e s , s i n c e the i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s are c a l c u l a t e d f o r p o s i -

t i v e sequence c u r r e n t s o n l y , as e x p l a i n e d i n s e c t i o n 5.1.

5.4

D e f i n i t i o n s o f S a t u r a t i o n i n the S i m u l a t i o n of E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c
Transients
The a n a l y s i s o f t r a n s i e n t performance o f synchronous

w i t h c o n s t a n t i n d u c t a n c e s may

l e a d t o s e r i o u s e r r o r s b o t h i n form and

magnitude o f c u r r e n t s and v o l t a g e s [ 6 1 ] ,
" i n d u c t a n c e " may

Even the use o f the

term

be m i s l e a d i n g , s i n c e i t i s based upon the assumption of

l i n e a r i t y , i . e . , i t i s no l o n g e r t r u e t h a t ty = L*MMF.
be s a i d t h a t ty i s a n o n l i n e a r f u n c t i o n of MMF.
duces two

generators

I t should, rather,

F o r example, [22]

intro-

types o f i n d u c t a n c e s :

(a)

s e c a n t i n d u c t a n c e , d e f i n e d by t o t a l f l u x p e r u n i t c u r r e n t .

(b)

i n c r e m e n t a l i n d u c t a n c e , d e f i n e d by t h e r a t e of the change o f
f l u x linkage with respect to current.
I t i s proposed t o base the a n a l y s i s o f s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s

upon the f o l l o w i n g
(1)

assumptions:

I n any r e f e r e n c e frame, t h e g e n e r a t o r f l u x e s can be

as

represented

follows:

1 =i +
L

(121)

where:
3^=

v e c t o r o f f l u x e s r e l a t e d to leakage
u n e f f e c t e d by

inductances,

saturation;

v e c t o r of f l u x e s r e l a t e d t o mutual i n d u c t a n c e s ,
s u b j e c t s to s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s .
O n l y the l a t t e r f l u x e s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d i n the f o l l o w i n g
analysis.
(2)

The

degree of s a t u r a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n of the MMF,

which i n

turn i s a function of the t o t a l unsaturated flux ty calculated

u
along the airgap l i n e .
(3)

The saturation e f f e c t s are equal on both.axes, i . e . , there i s

only one saturation c o e f f i c i e n t .

(4)

The d i s t o r t i o n of any airgap f l u x waves does not e f f e c t the

unsaturated inductance values or destroy the sinusoidal v a r i a tions assumed for rotor and stator inductances.

(5)

Hysteresis and eddy current losses are neglected, as i s usual

i n power transformer modelling where i t has normally

little

influence on the results [72],

Assumption 2 implies the knowledge of the dependence between the instantaneous f l u x and the excitation current.

The only available data, how-

ever, consists of the open c i r c u i t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (terminal voltage as

a function of the excitation current) shown schematically i n F i g . 32.
The converted curve (flux versus current) has the same form as the o r i ginal curve.

A short proof i s given i n Appendix [7],

The r e s u l t i n g curve can be approximated i n a number of ways,

e.g.,

s t r a i g h t - l i n e segments, exponential or quadratic curves.

decided to adopt a two s t r a i g h t - l i n e s approximation,

I t was

due to i t s s i m p l i -

c i t y , but the actual number of segments does not change the method of
analysis.

I t can be increased, i f so required by the shape of the

flux-current curve.

The t o t a l (mutual) flux of the machine may,

there-

fore, be described as follows (subscript "u" denotes an unsaturated

value, subscript "m"

dropped to simplify notation):

unsaturated region
(122)
m ty + a
T

it

saturated region

88.

where:
a and m = constants r e s u l t i n g from the two s t r a i g h t - l i n e s
approximation of the saturation curve, or from an
approximation with more than two l i n e a r segments.
The t o t a l unsaturated

airgap flux, on the other hand, may be described

by the following equation:

' ty - /ty] +
u

ty

du

(123)

qu

where subscripts "d" and "q" denote the d i r e c t and quadrature axis
values, respectively.
Equations (122) and (123) imply that there i s one saturation e f f e c t f o r
the t o t a l flux, rather than two separate e f f e c t s , one for each axis.
This s i t u a t i o n i s show schematically i n F i g . 34.

UJ

du
F i g . 34.

Uj

ds

du

Schematic representation of saturation effects.

From F i g . 34 and equations (122) and (123) follows that the fluxes i n
the saturated region can be described as follows (subscript "s" denotes
saturated values):
ir i ,

ds

ni'ili,

du

cos

(124)

ij;

qs

= mij;

qu

sin

(125)

where:
K

cos 3 =

du

(126)

and
ty

sin

-3S.

(127)

As already mentioned, the constants m and a result from the

s t r a i g h t - l i n e approximation of the flux-current c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

This

s i t u a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d schematically i n F i g . 35.

F i g . 35.

S t r a i g h t - l i n e approximation of the
flux-current c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

From basic analytic geometry follows that

m =

(128)

m,

The constant a can be found from the conditions i n the "knee-point"

(ij; , i ) .

In this point both fluxes (saturated and unsaturated) must be

equal, i . e . ,
mi
1

= m i

2 c

+ a

(129)

9 0 .

From ( 1 2 9 )

follows that:
a = (m

Equations

( 1 2 4 ) - ( 1 3 0 )

ous generator.

- m )i
2

( 1 3 0 )

describe f u l l y the saturated fluxes i n a synchron-

They can be e a s i l y modified to accommodate a d d i t i o n a l

data, i f such i s a v a i l a b l e .

I t i s , for example, possible to create

sets of constants m and a, one for each axis.

axis to have i t s own

5.5

two

This would allow each

saturation c o e f f i c i e n t .

Implementation i n the Transients Program

The generator

equations i n d,q,0-coordinates

into the following form (details were given i n section

can be rewritten
2 . 2 ) :
( 1 3 1 )

where the matrix

[A] i s defined as follows:

0

-CO

[A] = [ P ] ~ [ P ]

CO

( 1 3 2 )

1
0

Only the two l a s t terms of ( 1 3 1 )

_|_
1

are subject to saturation influence.

Their d i f f e r e n t physical nature r e s u l t s i n two d i f f e r e n t implementation

procedures, one for each of them.

Both procedures, however, are based

upon the following common assumption:

The generator does not change i t s saturation status during
time-step,

i . e . , i f the generator was

saturated at the

one

beginning

of a time-step, i t remains saturated at i t s end.

The saturable transformer voltages
following

equation:

are described by

the

91,

v
= " 4r JL
pm
d t -^-pm
Equation

(133) i m p l i e s

of importance.

(133)

that p h y s i c a l l y only the incremental fluxes are

S i n c e the g e n e r a t o r s e q u a t i o n s a r e s o l v e d w i t h t h e

t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e o f i n t e g r a t i o n , (133) i s then t r a n s f o r m e d t o t h e
f o l l o w i n g form ( s u b s c r i p t "p" dropped t o s i m p l i f y

notation):

i L ( t ) = j; (t-At) - ~ ( v ( t ) + v ( t - A t ) )
"Til
2. m
m

(134)

S u b s t i t u t i o n o f (122) i n t o (134) y i e l d s t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n f o r
the i t h component o f t h e v e c t o r ^ ( t ) ( s u b s c r i p t "m" dropped t o s i m p l i f y
notation):
m ty. ( t ) + a = m ty. ( t - A t ) + a - - ^ ( v . ( t ) + v. ( t - A t ) )
I U
iu
2 l
l
Simple rearrangements y i e l d t h e f o l l o w i n g

Equation

^ir^iu^

( t
i u

(135)

result:

A t ) )

- i (
v

<

(136) p r o v i d e s t h e means f o r i n c l u d i n g the s a t u r a t i o n

i n the transformer voltages o f a generator.

>

effects

I t i s s i m p l y enough t o

m u l t i p l y a l l t h e m u t u a l i n d u c t a n c e s by t h e c o n s t a n t m.

I f t h e parameters

o f r o t o r c i r c u i t s o f t h e g e n e r a t o r a r e n o t r e f e r r e d t o the s t a t o r
i t i s necessary

136

side,

t o i n t r o d u c e the t r a n s f o r m e r r a t i o i n t o t h e c o n s t a n t m.

The s a t u r a b l e terms r e l a t e d t o t h e speed v o l t a g e s

appear

o n l y i n t h e f o l l o w i n g two e q u a t i o n s :
v , = -co
dm
qm

ty

(137)
'

ty.

(138)
'

and

where s u b s c r i p t s

= +co

dm

" d " and " q " denote t h e d i r e c t and q u a d r a t u r e

r e s p e c t i v e l y , and s u b s c r i p t
tances.

qm

Equations

axis,

"m" denotes terms r e l a t e d t o m u t u a l i n d u c -

(137) and (138) i m p l y t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y

s i d e r t h e e n t i r e f l u x e s ty, and ty , s i n c e
dm
qm

t o con-

(137) and (138) r e p r e s e n t

a l g e b r a i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s , r a t h e r than d i f f e r e n t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

If

a l l r o t o r c i r c u i t s are converted to the s t a t o r s i d e , the f o l l o w i n g

r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be o b t a i n e d f o r t h e s a t u r a t e d

fluxes (subscript

"m"

dropped t o s i m p l i f y n o t a t i o n ) :
= m M , ( i , + i + i ) + a cos 6
r d
r
D

(139)

ty = m M ( i + i + i . ) + a s i n 0
qs
q q
g
Q

(140)

ty,

ds

and

I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , enough t o s u b s t i t u t e (139) and (140) f o r t h e f l u x e s

r e l a t e d t o the s a t u r a b l e

inductances.

The p r o c e d u r e o u t l i n e d above i s v e r y f l e x i b l e and can e a s i l y accommodate

a d d i t i o n a l d a t a , as i t becomes a v a i l a b l e .

I t i s not t i e d e n t i r e l y t o

the t h e o r y o u t l i n e d i n the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , and i t can be adapted t o

a c c e p t any a v a i l a b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

of s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s .

93.

6.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

A range of problems related to i n t e r f a c i n g generator models

with an Electromagnetic Transients Program has been described.

The main

topics covered i n this thesis were:

(a)

creation of an adequate generator model

(b)

development of two alternative i n t e r f a c i n g techniques

(c)

modelling of saturation e f f e c t s i n the generator.

The v a l i d i t y of the generator model has been v e r i f i e d i n a number of

test studies, which also included comparisons with f i e l d test r e s u l t s .
Good agreement was achieved, and the results obtained with the two
i n t e r f a c i n g methods gave p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l answers which proves
their v a l i d i t y .
The discussion of saturation e f f e c t s presents only a f i r s t
attempt i n t h i s area.

The suggested solution methods should be tested

in practice to establish their v a l i d i t y .

S i m i l a r l y , the proposed

method I I of i n t e r f a c i n g generator models with the Transients Program

should undergo further tests before completely replacing method I with
it.

Further possible areas of additional investigations could include

such topics as:

(a)

i n c l u s i o n of space harmonics i n the f i e l d d i s t r i b u t i o n

(b)

improvements i n the calculation of i n i t i a l conditions to allow

the i n i t i a l i z a t i o n from unbalanced conditions.

This work should, therefore, be understood as a f i r s t step, only, i n the

modelling of synchronous generators for electromagnetic transient
phenomena.

94.

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A. Semlyen and A. Dabuleanu, "A System Approach t o A c c u r a t e S w i t c h i n g T r a n s i e n t C a l c u l a t i o n s Based on S t a t e V a r i a b l e Component Modell i n g " , IEEE Trans. Power App. S y s t . , v o l . PAS-94, M a r c h / A p r i l 1975,
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M c G r a w - H i l l , New Y o r k , N.Y., 1971.

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I n t e r n a t i o n a l Student E d i t i o n , M c G r a w - H i l l , Tokyo, 1962.

[43]

C.W. Gear, "The A u t o m a t i c I n t e g r a t i o n o f S t i f f O r d i n a r y D i f f e r e n t i a l E q u a t i o n s " , P r o c e e d i n g IFIPS Conference, E d i n b u r g h , 1968,

pp. 187-193.

An I n t r o d u c t i o n " ,

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Meyer, T r a n s i e n t s Program Memorandum, v o l . UJV, March

1974.

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H.W.
Dommel, " N o n l i n e a r and T i m e - V a r y i n g Elements i n D i g i t a l Simul a t i o n of E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c T r a n s i e n t s " , IEEE Trans. Power App. S y s t . ,
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H.J. C a r l i n and A.B. G i o r d a n o , "Network Theory: An I n t r o d u c t i o n

to R e c i p r o c a l and N o n r e c i p r o c a l C i r c u i t s " , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , E n g l e wood C l i f f s , N.J.,
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D.A. C a l a h a n , " N u m e r i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r I m p l e m e n t a t i o n of Nonl i n e a r T r a n s i e n t C i r c u i t A n a l y s i s Program", IEEE T r a n s , on C i r c u i t

Theory, v o l . CT-18(1), J a n . 1971, pp. 66-73.

[48]

H.W.
Dommel, "A Method f o r S o l v i n g T r a n s i e n t Phenomena i n M u l t i p h a s e
Systems", R e p o r t 5.8, p r e s e n t e d at 2nd Power System Computation
C o n f e r e n c e , Stockholm, 1966.
See a l s o E l e c t r i c Research C o u n c i l ,
T r a n s m i s s i o n L i n e R e f e r e n c e Book: 345 KV and Above, E l e c t r i c Power
R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , P a l o A l t o , Ca., 1975, pp. 292-293.

[49]

L. Dube and H.W.

Dommel, " S i m u l a t i o n of C o n t r o l Systems i n an E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c T r a n s i e n t s Program w i t h TACS", P a p e r s u b m i t t e d f o r PICA
C o n f e r e n c e , T o r o n t o , Ont., May 24-27, 1977.

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[51]

S.N. T a l u k d a r , "METAP - A Modular and Expandable Program f o r Simul a t i n g Power System T r a n s i e n t s " , IEEE Trans. Power App. S y s t . ,
v o l . PAS-95(6), Nov./Dec. 1976, pp. 1882-1891.

[52]

H.W.
Dommel and N. S a t o , " F a s t T r a n s i e n t S t a b i l i t y S o l u t i o n s " , IEEE
Trans. Power App. S y s t . , v o l . PAS-91, J u l y / A u g . 1972, pp. 1643-1650.

[53]

A. C h a r l t o n and G. S h a c k s h a f t , "Comparison o f A c c u r a c y o f Methods

f o r S t u d y i n g S t a b i l i t y , N o r t h f l e e t E x e r c i s e " , E l e c t r a , No. 23,
J u l y 1972, pp.
9-49.

[54]

G. S h a c k s h a f t and R. N e i l s o n , " R e s u l t s o f S t a b i l i t y T e s t s on an
U n d e r - e x c i t e d 120 MW G e n e r a t o r " , C e n t r a l E l e c t r i c i t y G e n e r a t i n g
B o a r d , J u l y 1971.

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A.W. R a n k i n , " P e r - U n i t Impedances o f Synchronous M a c h i n e s " , AIEE

T r a n s a c t i o n s , v o l . 64, Aug. 1945, pp. 569-572 and pp. 839-841.

[56]

H.W.
Dommel, "Notes on Power System A n a l y s i s " , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h
Columbia, Vancouver, B.C.,
1974.

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S.H. C r a n d a l l , " E n g i n e e r i n g A n a l y s i s - A Survey o f N u m e r i c a l

d u r e s " , M c G r a w - H i l l , New Y o r k , N.Y., 1956, p. 37.

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G.E. F o r s y t h e and C B . M o l e r , "Computer S o l u t i o n of L i n e a r A l g e b r a i c Systems", P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Englewood C l i f f s , N.J., 1967, p. 39.

1959.

Proce-

98.

D.C. White and H.H. Woodson, " E l e c t r o m e c h a n i c a l Energy C o n v e r s i o n " ,

J . W i l e y , New Y o r k , N.Y., 1959, p. 518.
N.H. Demerdash .and H.B. H a m i l t o n , "A S i m p l i f i e d Approach t o D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f S a t u r a t e d Synchronous Reactances o f L a r g e Turbogenerat o r s under Load", IEEE T r a n s . Power App. S y s t . , v o l . PAS-95(2),
M a r c h / A p r i l 1976, pp. 560-569.
R. Rudenberg, " T r a n s i e n t Performance o f E l e c t r i c Power Systems,
Phenomena i n Lumped Networks", MIT P r e s s , Cambridge, Mass., 1970.
S.H. W r i g h t , " D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f Synchronous Machine C o n s t a n t s by
T e s t " , T r a n s . AIEE, v o l . 50, Dec. 1931, pp. 1331.
B. A d k i n s , D i s c u s s i o n t o [ 6 0 ] .
G. S h a c k s h a f t , " G e n e r a l - P u r p o s e T u r b o - A l t e r n a t o r Model", P r o c . I E E ,
v o l . 1 1 0 ( 4 ) , A p r i l 1963, pp. 703-713.
W.D. Humpage and T.N. Saha, " D i g i t a l - C o m p u t e r Methods i n DynamicResponse A n a l y s e s o f T u r b o g e n e r a t o r U n i t s " , P r o c . I E E , v o l . 1 1 4 ( 8 ) ,
Aug. 1967, pp. 1115-1130.
J.D. S c h u l z , W.D. Jones and D.N. E w a r t , "Dynamic Models o f T u r b i n e
G e n e r a t o r s D e r i v e d from S o l i d R o t o r E q u i v a l e n t C i r c u i t s " , IEEE
T r a n s . Power App. S y s t . , v o l . 9 2 ( 3 ) , May/June 1973, pp. 926-933.
D. W. O l i v e , "New Techniques f o r t h e C a l c u l a t i o n o f Dynamic S t a b i l i t y " , IEEE T r a n s . Power App. S y s t . , v o l . PAS-85, J u l y 1966,
pp. 767-777.
E. F. Fuchs and E.A. E r d e l y i , " D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f Waterwheel A l t e r n a t o r
Steady S t a t e Reactances from F l u x P l o t s " , IEEE T r a n s . Power App.
S y s t . , v o l . PAS-91, 1972, pp. 1795-1802.
E.F. F u c h s , D i s c u s s i o n t o [ 6 0 ] .
B. A d k i n s , D i s c u s s i o n t o [ 6 0 ] .
H. W. Dommel and W.S. M e y e r , " C o m p u t a t i o n o f E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c T r a n s i e n t s " , P r o c . IEEE, v o l . 62, J u l y 1974, pp. 983-993.
C i g r e Working Group 13.05, " M o d e l l i n g o f s a t u r a b l e Elements f o r
T r a n s i e n t O v e r v o l t a g e s S t u d i e s " , t o be p u b l i s h e d i n E l e c t r a .
" T e s t P r o c e d u r e s f o r Synchronous M a c h i n e s " , IEEE P u b l i c a t i o n No.
115, 1965.
B.C. Kuo, " D i s c r e t e - D a t a C o n t r o l Systems", P r e n t i c e - H a l l ,
C l i f f s , N . J . , 1970, pp. 336-344.

Englewood

B. N o b l e , " A p p l i e d L i n e a r A l g e b r a " , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Englewood

N . J . , 1969.

Cliff,

99.

APPENDIX 1
DEFINITIONS OF L' L" T' , T" AND L', L", T , AND T"
d' d' do' do
q' q' qo'
go
Only the d e f i n i t i o n s of d i r e c t axis quantities w i l l be derived.
The quadrature

axis quantities can be obtained from the d e f i n i t i o n s of

the d i r e c t axis by replacing the subscripts "d", " f " , and "D" with "q",
"g", and "Q", and by replacing the voltage v^ with 0, i . e . , v^ = 0,
since the g-winding i s permanently s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d .
The quantities L^, 1/j, T ^ and
q

are equivalent parameters

which are only defined for transient conditions following a disturbance.

According to the IEEE (ANSI) standards
standards elsewhere, a simultaneous

[73] i n the U.S.A. and similar

three-phase s h o r t - c i r c u i t i s used to

measure these quantities. I t can be simulated with (21)-(23) by applying voltages to the generator terminals which are equal i n magnitude and
of opposite sign to those e x i s t i n g i n the balanced steady-state atrrated
speed p r i o r to the f a u l t .

1.

Subtransient Inductance and Open-Circuit Time Constants

Immediately a f t e r the disturbance ( f i r s t few cycles), there

w i l l be currents flowing i n the damper windings.

The following assump-

tions can be made during that short period:

(a)

no voltage regulator action yet, i . e . ,

v^ = const

(b)

(1-1)

constant f l u x linkages i n the rotor c i r c u i t s , i . e . ,

\p = const

(1-2)

= const

(1-3)

ijjjj

The l a s t assumption i s equivalent to neglecting the resistances

i n the f i e l d and damper windings, which cause a slow decay i n

100.

the fluxes.

Immediately a f t e r the disturbance,

this decay i s

negligible.
Equations(22) can be used to express the currents i ^ and i ^
as functions of these constant f l u x linkages:
-M,

* f - f d
(1-4)

f D "
L

*D-2Vd

Substitution of the above expressions into the equation for the f l u x i n

the d-axis y i e l d s :
^

"d

= (I, "
^"d

423

2 f
D "
- i
2
"f
f D L

M
M

f
T ) i
2
f

+ K^

K^

(1-5)

where
l

M)

/f f DM

( L

(1-6)

f V

and

2f f- V
fV 4
M

='
2

(L

(1-7)

The sub transient inductance L" relates stator f l u x \b, to stator

d
d
i^.
I t i s , therefore, defined as follows:
T
L

II

3 2
f
" d - 2 f

d-8)

-T

currents

f D " "f
The open-circuit time constants define the decay of the rotor
fluxes after the disturbance.
equations f o r rotor fluxes.

From (21) follows

R,

dt

_dt

They can be found from the two

that

" f
V

differential

(1-9)
0

101.

Substitution of (1-4) into (1^-9) with i

= 0 (open-circuit) y i e l d s :

di|>

dt

f D

" f f

*f

f D L

- f
(1-10)

dt

The open-circuit time constants are the reciprocals of the eigenvalues

of the matrix i n

(1-10) and they can be found from the following

equation:

(1-11)

where
a = L L
f

Solving

- M

(1-12)

(1-11) f o r T y i e l d s the following r e s u l t :

do
1 , f. \

, 1 IS
2 / R,

V2

rptt

(1-13)

do
with the p o s i t i v e sign of the root f o r

T
d o

and the negative sign f o r

rpll

do'
2.

Transient

Inductance L'
d

After elapse of a few cycles, i t can be assumed that the damper

winding current has already

died out, i . e . ,
1

= 0

(1-14)

Therefore, only the f i e l d winding with an unchanged f l u x \\> has to be

considered.

From (22) i t follows that under these conditions the f i e l d

current i s given as:

2 "f
L,

(1-15)

) 102.

Substitution of (1-15) into the f l u x equation f o r the d i r e c t axis y i e l d s :

2
M

*<! V * f
M

*d= < d " f ^

L

The transient inductance

*f

( 1 _ 1 6 )

i s , therefore, defined as follows:

M
L

d = d " I if

t" )

1 17

The quadrature axis quantities are defined i n an analogous way with the
necessary changes i n subscripts mentioned e a r l i e r .
3.

Special Case of One Damper Winding on the Q-Axis

The d e f i n i t i o n s have to be changed i n this case.

The absence

of the g-winding can be expressed by assuming that:

R = 0
g

(1-18)

and
L

(1-19)

00

Substitution of (1-18) and (1-19) into (1-11) y i e l d s the following

result:
T" = ^2.
qo
R

(1-20)

The substransient

inductance L" then becomes:

q
,M
2

W ^ v
No transient quantities can be defined i n this case.

"

21)

103.

APPENDIX 2
TRANSFORMATION OF THE EQUATIONS OF THE ELECTRIC PART
The voltage equations of a synchronous generator i n d,q,0coordinates have the following, w e l l known form:
v = - [ R ] i - [ L ' ] i - [L ]- i
-p

p -p
p dt -p

(2-1)

Application of the trapezoidal rule of integration y i e l d s :

r | i

At

'

(t) = 7 ^ i (t-At) - [L ] v ( t ) - [ L ] [ R ] i ( t ) - [L ] [L(t)]i (t) A t p

p
p
p
p
p
p
p
_ 1

_ 1

_1

[L ]~ v (t-At)- [L ]" [R]i (t-At)- [L ]" [L (t-At)]i (t-At)

1

(2-2)

Simple rearrangements allow rewriting of (2-2) into the following form:

v (t) = [ R
-p

c o m p

] i (t) + h i s t (t-At)
-p
p

(2-3)

where the companion resistance matrix i s :

[R

com

P]

_ _2_
f

[ R ] +

[ L

( t ) ] ]

( 2

4 )

and the past-history terms are:

hist (t-At) =
p

[L ] - [R] - [ L ( t - A t ) ] ] - i ( t ) - V p ( t - A t )
p

Equation (2-3) has the form of a r e s i s t i v e companion model.

(2-5)

This form

i s preserved i f the equations are transformed from Park's coordinates to

phase coordinates.

The r e s u l t i n g equations can be written i n the follow-

ing way [2 ]:
v(t) = [ R
]i(t) + hist(t-At)

a,b,c
C O m p

(2-6)

where the subscript "a,b,c" denotes phase a,b,c-coordinates.

The matrices [ R

C O m p

] and [ R

C O m p

3. f D

recalculated at each time step.

] are not constant, and they have to be

yC
The amount of calculations i s , however,

s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller f o r the matrix [ R

C O m p

] than for the matrix

[R^

m P
c

],

104.

i f the m a t r i x [L^] i s c o n s t a n t .
o f the s o l u t i o n .

T h i s a f f e c t s the

numerical e f f i c i e n c y

Because of t h i s , d , q , 0 - c o o r d i n a t e s

the f i n a l a l g o r i t h m .

were chosen f o r

105.

APPENDIX 3
MULTIPHASE THEVENIN EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSMISSION NETWORK

I t i s assumed t h a t a l l network parameters are l i n e a r .

the o n l y assumption n e c e s s a r y

t o permit

This i s

the c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e Thevenin

e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t of a system shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g . 3.1.

IN
1a

lb

N E T W O R K
2a

2b
2N

Fig.
The

3.1.

Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the network.

o b j e c t i s t o c a l c u l a t e the Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t o f the n e t -

work seen from t h e t e r m i n a l s l a - 2 a , l b - 2 b ,

1N-2N.

The network i s d e s c r i b e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g n o d a l

equation:

[G]-v=i

(3.1)

where [G] i s a conductance m a t r i x c r e a t e d by a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e of i n t e g r a t i o n to d i f f e r e n t i a l

The

Thevenin e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t
(1)

(2)

o f the network.

can be o b t a i n e d as f o l l o w s :

S h o r t - c i r c u i t a l l v o l t a g e sources
sources

equations

and c a n c e l a l l c u r r e n t

i n t h e network,

Connect a c u r r e n t source

o f +1.0 p.u. t o t e r m i n a l l i and o f

-1.0 p.u. t o t e r m i n a l 2 i , and s o l v e E q . (3.1) f o r v.

This

106.

produces a column vector v

which i s , i n e f f e c t , the d i f f e r -

ence of the l i - t h and 2 i - t h columns of [G] \ i . e .

+1.0 i n l i - t h

component

[G]v = except

(3.2)
-1.0 i n 2-i-th component

produces a vector:
^Ti=^li-^2i

( 3

'

3 )

The vector v . i s the i - t h column of the Thevenin r e s i s t i v e

Ti
_terminal, , _
matrix [R^
] i n Eq. (83).
m

(3)

Repeat step 2 f o r a l l other terminal pairs of i n t e r e s t ,

i = 2, ... N.

This ends the calculation of the Thevenin r e -

s i s t i v e matrix

[R^ "" ''"].

ern

na

The open c i r c u i t voltages y ^ ( t )

0

are calculated by the Transients Program as described i n [45],

107.

APPENDIX 4
RESISTIVE COMPANION MODEL

The
resistive

g e n e r a l p r o p e r t y o f i m p l i c i t i n t e g r a t i o n methods t o c r e a t e

companion models w i l l be demonstrated f o r the e l e c t r i c p a r t o f

a synchronous g e n e r a t o r .

The procedure f o r o t h e r network components i s

very s i m i l a r .
The

d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s o f a g e n e r a t o r i n d,q,0-coordinates

can be r e w r i t t e n

i n t o t h e g e n e r a l form o f :

where:
[CJ

= - [ L ] ( [ R ] + [I/])

(4-2)

and
[C ] = - [ L ]

. (4-3)

As

i s w e l l known, the e x a c t s o l u t i o n o f (4-1) has the f o l l o w i n g

general

form [ 7 4 ] :
i (t) = [ e
-P

] - i (t-At) + f
-P
_

A f t e r a p p l i c a t i o n o f any i m p l i c i t
rewritten

i n t o the f o l l o w i n g

[e

[ C l ] ( t

"

T )

][C

A t

integration

]v ( T ) dx (4-4)
2 -p

t e c h n i q u e , (4-1) can be

form:

i ( t ) = [C l i ( t - A t ) + [C ]v ( t ) + u
-P
3 ~~P
h
P

(4-5)

where _u r e p r e s e n t s the remaining p a r t

o f t h e i n t e g r a l from (4-4) which

c o n t a i n s o n l y known " p a s t h i s t o r y " v a l u e s a t t - A t ,

t-2At, e t c .

d e f i n i t i o n o f the m a t r i x [ C ] depends on the type o f i m p l i c i t

3

t i o n t e c h n i q u e used i n the s o l u t i o n o f ( 4 - 1 ) .

The
integra-

For the t r a p e z o i d a l

rule

of i n t e g r a t i o n , i t i s g i v e n as f o l l o w s :

[C ] = ([I] - [C^r^ai] + ^| [CJ)

3

(4-6)

108.

S i m p l e rearrangements o f (4-5) r e s u l t i n the f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p :

v ( t ) = [C ]
p

it

i ( t ) ' - [C r V

it

]i

( t - A t ) - [C ]

3 p

it

_ 1

.u

(4-7)

or i n a s h o r t e r form:
Vp(t) = [ C ] i ( t ) + h i s t ( t - A t )
5

(4-8)

E q u a t i o n (4-8) has the d e s i r e d form o f a r e s i s t i v e companion

model and i t has been o b t a i n e d w i t h o u t s p e c i f y i n g the t y p e o f i m p l i c i t
i n t e g r a t i o n method.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s i s t i v e companion model can be

c a l c u l a t e d f o r any system o f e q u a t i o n s o f the form o f (4-1) independent

of t h e type o f i m p l i c i t i n t e g r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e used i n the s o l u t i o n o f
(4-1).

The c a l c u l a t i o n o f the m a t r i x [ C ] and the v e c t o r h i s t ( t - A t ) i s

5

v e r y s i m p l e when the t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e o f i n t e g r a t i o n i s a p p l i e d .

APPENDIX 5
REDUCTION OF THE GENERATOR EQUATIONS
,red-|
red
The reduced r e s i s t i v e m a t r i x [R
] i s d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s :
ss
[ R ] = [R ] - [R ][.R ]
ss
ss
sr
rr
r e d

_ 1

[R ]
rs

(5-1)

w h e r e - m a t r i x [R ] has t h e f o l l o w i n g , w e l l known form ( i n d,q,0ss

coordinates)

[8], [9]:

ss

l l

21

0
The elements a

1 ; L

The elements a

1 2

, a

2 2

, ar

and a

*33

12

22

(5-2)

33

are f u n c t i o n s o f the

a r e f u n c t i o n s o f b o t h co and A t , w i t h a l i n e a r

2 1

dependence on co.
Proof
The m a t r i x [

R
r r

] has t h e f o l l o w i n g form:

[R r r ] =

>1

(5-3)
B,

where a l l t h e n o n z e r o elements a r e f u n c t i o n s o f At o n l y .
matrix [

R
r r

The i n v e r s e

] ^ i s s i m p l y [75]
-1
-1
[R r r ]

(5-4)
I

The m a t r i c e s

-1

[R ] and [R ] a r e d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s :
rs
sr

[R

rs

51

0
(5-5)

1 =

62
72

0
0

with a l l the nonzero elements being functions of At only;

a

[Rsr ] =

with the elements a

11+

the elements a

>

16

a
17

!5

i6

a,
lh

25

, a , ,a , and a
1 5

2g

2h'

2 7

!7

26

X5-6)

2 7

being functions of At only and

2 5 being functions of both co and At

with l i n e a r dependence on co.

Simple matrix m u l t i p l i c a t i o n y i e l d s :
b.

11

12

[R r r ] t R rs1 =
1

(5-7)
32

hi
where a l l the nonzero elements are obviously functions of At only.
F i n a l l y , the product

[R

][R
SIT

ik

sr

][R

] [R
1

rr

] =

rs >

24

] i s given as:

_ 1

ITIT

[R

] [R

l l

ITS
+

l l

!5
25

12

i6

12

32

. 26

!7

+ a
32

b
27

hi

l l

21

12

22

(5-8)

o_

elements a ,
and a
depend ( l i n e a r l y ) on co,
i7' ih'
i6
the elements c
and c
i n the r e s u l t i n g matrix w i l l have the same type
i r

1 2

2 5

2 1

of dependence.
Substitution of (5-8)

into (5-1)

y i e l d s the desired r e s u l t :
l

ss

ll
21

12

(5-9)

22
33

which has the form of

(81).

111.

ire

The m a t r i x [

'
]

R
g s

n a s

t o

be c a l c u l a t e d o n l y once as the

cons-

t a n t o f a s i m u l a t i o n r u n i f A t does n o t change and i f s a t u r a t i o n i s n o t

considered.

The elements

d^

and d

depend l i n e a r l y on c o , and

2 1

their

u p d a t i n g f o r changes i n co i s then o b v i o u s l y q u i t e s i m p l e .
S i m i l a r procedures

can be used f o r the four-phase e q u i v a l e n t

c i r c u i t o f the g e n e r a t o r mentioned i n c h a p t e r 3.5.

The r e s i s t i v e m a t r i x

red
[R
] w i l l then be g i v e n as:
g g

ll

[ Rss ] r e d

where the elements

only.

The elements

1 1 9

e ,
1 2

21

12

22

lk

21+

l l f

, e ,

e ,
2 1

w i t h l i n e a r dependence on co.

2 2

e ,

e^,

3 3

and e

(5-10)

33

and e ^

kk

are f u n c t i o n s o f A t

are f u n c t i o n s o f b o t h co and

2 l t

At

I t c a n - a l s o be shown t h a t the f o l l o w i n g

e n t r i e s o f (5-10) are e q u a l t o the c o r r e s p o n d i n g e n t r i e s o f ( 5 - 9 ) :

e

i2

12

= d
22

22

= d
33

(5-11)
(5-12)
(5-13)

33

112.

APPENDIX 6
PRACTICAL CALCULATION OF THE MATRIX [ R ]
ss
r e d

The Gauss-Jordan elimination process, which has been chosen,

as the most e f f i c i e n t method, produces not only the reduced matrix
[ R ] , but also the d i s t r i b u t i o n factor matrices [ D l = [R ][R 1
ss
12
sr
rr
r e d

and [D

21

1 = -[R

] [R
- 1

rr

rs

].

The matrix [D; ] i s needed f o r the c a l c u l a 12

tion of the right-hand side of (80), and the matrix [I> ] i s necessary
21

in the solution of the equations of the concealed terminals, once the

retained variables have been found.

A short description of the algorithm

i s followed by a flowchart of a computer program based on this algorithm.

Consider a system of l i n e a r algebraic equations:
[C]x = b

(6-1)

where:
[C] = n x n matrix of c o e f f i c i e n t s ,
and

x, b_ = vectors with n components.

The objective i s to arrive at a reduced system of equations for subset 1

i n (6-2):

(6-2)

where [ C J J ] and [ C

2 2

] are matrices of order m x m and (n-m)

respectively, and x^, b^ are vectors with

vectors with (n-m)

x (n-m),

m components andix^, b_

components.

Elimination of variables x_ from subset 1 results i n the following

2

system of equation:

113.

red

' c c
|

-C^C
22

_ 1

2l

^12^22

1*1

(6-3)
b

21

X
- 2

E q u a t i o n (6-3) has t h e d e s i r e d form a l l o w i n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f v a r i a b l e s

^

without' the need t o c a l c u l a t e t h e v a r i a b l e s x , p r o v i d e d b

2

i s known.

The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e m a t r i x o f (6-2) i n t o t h e m a t r i x o f (6-3) i s

c a r r i e d o u t by e x c h a n g i n g - one a t a t i m e - t h e v a r i a b l e s x., b. f o r

3
m+1 <^ j j< n .

T h i s i s t h e Gauss-Jordan e l i m i n a t i o n p r o c e s s .

i f t h e v a r i a b l e s x., b. a r e t o be exchanged

3
F o r example,

( v a r i a b l e s x.,,, b.,. , e t c .

J+l

J+l

have a l r e a d y been exchanged) and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s from t h e l a s t

are

exchange

^ ^ then t h e j - t h row o f (6-2) may be w r i t t e n down as f o l l o w s :

l

31

4-

x + .. . + c. .
2
JJ

J2

+ r

x. + c.,. . b .,, +
j
j ( j + D J+l
N

+ c. b
j n

= b.

(6-4)

Exchange o f x^, b^ y i e l d s :
c

(old)

- J c.

(old)
1

(old)
1-1

C.

C.

1+1

C.

(old)
c. = c. .

where

,(old)
J

".i

c.

- x.
n

(6-5)

33

I f (6-5) i s r e w r i t t e n v i t h t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ;
(new)
_ (new)
, (new),
,
, (new),
c.
x + ... c... ' . x . + c.. 'b. + ... + c.
'b = x. (6-6)
Jl
1
j ( j - l ) 3-1
33
3
n
J
f r

then i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o l d f o r t h e e l i m i n a t e d row:
(new) _
"jk

,
(old)
jk
.(old)

for

j \ k

(6-7a)

'33
and
(new)
'jj

,(old)

otherwise

(6-7b)

114.

Insertion of (6-6) into the remaining equations results i n the following

relationships:
(old)
(old) _ j k
ij
(old)
c

(new)
lk
and

(old) _
ik

(old)
(new)
ij
c..
= T^rrr
13
A )

^
v

g a )

old

^,

otherwise

33

A flow chart of a computer program executing the algorithm described

above i s presented on the next page.

oi_\

(6-8b)

115.

START

STOP

A = 1.0/CU.J)
K - 1

:i(K) = C(K,J)
K = K + 1

= -C(J,K) x A

DO 3 I = ] , N
3 C(I,K) = C(l,K) + B x C1(I)

DO 15 K = 1, N
15 C(K,J) = C1(K) x A

C(J,J) = A
J = ..-1

F i g . 6-1.

Flow c h a r t o f computer program f o r m a t r i x r e d u c t i o n .

APPENDIX 7
CONVERSION OF THE OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTIC TO
A FLUX-CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC

The open-circuit c h a r a c t e r i s t i c V^j^g)

f(if)

measured

under balanced no-load conditions, i . e . ,

i

= i, = i = i _ = i _ = i = 0
b
c
D
Q
g

(7-1)

The voltage equations ( i n phase coordinates) f o r these conditions are

as follows:
v
v
v

= co Mj. s i n (3 i , .
r
1 r

(7-2)

= co M

(7-3)

= lo M, s i n B_ i
f
3 r

(7-4)

sin 6

from which follows that s i n u s o i d a l changes i n f l u x are followed by s i n usoidal changes i n voltages, since

i f hysteresis and eddy current losses are neglected, as per assumption

5, chapter 5.4.

Therefore, the RMS value of voltage difference between

any two phases i s given as follows:

V,

co-M^-i. /3

i_f_=J

(rms)

^2

(7

/2

6)

From (7-6) follows that the conversion of V ^ ^ g ^ values to the instantaneous flux values becomes a simple rescaling:

v ^ !

(7

CO

The e x c i t a t i o n current i ^ does not have to be converted.

Consider the voltage equation f o r v , the only nonzero voltage under
balanced no-load conditions:

7)

117.

Equation

;/2

# 1

(7-8)

* *d

(7-8) can be v i s u a l i z e d a system of c o i l s placed i n a rotating

f i e l d create.d by a permanent magnet.

This s i t u a t i o n i s shown schemati-

c a l l y i n F i g . 7-1.

F i g . 7-1.

Schematic representation of an unloaded

The decrease i n the value of

generator.

(due to saturation) results i n a de^

creased value of the flux linkage ty^, and therefore i n a decreased

tage v .

vol-

However, since no a.c.-components are present, there are no

harmonics generated i n the f i e l d d i s t r i b u t i o n , i . e . , the voltage v^ i s

s t i l l described by a l i n e a r equation of the form of (7-8).

Therefore,

the converted open c i r c u i t characteristicbhas the same form, as the

o r i g i n a l curve.

APPENDIX 8
EXAMPLE FOR A MULTI-MASS SYSTEM

The case presented here i s a standard IEEE benchmark test case

for the simulation of subsynchronous resonance phenomena [5]. The
effects of a simultaneous three-phase s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n a system as shown
i n F i g . 8.1 and 8.2 are simulated.

Rj
R

GEN

X, =i-14

Xj=j.5

=02

INFINITE
BUS

-.5
X =:-j.371
c

X =j-06
0

[X

F i g . 8.1.

=j.04

System diagram.

Df

RECTI'ON
OF

ROTATION

F i g . 8.2.

Model of the shaft system.

The three-phase f a u l t was applied at bus B at time t = 0 and then removed

a f t e r time 0.075 sec, as soon as the current i n each phase crossed zero.

119.

The r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d h e r e were o b t a i n e d w i t h method I w i t h a time s t e p o f

100 usee.

F i g . 8.3 shows the s i m u l a t e d e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c t o r q u e o f t h e

g e n e r a t o r , F i g . 8.4 shows t h e s i m u l a t e d m e c h a n i c a l speed o f the g e n e r a t o r

r o t o r , and F i g . 8.5 shows t h e t o r q u e on t h e s h a f t between t h e g e n e r a t o r
r o t o r and t h e e x c i t e r .

The i n c r e a s i n g o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h i s t o r q u e p o i n t

out t h e reason f o r s h a f t damage w h i c h o c c u r r e d i n a r e a l case from which

the d a t a o f F i g . 8.1 and 8.2 were d e r i v e d .

-4.0

F i g . 8.3. S i m u l a t e d e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c torque o f the g e n e r a t o r .

002

TIME

(s)

F i g . 8.4. S i m u l a t e d m e c h a n i c a l speed o f t h e g e n e r a t o r r o t o r .

TIME(s)

F i g . 8.5.

S i m u l a t e d t o r q u e on t h e s h a f t between
t h e g e n e r a t o r r o t o r and the e x c i t e r .

120.

The results presented here are p r a c t i c a l l y indistinguishable from those

in [5], which were obtained with a program developed i n industry.