Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mechanical Engineering
Submitted by
PARSA BHARGAV KRISHNA
08BME155
VIT
UNIVERSITY
(Estd. U/s 3 of UGC Act 1956)
www. vit.ac.in
JUNE 2010
Acknowledgement
We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude and sincere
regards
to
our
institution
VELLORE
INSTITUTE
OF
INDEX
INTRODUCTION
ABOUT LANCO POWER PLANT
PLANT BACKGROUND
PLANT HIGHLIGHTS
GAS TURBINE
Gas Turbine Engine Fundamentals
Gas Turbine Main Components
Air Inlet Equipment
Compressor
Combustion Section
HRSG
HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATORS
Superheater
Economiser
Deaerator
STEAM TURBINE
STEAM TURBINES
Turbine Principles
Nozzles and Their Principles
Basic Turbine Types and Principles
Impulse Turbine
Reaction Turbine
Condenser
Cooling towers
Chimney
INTRODUCTION
Based on a Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) for a period of 15 years, the plant
supplies power to APSDCL (Andhra Pradesh Southern Distribution Company Limitedrest while Transmission Corporation of Andhra Pradesh Limited (AP TRANSCO)).
The Operation and Maintenance of the power plant is done by the Genting Lanco
Power (I) Private Limited, which is jointly owned by Genting Group, Malaysia and
LANCO Group, India.
Plant Background
The plant was set up as a short gestation power projects in the private sector on the
basis of "Tariff-Based International Competitive Bidding" as per the Government of
India's guidelines dated 18 January 1995.
Based on Andhra Pradesh State Electricity Boards (now the Transmission Corporation
of
Andhra
Pradesh Limited (AP TRANSCO) tender, Lanco Kondapalli Power Private Limited was
awarded the project on Build, Own and Operate (BOO) basis.
Plant Highlights
First Project cleared by Central Electricity Authority (CEA) under the
International Competitive Bidding (ICB) route for Power Projects in India.
First ICB Power Projects in India to achieve Financial Closure.
one of the lowest in terms of evacuation cost to AP TRANSCO.
First private sector Power Project to receive disbursement of finance from
the Power Finance Corporation Limited, India.
Largest Independent Power Project (IPP) in South India and one of the
largest IPPs in India.
BASIC CYCLES
Brayton cycle
In the combustion section, fuel is injected into the compressed air and burned to convert
the fuel's chemical energy into heat energy. Burning the fuel results in a high temperature,
high pressure gas with considerable thermal energy. This hot gas enters the turbine
section where it expands, giving up its thermal energy to the blades of the rotating
turbine. In the process of expanding and cooling through the turbine section, the thermal
energy of the gas is converted into mechanical energy that is used to do work. A large
portion of the work from the turbine, about 60%, is used to drive the compressor. The
remainder of the turbine work is available to produce power by driving a generator. The
heat exhausted from the gas turbine is typically in the range of 900 to 1100F (482-973)
C.
The first process is the compression of air in the compressor represented by the
line AB. As the air is compressed, its temperature and pressure increases and there
is a corresponding increase in enthalpy. As work is done on the air, the air stores
this energy in the form of temperature and pressure. The power (energy) to
perform this work originates from the turbine which is directly coupled to the gas
turbine compressor through a common shaft.
The second process is the addition of heat to the cycle at a constant pressure by
burning of fuel represented by the line B-C. The temperature of the gas that
results from the combustion increases considerably from the temperature of the
air at the compressor outlet.
The third process is the expansion and cooling of the gas as it passes through the
turbine, is represented by the line C-D. Here, the energy of the hot pressurized gas
is used to perform work.
The final process in the Brayton cycle is the cooling of the hot gas that exhausts to
the atmosphere, represented by line D-A. The exhausted gas mixes with ambient
air, thus decreasing in temperature.
The amount of heat that is required to make the Brayton cycle work is represented by the
area under line B-C. The fraction of heat that is rejected is represented by the area under
the line D-A. The area between these two lines represents the heat that is converted to
useful mechanical energy. The heat converted to useful mechanical energy is 25% to 30%
of the total heat required to make the process work.
isobaric process - The compressed air then runs through a combustion chamber,
where fuel is burned, heating that aira constant-pressure process, since the
chamber is open to flow in and out.
Isentropic process - The heated, pressurized air then gives up its energy,
expanding through a turbine (or series of turbines). Some of the work extracted by
the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
Rankine Cycle
The "traditional" thermal power plant is the Rankine Cycle plant, named
after the man who invented the cycle. A power plant cycle is a series of processes in
which a fluid, generally water/steam, is used to convert heat energy to mechanical energy.
The Rankine Cycle in its simplest form consists of a boiler, a turbine, a condenser, and a
boiler feed pump. Early plants had thermal efficiencies of approximately 25% to 30%.
Only 25% to 30% of the heat energy in the fuel burned in these plants was converted to
electrical energy. The rest was lost in various ways. Rankine Cycle plants are still being
built today. The Rankine Cycle has been refined considerably over the years and made
more efficient by the addition of components like feed water heaters, super heaters, and
reheaters. The efficiency of the Rankine Cycle has also been improved by increasing the
pressure and temperature of the cycle. One of the most efficient Rankine Cycle plants
ever built (Philadelphia Electric's Eddy stone plant, Units 1 and 2) was placed in service
around 1960. The thermal efficiency of the Eddy stone plant was 42%. The laws of
thermodynamics and considerations such as material limitations have prevented any
significant improvement since then.
Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure, as the fluid
is a liquid at this stage the pump requires little input energy.
Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant
pressure by an external heat source to become a dry saturated vapor.
Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating
power. This decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapor, and some
condensation may occur.
Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a
constant pressure and temperature to become a saturated liquid. The pressure and
temperature of the condenser is fixed by the temperature of the cooling coils as
the fluid is undergoing a phase-change.
The first process in the Rankine Cycle is the increase in pressure of the
condensate from the condenser by the boiler feed pump. The increase in
pressure occurs with a slight increase in enthalpy. The increase in energy which
the boiler feed pump adds to the cycle is represented by line 1-2.
The second Rankine Cycle process (Line 2-3) is the addition of heat
(represented by Q) to the water entering the boiler. Within the boiler, the water is
transformed from a liquid to a gas (steam). The generation of steam is assumed
to occur at a constant pressure. Additional energy is added to the steam as it
passes through the superheated (line 4). The steam is then expanded and
cooled as it passes through the turbine as represented by line 4-5. Here, the
energy of the steam is used to perform work.
The last process in the Rankine Cycle is the condensation of the steam that
exhausts from the turbine, represented by line 5-1. During condensation,
considerable heat, called the heat of vaporization, is lost.
The heat required making the Rankine Cycle work is determined by the area under the
lines between points 2 to 4; and the heat lost from the cycle is under the line between
points 5 and 1. The area between the lines represents the heat that is converted to
useful mechanical energy. The useful mechanical energy is only about 1/3 of the heat
required to make the cycle work.
In an ideal Rankine cycle the pump and turbine would be isentropic, i.e., the pump and
turbine would generate no entropy and hence maximize the net work output. Processes 12 and 3-4 would be represented by vertical lines on the Ts diagram and more closely
resemble that of the Carnot cycle. The Rankine cycle shown here prevents the vapor
ending up in the superheat region after the expansion in the turbine which reduces the
energy removed by the condensers.
Natural gas is the most common fuel used by combined cycle gas turbine
power plants. In recent years however, manufacturers have designed and built gas
turbines which can burn various forms of low and medium Btu gas. These low Btu gasses
can be derived as a byproduct of the refinery process, or in some cases, produced through
a process referred to as gasification. During gasification, solid fuel such as coal or wood
is routed through a heated vessel of approximately 1500-2000F (816-1093C). The high
temperature environment causes an immediate release of volatile gasses from the solid
fuel; with the resulting byproducts of the gasification process being char, ash, and
low-medium Btu gas. Gas turbines can burn the resultant gas as easily as natural gas, and
thus indirectly can use wood or coal as a fuel.
A typical simple-cycle gas turbine will convert 30% to 40% of the fuel input
into shaft output. All but 1% to 2% of the remainder is in the form of exhaust heat. The
combined cycle is generally defined as one or more gas turbines with heat-recovery
steam generators in the exhaust, producing steam for a steam turbine generator,
heat-to-process, or a combination thereof.
Figure below shows a combined cycle in its simplest form. High
utilization of the fuel input to the gas turbine can be achieved with some of the more
complex heat-recovery cycles, involving multiple-pressure boilers, extraction or topping
steam turbines, and avoidance of steam flow to a condenser to preserve the latent heat
content. Attaining more than 80% utilization of the fuel input by a combination of
electrical power generation and process heat is not unusual.
Combined cycle
BENEFITS OF THE COMBINED CYCLE
The demand for combined cycle power plants has increased dramatically
over the last decade. The principal reason for this increase in popularity is probably the
fact that combined cycle plants offer the most efficient, proven technology for generating
steam and/or electric power commercially available today. There are other reasons for the
increase in popularity however, including availability of gas and oil fuel, moderate capital
cost, and short construction schedule as compared to conventional Rankine Cycle plants.
This Section describes the benefits of combined cycle technology
Gas Turbine
Gas Turbine Engine Fundamentals
A gas turbine is an internal combustion engine. Like all internal combustion
engines, gas turbines compress air, take in fuel for combustion, and use the resultant
volume of hot gases to develop shaft horsepower. Referring to Figure the three primary
sections of a gas turbine engine are:
Compressor - Air is drawn into the air inlet by the compressor. Within the compressor,
the air in compressed and a corresponding temperature increase is incurred. The hot,
compressed air is discharged to the combustion section of the engine.
Combustor - Fuel is admitted into the combustion section by fuel nozzles. The fuel/air
Mixture is ignited and combustion occurs.
Turbine - The hot and rapidly expanding gases are directed aft through the turbine
rotor
Assembly. There, thermal and kinetic energy are converted into mechanical energy. The
Gases are then expelled out the turbine exhaust.
2. Compressor
The function of the gas turbine compressor is to efficiently compress the
required mass of air and deliver the air to the combustion section. There are two basic
types of compressors used for gas turbine applications; centrifugal compressors and axial
flow compressors. Axial flow compressors are most often used in power plant
applications because of their ability to pump large volumes of air at a high efficiency.
Both the centrifugal and axial-flow compressors compress air by imparting momentum to
the air by means of rotating elements and then converting that momentum to pressure in
suitable stationary passages. Refer to Figure 2-4. In the centrifugal type compressor, air is
drawn in at the center, or eye of a rapidly rotating vane disc. Centrifugal action on the
rotating air mass forces it to the tips of the disc where it is flung off at high tangential
velocity. Suitably shaped stator blades receive this fast moving air stream and slow it
down in such a manner as to increase the pressure. About half of the pressure rise
Occurs in the rotor and the remainder in the stator passages.
The two main elements of an axial flow compressor are the stator and the
rotor. The rotor is constructed with several rows of fixed blades which impart momentum
to the air and force it rearward. Following each row of rotor blades is a row of stationary
Stator blades. An axial flow compressor draws in air from the atmosphere and moves it
Parallel to the axis of rotation. The air is compressed in both the rotor and stator Blade
passages, by continually diffusing the air flow from a high velocity to a low velocity, with
a corresponding rise in pressure. Each consecutive pair of rotor and stator blades
constitutes a pressure stage.
HRSG
HEAT
Superheater
A superheater is a device used to convert saturated steam into dry steam used for power
generation or processes. There are three types of superheaters namely: radiant,
convection, and separately fired. A superheater can vary in size from a few tens of feet to
several hundred feet (a few meters or some hundred meters).
A radiant superheater is placed directly in the combustion chamber.
A convection superheater is located in the path of the hot gases.
A separately fired superheater, as its name implies, is totally separated from the boiler.
The main advantages of using a superheater are reduced fuel and water consumption but
there is a price to pay in increased maintenance costs. In most cases the benefits
outweighed the costs and superheaters were widely used.
Economisers
Economisers are mechanical devices intended to reduce energy
consumption, or to perform another useful function like preheating a fluid. In simple
terms, an economizer is a heat exchanger.
Modern-day boilers, such as those in coal-fired power stations, are still
fitted with economizers which are descendants of Green's original design. In this context
they are often referred to as feed water heaters and heat the condensate from turbines
before it is pumped to the boilers.
Economisers are commonly used as part of a heat recovery steam generator
in a combined cycle power plant. In an HRSG, water passes through an economizer, then
a boiler and then a superheated. The economizer also prevents flooding of the boiler with
liquid water that is too cold to be boiled given the flow rates and design of the boiler.
A common application of economizers in steam power plants is to capture
the waste heat from boiler stack gases (flue gas) and transfer it to the boiler feed water.
This raises the temperature of the boiler feed water thus lowering the needed energy
input, in turn reducing the firing rates to accomplish the rated boiler output. Economisers
lower stack temperatures which may cause condensation of acidic combustion gases and
serious equipment corrosion damage if care is not taken in their design and material
selection.
Deaerator
The primary function of the deaerator is to remove non-condensable gases
from the feedwater entering the HRSG. The efficiency of the deaerator in performing this
function is partially dependent on the temperature of the incoming feedwater. If the inlet
water temperature is abnormally low, proper deaeration cannot take place. This creates
the need for additional chemical injection to control feedwater dissolved oxygen content;
and thus wasted chemicals and money are expended. The Operator must ensure that
the feedwater heater to the deaerator is in service and operating properly, and that it is
not bypassed for any reason.
STEAM TURBINE
STEAM TURBINES
Steam turbines convert the heat energy of steam into rotational
mechanical energy. The mechanical energy of the steam turbine is then used to produce
electrical energy from a generator. The steam turbine-generator is, by itself, a very simple
machine with few moving parts. This is desirable because it allows the steam turbinegenerator to have very good reliability. It is not unusual for a steam turbine-generator to
operate continuously for more than a year without shutdown.
Turbine Principles
The power plant is often described as an energy conversion factory in
which the chemical energy in the fuel is transformed in a series of steps into electrical
energy, with the turbine-generator as one part of the power plant. The function of the
steam turbine is to convert the energy in superheated high pressure steam from the boiler
or HRSG, into mechanical energy. It is common to refer to the energy conversion that
occurs in the turbine as happening in a single step. The conversion of energy in the
turbine actually occurs in two steps. First, the heat energy in the steam is converted into
kinetic energy of a steam jet by nozzles. Second, the steam jets are used with buckets or
blades mounted on a rotor to produce a mechanical force and torque.
in operation are erosion from debris in the steam and deposits from contamination of the
steam.
Convergent Nozzle
Impulse Turbine
The basic concept of an impulse turbine is, a steady jet of high velocity steam
is directed toward a turbine wheel. The impulse of the steam velocity acting against the
turbine blades causes the wheel to rotate.
The operating principles of an impulse turbine are, Steam enters an impulse
turbine through a stationary nozzle that expands the steam and creates a steam jet. The
steam jet strikes the rotor buckets (blades). Each set of nozzles and rotor buckets is called
a stage. The graph in Figure illustrates that the entire pressure drop in the stage occurs at
the nozzles, and the velocity and volume of the steam increase in the nozzles.
Within an impulse turbine, the expanded steam strikes the buckets forcing
them to rotate and reducing the velocity of the jet of steam. The force of the steam on the
buckets produces the mechanical energy needed to turn the generator. This mechanical
energy comes from the jet of steam which has its velocity reduced considerably.
In large modern power plants, there is considerable thermal energy in each
pound of steam delivered to the turbine. It is impractical and inefficient to build a single
nozzle and rotor large enough to convert all the steam's thermal energy into useful work.
Therefore, large modern turbines are usually multi-staged, with each stage converting
part of the steam's thermal energy to mechanical energy. In a basic multi-staged steam
turbine, steam enters through the first stage nozzle, which converts part of the thermal
energy in the steam into kinetic energy. The steam jet from the first stage nozzle strikes
the first stage rotor buckets. After leaving the first stage rotor buckets, the steam passes
through the second stage nozzle. Some of the remaining thermal energy is then converted
to kinetic energy. The second stage rotor buckets are forced to rotate by the steam jet
leaving the second stage nozzles.
Reaction Turbines
The basic operating principles of an ideal reaction turbine are, the turbine
rotor is forced to turn by the active force of the steam jet leaving the nozzle. In an ideal
reaction turbine, the moving buckets would be the only nozzles. Therefore, all the steam
expansion would occur in the moving buckets. This is impractical in large turbines
because it is difficult to admit steam to moving nozzles. Thus, large turbines use fixed
nozzles to admit steam to moving nozzles. Therefore, practical, large reaction turbines
use a combination of impulse and reaction principles.
The rotary lawn sprinkler is an example of a pure reaction turbine. In
practice, so called pure reaction turbines are seldom used, and are never used in
Practical utility turbines. Practical reaction turbines are a combination of reaction and
impulse. There are stationary nozzles just as there are for impulse turbines. There are
also rotating nozzles, not of the sort one might expect from the figure of the simple
reaction turbine.
The typical reaction turbine has stationary nozzles and moving nozzles. The
moving nozzles are created by varying the cross section of the openings between
adjacent buckets (usually called blades in such turbines) as shown in Figure below.
One practical result of this design is that, unlike impulse turbines, there is
a pressure drop across the moving row of blades by design that is P2, the pressure
between the nozzles and the blades is higher than the pressure downstream of the
blades, P3. This results in a force being imposed upon the rotor in the downstream
direction, unlike the impulse turbine. Accordingly, one characteristic of reaction
Turbines are high thrust loading that requires special design features to make
reasonable sized thrust bearings practical.
Figure below shows a series of reaction turbine stages. Each stage
consists of a set of fixed nozzles and a set of moving nozzles. The pressure drop occurs
over both the fixed and moving nozzles. Reaction turbines are multi-staged by
alternating sets of fixed and moving nozzles. Each pair of fixed and moving nozzles
makes up one stage.
CONDENSER
Condenser
Condenser is the commonly used term for a water cooled shell and tube
heat exchanger installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power
stations. These condensers are heat exchangers which convert steam from its gaseous to
its liquid state at a pressure below atmospheric pressure. Where cooling water is in short
supply, an air-cooled condenser is often used. An air-cooled condenser is however
significantly more expensive and cannot achieve as low a steam turbine exhaust pressure
as a condenser.
Condensers are also used in applications and industries other than the
condensing of steam turbine exhaust in power plants.
The primary function of a condenser is to condense the turbine exhaust
steam into condensate. In this respect, the condenser serves as the heat sink for the
Rankine Cycle and consequently, the point of heat rejects and heat loss from the cycle.
The more efficient the condenser is, the less heat that is dumped out of the cycle, and thus
overall plant efficiency is increased.
In thermal power plants, the primary purpose of a surface condenser is
to condense the exhaust steam from a steam turbine to obtain maximum efficiency and
also to convert the turbine exhaust steam into pure water (referred to as steam
condensate) so that it may be reused in the steam generator or boiler as boiler feed water.
Steam surface condensers are the most commonly used condensers in modern
power plants. The exhaust Steam from the turbine flows on the shell side (under vacuum)
of the Condenser, while the plants circulating water flows in the tube side. The source of
the circulating water can be either a closed-loop (i.e. cooling tower, spray pond, etc.) or
once-through (i.e. from a lake, ocean, or river). The condensed steam from the turbine,
called condensate, is collected in the bottom of the condenser, which is called a hot well.
The condensate is then pumped back to the steam generator to
Repeat the cycle.
The main heat transfer mechanisms in a surface condenser are the
condensing of saturated steam on the outside of the tubes and the heating of the
circulating water inside the tubes. Thus for a given circulating water flow rate, the water
inlet temperature to the condenser determines the operating pressure of the condenser. As
this temperature is decreased, the condenser pressure will also decrease. As described
above, this decrease in the pressure will increase the plant output and efficiency.
Cooling towers
In power plants, the hot water from condenser is cooled in cooling tower, so
that it can be reused in condenser for condensation of steam. In a cooling tower water is
made to trickle down drop by drop so that it comes in contact with the air moving in the
opposite direction. As a result of this some water is evaporated and is taken away with air.
In evaporation, the heat is taken away from the bulk of water, which is thus cooled.
Classification
With respect to drawing air through the tower, there are three types of cooling towers:
Natural draft
This utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air naturally rises due to the
density differential to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm moist air is less dense than drier
air at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy produces a current of air through the
tower.
Cross flow
Cross flow is a design in which the air flow is directed perpendicular to the water flow
(see diagram below). Air flow enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to
meet the fill material. Water flows (perpendicular to the air) through the fill by gravity.
The air continues through the fill and thus past the water flow into an open plenum area.
A distribution or hot water basin consisting of a deep pan with holes or nozzles in the
bottom is utilized in a cross flow tower. Gravity distributes the water through the nozzles
uniformly across the fill material.
Counter flow
In a counter flow design the air flow is directly opposite of the water flow (see diagram
below). Air flow first enters an open area beneath the fill media and is then drawn up
vertically. The water is sprayed through pressurized nozzles and flows downward through
the fill, opposite to the air flow.
Hyperboloid cooling towers have become the design standard for all
natural-draft cooling towers because of their structural strength and minimum usage of
material. The hyperboloid shape also aids in accelerating the upward convective air flow,
improving cooling efficiency. They are popularly associated with nuclear power plants.
However, this association is misleading, as the same kind of cooling towers are often
used at large coal-fired power plants as well. Similarly, not all nuclear power plants have
cooling towers, instead cooling their heat exchangers with lake, river or ocean water.
Mechanical draft
This uses power driven fan motors to force or draw air through the tower.
Induced draft: A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge which pulls air
through tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge. This produces low
entering and high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of recirculation in which
discharged air flows back into the air intake. This fan/fill arrangement is also known as
draw-through.
Forced draft: A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the intake. The fan
forces air into the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities. The low
exiting velocity is much more susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the air intake,
the fan is more susceptible to complications due to freezing conditions. Another
disadvantage is that a forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than
an equivalent induced draft design. The forced draft benefit is its ability to work with
high static pressure. They can be installed in more confined spaces and even in some
indoor situations. This fan/fill geometry is also known as blow-through.
Chimney
A chimney is a structure for venting hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler,
stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are typically vertical, or
as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the
combustion in what is known as the stack, or chimney, effect. The space inside a chimney
is called a flue.
Chimneys may be found in buildings, steam locomotives and ships. In the
US, the term smokestack (colloquially, stack) is also used when referring to locomotive
chimneys. The term funnel is generally used for ships' chimneys and sometimes to refer
to locomotive chimneys. Chimneys are tall to increase their draw of air for combustion
and to disperse pollutants in the flue gases over a greater area so as to reduce the
Pollutant concentrations in compliance with regulatory or other limits.