Methods of Proof

METHODS OF PROOF
METHODS OF PROOF
RICKY F. RULETE
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
University of Southeastern Philippines
METHODS OF PROOF
VALID ARGUMENTS
Basic Valid Argument Forms

Direct Implication
pq
p
q
Contrapositive Implication
pq
q
p
METHODS OF PROOF
VALID ARGUMENTS

Transitivity of
pq
qr
pr
Two Separate Cases

pr
qr
pq
r
METHODS OF PROOF
VALID ARGUMENTS

Eliminating a Possibility
pq
p
q
In Particular
pq
p
METHODS OF PROOF
VALID ARGUMENTS

Obtaining Or
p
pq
Obtaining And
p
q
pq
METHODS OF PROOF
VALID ARGUMENTS

Substitution of Equivalent
pq
p
q
METHODS OF PROOF
ARGUMENTS INVOLVING QUANTIFIERS
Principle of Specification
If the premises
x U,
p(x)
hold, then the conclusion

p(a)
also holds.
and
aU
METHODS OF PROOF
ARGUMENTS INVOLVING QUANTIFIERS
Principle of Generalization
From the following steps:
1
Take an arbitrary element a U.
Establish that p(a) holds.
the conclusion
x U,
is obtained.
p(x)
METHODS OF PROOF
Direct Proof
Example (1)
Show that the points (4, 5), (2, 2), and (8, 1) lie on a common
line.
Proof.
Let L be the line given by the equation y = 21 x 3. Observe that
1
5 = (4) 3,
2
1
2 = (2) 3,
2
1
1 = (8) 3.
2
and
Therefore, all of the points (4, 5), (2, 2), and (8, 1) lie on a
common line L.
METHODS OF PROOF
Direct Proof
The symbol
signifies the end of the proof. Some people instead
use Q.E.D., which stands for the Latin phrase quod erat
demonstrandum and means which was to be demonstrated.
METHODS OF PROOF
Direct Proof
Existential Statements
To prove a statement of the form
x U
such that p(x)
it suffices to present an example of a particular element x U for

which p(x) holds.
METHODS OF PROOF
Direct Proof
Example (2)
Show: There is a set A such that A R+ = Z+ .
Proof.
Let A = Z. Observe that
A R+ = Z R+ = Z+ .
METHODS OF PROOF
Direct Proof
Example (3)
Show: There exist sets A and B such that |A B| < |A| + |B|.
Proof.
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}. So A B = {1, 2, 3}. Observe that
|A B| = 3 < 2 + 2 = |A| + |B|.
METHODS OF PROOF
Counterexamples
Example (3)
Disprove: Every intervals complement is not an interval.
Counterexample
Let I = [0, ). So I is an interval. Observe that
I c = [0, )c = (, 0).
So I c is also an interval. Hence, there is an interval whose
complement is also an interval.
METHODS OF PROOF
Counterexamples
Example (4)
Prove or Disprove: x R, if x < 2, then x2 < 4.
Counterexample
Let x = 3. Then x2 = 9. Observe that x < 2 and x2 4. That is,
for x = 3, it is not true that
if x < 2,
then x2 < 4.
METHODS OF PROOF
Counterexamples
Example (5)
Show: x R, x2 + 1 > 0.
Proof.
Let x R. Since the square of any real number is nonnegative, we
have x2 0. Hence,
x2 + 1 0 + 1 = 1 > 0.
We therefore have x2 + 1 > 0.
METHODS OF PROOF
Counterexamples
Example (6)
Show: x R, if x [2, 3], then x2 [4, 9].
Proof.
Let x R and suppose that x [2, 3]. That is, 2 x 3. Squaring
each term gives 22 x2 32 . Hence, 4 x2 9. Therefore,
x [4, 9].
METHODS OF PROOF
Counterexamples
Example (7)
Show: If x is an odd integer, then x2 is odd.
Proof.
If x is odd, then x = 2a + 1 for some integer a. Now let us look at x2 .
We have
x2 = (2a + 1)2 = 4a2 + 4a + 1 = 2(2a2 + 2a) + 1.
Since a is an integer, it follows that 2a2 + 2a + 1 is also an integer.
Hence, x2 is odd.
METHODS OF PROOF
Indirect Proof
Proof by Contradiction
Example (8)
Show: If x is an odd integer, then x2 is odd.
METHODS OF PROOF
Indirect Proof
Proof.
Suppose that x is odd and x2 is even. Then x = 2a + 1, and x2 = 2b
for some integers a and b. Hence
2b = x2 = (2a + 1)2 = 4a2 + 4a + 1 = 2(2a2 + 2a) + 1.
Hence,
1 = 2b 2(2a2 + 2a) = 2[b (2a2 + 2a)].
But [b (2a2 + 2a)] is clearly an integer, so the last equation implies
that 1 is divisible by 2 with the integer [b (2a2 + 2a)] as quotient.
Hence, we cannot assume that the assertion is false. Therefore, it must
be true.
METHODS OF PROOF
Indirect Proof
Example (9)
Show: R+ does not have a smallest element.
Proof.
Suppose R+ has a smallest element, say s. Then s x for every
x R+ . However, 2s is a smaller element of R+ since 2s < s and
s
2 > 0. This contradicts the fact that s was supposed to be the smallest
element.
METHODS OF PROOF
Indirect Proof
Example (10)
Show: Z is infinite.
Proof.
Suppose Z is finite. Let n be the number of elements of Z. However,
there are n + 1 distinct integers in the list 1, 2, 3, . . ., n, n + 1. So
Zhas more than n elements. This is a contradiction.
METHODS OF PROOF
Indirect Proof
Proof by Contrapositive
Example (11)
Show: If the sum of two real numbers is positive, then at least one of
them is positive, i.e., if x, y R, and x + y > 0, then either x > 0 or
y > 0.
Proof.
Assume that x 0 and y 0. Then x + y x + 0 = x 0. Thus
x + y 0, which means that the hypothesis is false. This proves the
contrapositive, hence the assertion is true.
METHODS OF PROOF
Splitting into Cases
Example (12)
Show: x R, if |x| > 1, then x2 > 1.
Proof.
Suppose x R and that |x| > 1. So x > 1 (when x 0) or x > 1
(when x < 0).
Case 1: If x > 1, then x2 > 12 = 1.
Case 2: If x > 1, then (x2 > 12 = 1). Since
(x)2 = (1)2 x2 = x2 , substitution gives that x2 > 1.
In both cases, x2 > 1.
METHODS OF PROOF
Example (13)
Let a, b, c R with a 6= 0. Prove that the number of distinct real roots
of the quadratic polynomial
2 if b 4ac > 0
2
ax + bx + c is
1 if b2 4ac = 0
0 if b2 4ac < 0.
METHODS OF PROOF
Proof
The roots of the equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0
are given by the quadratic formula
x=
b2 4ac
.
2a
Case 1: If b2 4ac > 0, then the roots are
b + b2 4ac
b b2 4ac
and
.
2a
2a
Moreover, these are distinct.
METHODS OF PROOF
Proof
b
Case 2: If b2 4ac = 0, then the single root is 2a
.
2
Case 3: If b 4ac < 0, then b2 4ac does not exist as a real
number. So there are no real roots.
METHODS OF PROOF
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Principle of Mathematical Induction I:

Let P be a proposition defined on the set of positive integers Z+ ; that
is, P(n) is either true or false for each n Z+ . Suppose P has the
following two properties:
1
P(1) is true.
P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true.
The P is true for every positive integer n Z+ .
METHODS OF PROOF
Example (14)
Let P be the proposition that the sum of the first n positive odd
numbers is n2 ; that is,
P(n) : 1 + 3 + 5 + + (2n 1) = n2
Observe that P(n) is true for n = 1;namely,
P(1) : 1 = 12
METHODS OF PROOF
Example (14)
Assuming P(k) is true, we add 2k + 1 to both sides of P(k), obtaining
1 + 3 + 5 + + (2k 1) + (2k + 1) = k2 + (2k + 1)
= (k + 1)2
which is P(k + 1). In other words, P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is
true. By the principle of mathematical induction, P is true for all n.
METHODS OF PROOF
Remark
Sometimes one wants to prove that a proposition P is true for the set
of integers
{a, a + 1, a + 2, a + 3, . . .}
where a is any integer, possibly zero. This can be done by simply
replacing 1 by a in either of the above Principles of Mathematical
Induction.
METHODS OF PROOF
Example (15)
Show: n 4, n2 3n + 4.
Proof
Note that 42 = 16 3(4) + 4. Suppose k 4 and that k2 3k + 4.
Observe that
(k + 1)2 = k2 + (2k + 1)
(3k + 4) + (2k + 1)
By the inductive hypothesis
= 3k + (2k + 5)
3k + 7.
That is, (k + 1)2 3(k + 1) + 4.
METHODS OF PROOF
Principle of Mathematical Induction II:

Let P be a proposition defined on the set of positive integers Z+ such
that:
1
P(1) is true.
P(k) is true whenever P(j) is true for all 1 j < k.
The P is true for every positive integer n Z+ .
METHODS OF PROOF
The sequence of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, . . . is known as

the Fibonacci sequence. It is named after the Italian mathematician
Leonardo of Pisa (known as Fibonacci) who lived in the late twelfth
and early thirteenth centuries. If we denote the Fibonacci sequence
by {Fn }n0 , then
F0 = 1, F1 = 1,
and
n 2, Fn = Fn2 + Fn1 .
METHODS OF PROOF
Example (16)
Show that the Fibonacci sequence can be expressed by the formula
!n+1
!n+1
1 1+ 5
1 5
.
n 0, Fn =
2
2
5
METHODS OF PROOF
Proof
It is straightforward to check that
!1
!1
1 1+ 5
1 5
= 1,
2
2
5
!2
1 1+ 5
2
5
!2
1 5
= 1.
2
and
METHODS OF PROOF
Suppose k 1 and that
!i+1
1 1+ 5
Fi =
2
5
!i+1
1 5
,
2
for each 0 i k. Note that k + 1 2 and that both k 1 and k lie

in the interval [0, k].
METHODS OF PROOF
Observe that
Fk+1 = Fk1 + Fk
!k
!k
1 5
1 1+ 5
+
=
2
2
5
!k+1
!k+1
1 1+ 5
1 5
2
2
5
!k
!k+1
1+ 5
1 1+ 5
+
=
2
2
5
!k
!k+1
1 5
1 5
2
2
METHODS OF PROOF
!k
!
1+ 5
1 1+ 5
1+
=
2
2
5
!k
!
1 5
1 5
1+
2
2
Fk+1
METHODS OF PROOF
!k
!
3+ 5
1 1+ 5
=
2
2
5
!k
!
1 5
3 5
2
2
Fk+1
METHODS OF PROOF
!k
!2
1+ 5
1 1+ 5
=
2
2
5
!k
!2
1 5
1 5
2
2
Fk+1
METHODS OF PROOF
!k+2
1 1+ 5
=
2
5
Fk+1
!k+2
1 5
2

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Basic Valid Argument Forms

Basic Valid Argument Forms

Two Separate Cases

Basic Valid Argument Forms

Basic Valid Argument Forms

Basic Valid Argument Forms

hold, then the conclusion

Take an arbitrary element a U.

Establish that p(a) holds.

such that p(x)

it suffices to present an example of a particular element x U for

Case 1: If b2 4ac > 0, then the roots are

Principle of Mathematical Induction I:

P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true.

The P is true for every positive integer n Z+ .

By the inductive hypothesis

Principle of Mathematical Induction II:

P(k) is true whenever P(j) is true for all 1 j < k.

The P is true for every positive integer n Z+ .

The sequence of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, . . . is known as

Suppose k 1 and that

for each 0 i k. Note that k + 1 2 and that both k 1 and k lie

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