Eurasian sparrowhawk

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Eurasian sparrowhawk

Male capturing common starling

Female

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)

[1]

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Animalia

Phylum:

Chordata

Class:

Aves

Order:

Accipitriformes

Family:

Accipitridae

Genus:

Accipiter

Species:

A. nisus
Binomial name
Accipiter nisus
(Linnaeus, 1758)

Subspecies
A. n. granti
A. n. melaschistos
A. n. nisosimilis
A. n. nisus
A. n. punicus
A. n. wolterstorffi

Range of A. nisus
visitor range
range

Breeding summer

Resident year-round

Non-breeding winter visitor

range

The Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), also known as the northern sparrowhawk or simply
the sparrowhawk, is a small bird of prey in the family Accipitridae. Adult male Eurasian
sparrowhawks have bluish grey upperparts and orange-barred underparts; females and juveniles are
brown above with brown barring below. The female is up to 25% larger than the male one of the
largest differences between the sexes in any bird species. Though it is a predator which specialises
in catching woodland birds, the Eurasian sparrowhawk can be found in any habitat and often hunts
garden birds in towns and cities. Males tend to take smaller birds, including tits,finches,
and sparrows; females catch primarily thrushes and starlings, but are capable of killing birds
weighing 500 g (18 oz) or more.
The Eurasian sparrowhawk is found throughout the temperate and subtropical parts of the Old
World; while birds from the northern parts of the range migrate south for winter, their southern
counterparts remain resident or make dispersive movements. Eurasian sparrowhawks breed in
suitable woodland of any type, with the nest, measuring up to 60 cm (2.0 ft) across, built using twigs
in a tree. Four or five pale blue, brown-spotted eggs are laid; the success of the breeding attempt is
dependent on the female maintaining a high weight while the male brings her food. The chicks hatch
after 33 days and fledge after 24 to 28 days.
The probability of a juvenile surviving its first year is 34%, with 69% of adults surviving from one year
to the next. Mortality in young males is greater than that of young females and the typical lifespan is
four years. This species is now one of the commonest birds of prey in Europe, although the
population crashed after the Second World War. Organochlorine insecticides used to treat seeds
before sowing built up in the bird population and the concentrations in Eurasian sparrowhawks were
enough to kill some outright and incapacitate others; affected birds laid eggs with fragile shells which
broke during incubation. However, its population recovered after the chemicals were banned, and it
is now relatively common, classified as being of Least Concern by BirdLife International.
The Eurasian sparrowhawk's hunting behaviour has brought it into conflict with humans for hundreds
of years, particularly racing pigeon owners and people rearing poultry and gamebirds. It has also
been blamed for decreases in passerine populations; scientific research has found no link between
increased numbers of Eurasian sparrowhawks and declines in some farmland and woodland birds
after World War II. Studies of racing pigeon deaths found that Eurasian sparrowhawks were
responsible for less than 1%. Falconers have utilised the Eurasian sparrowhawk since at least the
16th century; although the species has a reputation for being difficult to train, it is also praised for its
courage. The species features in Teutonic mythology and is mentioned in works by writers
including William Shakespeare, Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Ted Hughes.
Contents
[hide]

1 Taxonomy

2 Description

3 Lifespan and demography

4 Distribution and habitat

5 Food, feeding and predation

5.1 Predators

6 Breeding
o

6.1 Eggs

6.2 Young

7 Relationship with humans

o

7.1 Pollutants

7.2 Conflict with human interests

7.3 Falconry

7.4 In culture

8 Notes

9 References

10 External links

Taxonomy[edit]
Within the family Accipitridae, the Eurasian sparrowhawk is a member of the large genus Accipiter,
which consists of small to medium-sized woodland hawks. Most of the Old World members of the
genus are called sparrowhawks or goshawks.[2] The species' name dates back to the Middle
English word sperhauk and Old English spearhafoc, a hawk which hunts sparrows. The Old
Norse name for the Eurasian sparrowhawk, sparrhaukr, was thought to have been coined
by Vikings who encountered falconry in England.[3] English folk names for the Eurasian sparrowhawk
include blue hawk, referring to the adult male's colouration, as well as hedge hawk, [4] spar hawk, spur
hawk and stone falcon.[5]
The Eurasian sparrowhawk was described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work, Systema Naturae,
as Falco nisus,[6] but moved to its present genus by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in
1760.[7] The currentscientific name is derived from the Latin accipiter, meaning 'hawk' and nisus, the
sparrowhawk.[8] According to Greek mythology, Nisus, the king of Megara, was turned into a
sparrowhawk after his daughter, Scylla, cut off his purple lock of hair to present to her lover (and
Nisus' enemy), Minos.[9]

The Eurasian sparrowhawk forms a superspecies with the rufous-chested sparrowhawk of eastern
and southern Africa, and possibly the Madagascan sparrowhawk.[10] Geographic variation is clinal,
with birds becoming larger and paler in the eastern part of the range compared to the west. [11] Within
the species itself, six subspecies are generally recognised:[10][12]

A. n. nisus, the nominate subspecies, was described by Linnaeus in 1758.[12] It breeds

from Europe and west Asia to western Siberia and Iran; northern populations winter south to
the Mediterranean, north-east Africa,Arabia and Pakistan.

A. n. nisosimilis was described by Samuel Tickell in 1833.[12] It breeds from central and
eastern Siberia east to Kamchatka and Japan, and south to northern China. This subspecies is
wholly migratory, wintering fromPakistan and India eastwards through South-East Asia and
southern China to Korea and Japan; some even reach Africa. It is very similar to, but slightly
larger than, the nominate subspecies.[13]

A. n. melaschistos was described by Allan Octavian Hume in 1869.[12] It breeds in mountains

from Afghanistan through the Himalayas and southern Tibet to western China, and winters in the
plains of South Asia. Larger[10]and longer tailed than nisosimilis,[14] it has dark slate-coloured
upperparts, and more distinct rufous barring on the underparts. [10]

A. n. wolterstorffi, described by Otto Kleinschmidt in 1900, is resident

in Sardinia and Corsica.[12] It is the smallest of all the races,[11] darker on the upperparts and more
barred below than the nominate subspecies.[15]

A. n. granti, described by Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1890,[12] is confined to Madeira and

the Canary Islands. It is small and dark.[16]

A. n. punicus, described by Erlanger in 1897,[12] is resident in north-west Africa, north of

the Sahara.[17] It is very similar to nisus,[15] being large and pale.[16]

Description[edit]

A juvenile with a kill. Larger birds such as common wood pigeons are more often killed by the larger female
Eurasian sparrowhawks; males usually hunt smaller prey.

The Eurasian sparrowhawk is a small bird of prey with short, broad wings and a long tail, both
adaptations to manoeuvring through trees. Females can be up to 25% larger than males [8] and weigh
up to twice as much.[18] When females are larger than males, it is known as reverse sexual

dimorphism; this is unusual in higher vertebrates but typical in birds of prey,[19] and most marked in
birds of prey which hunt birds.[18]
The adult male is 2934 cm (1113 in) long, with a wingspan of 5964 cm (2325 in)[8] and a mass of
110196 g (3.96.9 oz).[12] He has slate-grey upperparts (sometimes tending to bluish), with finely
red-barred underparts, which can look plain orange from a distance; his irides are orange-yellow or
orange-red. The female is much larger at 3541 cm (1416 in) long, with a wingspan of 6780 cm
(2631 in),[8] and a mass of 185342 g (6.512.1 oz).[12] She has dark brown or greyish-brown
upperparts, and brown-barred underparts, and bright yellow to orange irides. The juvenile is warm
brown above, with rusty fringes to the upperparts; and coarsely barred or spotted brown below, with
pale yellow eyes;[15] its throat has dark streaks and lacks a mesial (midline) stripe. [14]
The Eurasian sparrowhawk's pale underparts and darker upperparts are an example
of countershading, which helps to break up the bird's outline. Countershading is exhibited by birds of
prey which hunt birds and other fast-moving animals. The horizontal barring seen on adult Eurasian
sparrowhawks is typical of woodland-dwelling predatory birds, while the adult male's bluish colour is
also seen in other bird-eating raptors, including the peregrine falcon, the merlin and other Accipiters.
[20]

Resemblance to the Eurasian sparrowhawk helps the common cuckoo to avoid aggression from the small birds
whose nest it seeks to parasitise.

A study, using stuffed bird models, found that small birds are less likely to approach common
cuckoos (a brood parasite) which have barred underparts like the Eurasian sparrowhawk.Eurasian
reed warblers were found to be more aggressive to cuckoos which looked less hawk-like, meaning
that the resemblance to the hawk helps the cuckoo to access the nests of potential hosts. [21]
The Eurasian sparrowhawk's small bill is used for plucking feathers and pulling prey apart, rather
than killing or cutting. Its long legs and toes are an adaptation for catching and eating birds. The
outer toe is "fairly long and slender"; the inner toe and back toe are relatively short and thick. The
middle toe is very long and can be used to grasp objects, while a protuberance on the underside of
the toe means that the digit can be closed without leaving a gap, which helps with gripping. [20]
The flight is a characteristic "flap-flap-glide", with the glide creating an undulating pattern. [22] This
species is similar in size to the Levant sparrowhawk, but larger than the shikra (the calls are
however different[23]); the male is only slightly larger than the merlin. Because of the overlap in sizes,
the female can be confused with the similarly-sized male northern goshawk, but lacks the bulk of
that species. Eurasian sparrowhawks are smaller, more slender and have shorter wings, a squareended tail and fly with faster wingbeats.[15] A confusion species inChina is the besra, although A. n.
melaschistos is considerably larger.[24]
In Great Britain, Eurasian sparrowhawks living further north are bigger than their more southerly
counterparts, with wing length (the most reliable indicator of body size) increasing by an average of
0.86 mm (0.034 in) in males, and 0.75 mm (0.030 in) in females, for each degree further north.[25]

Lifespan and demography[edit]

The yellow iris of this juvenile male Eurasian sparrowhawk (caught forringing) may turn orange in later life.

The oldest known wild Eurasian sparrowhawk lived more than two decades; it was found dead
in Denmark 20 years and 3 months after having been ringed.[26] The typical lifespan is four years.
Data analysis by the British Trust for Ornithology shows that the proportion of juveniles surviving
their first year of life is 34%; adult survival from one year to the next is 69%. [8] Birds in their first year
of life weigh less than adults, and are especially light in the first two months after reaching
independence. There is probably high mortality, especially for young males, during this time. [27] A
study in southern Scotland suggested that the greater mortality in young male birds may be due to
their smaller size and the smaller size of their prey, which means that they can "last less long
between meals." Their size also means that their range of prey is restricted. It has been estimated
that a female Eurasian sparrowhawk of average weight could survive for seven days without feeding
three days longer than a male of average weight.[28]
A study of female Eurasian sparrowhawks found "strong evidence" that their rate of survival
increased for the first three years of life, and declined for the last five to six
years. Senescence (ageing) was the cause of the decline as the birds became older.[29]

Distribution and habitat[edit]

Eurasian sparrowhawk in cityPenza, Russia

A widespread species throughout the temperate and subtropical parts of the Old World,[17] the
Eurasian sparrowhawk is resident or breeds in an estimated global range of
23,600,000 km2 (9,100,000 sq mi) and had an estimated population of 1.5 million birds in 2009.
Although global population trends have not been analysed, numbers seem to be stable, so it has
been classified as being of Least Concern by IUCN.[1] The race granti, with 100 pairs resident

on Madeira and 200 pairs on the Canary Islands, is threatened by loss of habitat, egg-collecting and
illegal hunting, and is listed on Annex I of the European Commission Birds Directive.[30] It is one of the
most common birds of prey in Europe, along with the common kestrel and common buzzard.
[17]
The Norwegian and Albanian populations are declining and, in many parts of Europe, Eurasian
sparrowhawks are still shot. However, this low-level persecution has not affected the populations
badly.[16] In the UK, the population increased by 108% between 19702005, but saw a 1% decline
over 19942006.[31] In Ireland it is the most common bird of prey, breeding even near the city centre
of Dublin.

Deciduous woodland is a typical breeding and hunting habitat for the Eurasian sparrowhawk.

This species is prevalent in most woodland types in its range, and also in more open country with
scattered trees.[32] Eurasian sparrowhawks prefer to hunt the edges of wooded areas, but migrant
birds can be seen in any habitat.[17] The increased proportion of medium-aged stands of trees created
by modern forestry techniques have benefited Accipiter nisus, according to a Norwegian study.
[33]
Unlike its larger relative the northern goshawk, it can be seen in gardens and in urban areas[34] and
will even breed in city parks.[32]
Eurasian sparrowhawks from colder regions of northern Europe and Asia migrate south for the
winter, some to north Africa (some as far as equatorial east Africa) and India; members of the
southern populations are resident or disperse. Juveniles begin their migration earlier than adults and
juvenile females move before juvenile males.[17] Analysis of ringing data collected
at Heligoland, Germany, found that males move further and more often than females; of migrating
birds ringed at Kaliningrad, Russia, the average distance moved before recovery (when the ring is
read and the bird's whereabouts reported subsequently) was 1,328 km (825 mi) for males and
927 km (576 mi) for females.[15]
A study of Eurasian sparrowhawks in southern Scotland found that ringed birds which had been
raised on "high grade" territories were recovered in greater proportion than birds which came from
"low grade" territories. This suggested that the high grade territories produced young which survived
better. The recovery rate also declined with increased elevation of the ground. After the post-fledging
period, female birds dispersed greater distances than did males.[35]

Food, feeding and predation[edit]

Eurasian sparrowhawks, like this male, discard the larger feathers from their prey before eating the flesh.

The Eurasian sparrowhawk is a major predator of smaller woodland birds, [36] though only 10% of its
hunting attacks are successful.[37] It hunts by surprise attack, using hedges, treebelts, copses, orchards and other cover near woodland areas; its choice of habitat is dictated by
these requirements. It also makes use of gardens in built-up areas, taking advantage of the prey
found there.[15]
It waits, hidden, for birds to come near, then breaks cover and flies out fast and low. A chase may
follow, with the hawk even flipping upside-down to grab the victim from below or following it on foot
through vegetation. It can "stoop" onto prey from a great height.[15] Ian Newton describes seven
modes of hunting used by Eurasian sparrowhawks:[38]

Short-stay-perch-hunting

High soaring and stooping

Contour-hugging in flight

Still-hunting

Low quartering

Hunting by sound

Hunting on foot

Male Eurasian sparrowhawks regularly kill birds weighing up to 40 g (1.4 oz) and sometimes up to
120 g (4.2 oz); females can tackle prey up to 500 g (18 oz) or more. The weight of food consumed
by adult birds daily is estimated to be 4050 g (1.41.8 oz) for males and 5070 g (1.82.5 oz) for
females. During one year, a pair of Eurasian sparrowhawks could take 2,200 house sparrows,
600 common blackbirds or 110 wood pigeons.[15] Species that feed in the open, far from cover, or are
conspicuous by their behaviour or coloration, are taken more often by Eurasian sparrowhawks. For
example, great tits and house sparrows are vulnerable to attack. Eurasian sparrowhawks may
account for more than 50% of deaths in certain species, but the extent varies from area to area. [39]
Males tend to take tits, finches, sparrows and buntings; females often take thrushes and starlings.
Larger quarry (such as doves and magpies) may not die immediately but succumb during feather
plucking and eating. More than 120 bird species have been recorded as prey and individual
Eurasian sparrowhawks may specialise in certain prey. The birds taken are usually adults or
fledglings, though chicks in the nest and carrion are sometimes eaten. Small mammals,
including bats,[40] are sometimes caught but insects are eaten only very rarely.[15]

Birds which feed out in the open, like this house sparrow, are more vulnerable to predation.

Small birds are killed on impact or when squeezed by the Eurasian sparrowhawk's foot, especially
the two long claws. Victims which struggle are "kneaded" by the hawk, using its talons to squeeze
and stab. When dealing with large prey species which peck and flap, the hawk's long legs help. [41] It
stands on top of its prey to pluck and pull it apart. [20] The feathers are plucked and usually the breast
muscles are eaten first. The bones are left, but can be broken using the notch in the bill. Like other
birds of prey, Eurasian sparrowhawks produce pellets containing indigestible parts of their prey.
These range from 25 to 35 mm (0.98 to 1.38 in) long and 1018 mm (0.390.71 in) wide and are
round at one end and more narrow and pointed at the other. They are usually composed of small
feathers, as the larger ones are plucked and not consumed. [42]

Video of a Eurasian sparrowhawk subduing a pigeon

During hunting, this species can fly 23 km (1.21.9 mi) per day. It rises above tree level mostly to
display, soar above territory and to make longer journeys. [15] A study in a forested area
of Norway found that the mean size of the home ranges was 9.2 km2 (3.6 sq mi) for males, and
12.3 km2 (4.7 sq mi) for females, which was larger than studies in Great Britain had found,"probably
due to lower land productivity and associated lower densities of prey species in the [Norwegian
study area]".[33]
A study looked at the effect on the population of blue tits in an area where a pair of Eurasian
sparrowhawks began to breed in 1990. It found that the annual adult survival rate for the tits in that
area dropped from 0.485 to 0.376 (the rate in adjacent plots did not change). The size of the
breeding population was not changed, but there were fewer non-breeding blue tits in the population.
[43]
In woodland, Eurasian sparrowhawks account for the deaths of a third of all young great tits; [37] the
two alarm calls given by great tits when mobbing a predator, and when fleeing from a nearby hawk,
are within the optimum hearing range of both prey and predator; however, the high-pitched alarm call
given when a distant flying Eurasian sparrowhawk is seen "can only be heard well by the
tit."[44] Research carried out in Sussex, England, found that the impact of Eurasian sparrowhawk
predation on grey partridges was highest when the partridge density was lowest,[45] while a 10-year
study in Scotland found that Eurasian sparrowhawks did not select the common redshanks they
predated according to the waders' size or condition, probably because of the hawks' surprise-attack
hunting technique.[46]

Another study found that the risk of predation for a bird targeted by a Eurasian sparrowhawk
or northern goshawk increased 25-fold if the prey was infected with the
blood parasite Leucocytozoon, and birds with avian malariawere 16 times more likely to be killed.[47]

Predators[edit]
Natural predators of the Eurasian sparrowhawk include the barn owl, the tawny owl, the northern
goshawk, the peregrine falcon, the golden eagle, the eagle owl, the red fox, the stone marten and
the pine marten.[48]

Breeding[edit]

The chicks stay on the nest until they are 24 to 28 days old.

The Eurasian sparrowhawk breeds in well-grown, extensive areas of woodland, often coniferous or
mixed, preferring forest with a structure neither too dense nor too open, to allow a choice of flight
paths. The nest can be located in the fork of a tree, often near the trunk and where two or three
branches begin, on a horizontal branch in the lower canopy, or near the top of a tall shrub. If
available, conifers are preferred. A new nest is built every year, generally close to the nest of the
previous year, and sometimes using an old wood pigeon (A. n. melaschistos frequently uses the old
nests of jungle crows[23]) nest as a base; the male does most of the work. The structure, made of
loose twigs up to 60 cm (2.0 ft) long, has an average diameter of 60 cm (24 in). When the eggs are
laid, a lining of fine twigs or bark chippings is added.[15]
During the breeding season, the adult male Eurasian sparrowhawk loses a small amount of weight
while feeding his mate before she lays eggs, and also when the young are large and require more
food. The weight of the adult female is highest in May, when laying eggs, and lowest in August after
the breeding cycle is complete. A study suggested that the number of eggs and subsequent breeding
success are dependent on the female maintaining a high weight while the male is feeding her.[27]
Sexual maturity is reached at between 13 years.[12] Most Eurasian sparrowhawks stay on the same
territory for one breeding season, though others keep the same one for up to eight years. A change
of mate usually triggers the change in territory. Older birds tend to stay in the same territory; failed
breeding attempts make a move more likely. The birds which kept the same territories had higher
nest success, though it did not increase between years; females which moved experienced more
success the year after changing territory.[49]

Eggs[edit]

Accipiter nisus MHNT

Illustration of an egg. The background colour of the eggs changes from light blue to white on storage in
collections.[50]

The eggs are pale blue with brown spots and each measure 3546 x 2835 mm (1.41.8 x 1.1
1.4 inches),[50] and weigh about 22.5 g (0.79 oz) of which 8% is shell in a healthy egg.[8] Usually a
clutch of four or five eggs is laid. The eggs are generally laid in the morning with an interval of 23
days between each egg. If a clutch is lost, up to two further eggs may be laid that are smaller than
the earlier eggs.[15]

Young[edit]
The altricial, downy chicks hatch after 33 days of incubation.[8] After hatching, the female cares for
and feeds the chicks for the first 814 days of life, and also during bad weather after that. The male
provides food, up to six kills per day in the first week increasing to eight per day in the third and
10 per day in the last week in the nest, by which time the female is also hunting. [15]
By 2428 days after hatching, the young birds start to perch on branches near the nest and take
their first flight. They are fed by their parents for a further 2830 days, staying close to the nest while
growing and practicing flying. The young hawks disperse after their parents stop provisioning them.
[51]
Though they receive the same amount of food, male chicks (roughly half the size of females)
mature more quickly and seem to be ready to leave the nest sooner.[52] In a study in the Forest of Ae,
south-west Scotland, it was found that 21% of nestlings over two days old died, with the causes of
death being starvation, wet weather, predation and desertion by the parents. [53] The
parasite Leucocytozoon toddi can be passed from parent to nestling at the nest, possibly because of
the number of birds sharing a small space, thus allowing transmission. [54]

Relationship with humans[edit]

Pollutants[edit]

In flight as seen from below, showing barring on underparts.

The Eurasian sparrowhawk population in Europe crashed in the second half of the 20th Century.
[17]
The decline coincided with the introduction
of cyclodiene insecticides aldrin, dieldrin andheptachlor used as seed dressings in agriculture in
1956. The chemicals accumulated in the bodies of grain-eating birds and had two effects on top
predators like the Eurasian sparrowhawk and peregrine falcon: the shells of eggs they laid were too
thin, causing them to break during incubation;[34] and birds were poisoned by lethal concentrations of
the insecticides.[55] Sub-lethal effects of these substances include irritability, convulsions and
disorientation.[56] In west Germany, around 80% of nests before the 1950s produced young, but only
54% were successful in the 1960s and '70s.[57]
In the United Kingdom, for example, the species almost became extinct in East Anglia, where the
chemicals were most widely used; in western and northern parts of the country, where the pesticides
were not used, there were no declines.[55] The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds bought
its Coombes Valley nature reserve in Staffordshire because it was the only Eurasian sparrowhawk
breeding site left in the English Midlands.[58]
In the UK, the use of cyclodienes as seed dressings for autumn-sown cereals was banned in 1975
and the levels of the chemicals present in the bird population began to fall. [55] The population has
largely recovered to pre-decline levels, with an increase seen in many areas, for example northern
Europe.[17] In Sweden, the population also decreased drastically from the 1950s, but recovered again
once organochlorines were banned in the 1970s.[59]
In the UK, the failure rate at the egg stage had decreased from 17% to 6% by the year 2000, and the
population had stabilised after reaching a peak in the 1990s.[60] A study of the eggs of Dutch Eurasian
sparrowhawks found that contamination with Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) a "very
persistent compound" produced when DDT breaks down[61] continued into the 1980s, though a
decline in the number of clutches with broken eggs during the 1970s suggested decreasing levels of
the chemical.[62]
Body tissue samples from Eurasian sparrowhawks are still analysed as part of the Predatory Bird
Monitoring Scheme conducted by the UK government's Joint Nature Conservation Committee.
Although the average liver concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs) in Eurasian
sparrowhawks were lower in birds that died in 2005 compared to those that died in 2004, there was
not a significant or consistent decline in residues between 20002005. [63]

Conflict with human interests[edit]

The Eurasian sparrowhawk's adaptation for feeding on birds has brought it into conflict with humans;
[34]
in the 19th century it was described as "the great enemy of small quadrupeds and birds, and often
very destructive to young chicks in poultry-yards in the breeding season" [64] and "very destructive to

partridges."[65] Writing for gamekeepers in 1851, T.B. Johnson recommended that: "The nest of this
bird should be diligently sought... and destroyed, shooting the parent birds first, if possible." [66]

The Eurasian sparrowhawk's natural hunting behaviour can conflict with gamekeepers rearing common
pheasants.

It was written in 1870 that "The sparrowhawk is perhaps only the true enemy of the game-preserver;
though at the same time it is probable that if the good and evil it does were justly weighed, the
balance would be in favour of the hawk, its favourite quarry being the wood pigeon, which is now
increasing to an extent injurious to agriculture."[67] Eighteenth century parish records for Aldworth,
Berkshire, in southern England, show that payments were made for 106 Eurasian sparrowhawks'
heads, at the same time as efforts were being made to control the numbers of sparrows.[68]
The species suffered heavy persecution by 18th century European landowners and gamekeepers,
but withstood attempts to eradicate it. For example, on the estate at Sandringham in Norfolk, 1,645
'hawks' were killed between 1938 and 1950, with 1,115 taken between 19191926 at Langwell and
Sandside in Caithness, Scotland.[68]
The population was able to quickly replace lost birds there is a high proportion of non-breeding,
non-territorial birds able to fill vacant territories. The habitat conserved with gamebirds in mind also
suited this species and its prey; gamekeepers' more successful efforts to wipe out the northern
goshawk and pine marten predators of the Eurasian sparrowhawk may have benefited it. [48] The
population increased markedly when this pressure was relaxed, for example during
the First and Second World Wars.[15]
In the United Kingdom, research into the effect of predators on bird populations has been "a
contentious issue," with "perceived conflict between the interests of nature conservationists and
those involved in game shooting."Declines in the populations of some British songbirds since the
1960s have coincided with considerable changes in agricultural practices and also large increases in
the numbers of Eurasian sparrowhawks and European magpies.[69] When the Eurasian sparrowhawk
population declined because of organochlorine use, there was no great increase in the populations
of songbirds. In a 19491979 study of 13 passerine species breeding in a 16-hectare (40acre)
oakwood at Bookham Commons, Surrey, England, none was present in significantly greater
numbers when Eurasian sparrowhawks were absent from the wood. [31]
Many studies, mostly short-term, failed to find an effect on songbird populations caused by predatory
birds such as Eurasian sparrowhawks. But analysis of long-term, large-scale national data from the
UK's Common Bird Census demonstrated that the declines in farmland songbird populations since
the 1960s are unlikely to have been caused by increased predation by Eurasian sparrowhawks and
magpies. The results of the study indicated that patterns of year-to-year songbird population change
were the same at different sites, whether the predators were present or not. [69] Another study, which
examined the effects of predators including the Eurasian sparrowhawk and introduced grey
squirrel on UK passerine populations, found that "whilst a small number of associations may
suggest significant negative effects between predator and prey species, for the majority of the
songbird species examined there is no evidence that increases in common avian predators or grey
squirrels are associated with large-scale population declines."[70]

Eurasian sparrowhawks are responsible for less than 1% of racing pigeon losses.

Racing pigeon owners in Great Britain have said for many years that Eurasian sparrowhawks
and peregrine falcons "cause serious and escalating losses" of pigeons[45] and some have called for
these birds of prey to be killed or removed from areas surrounding homing pigeon lofts. [71][72]
In Scotland, a two-year study published in 2004, and funded by Scottish Natural Heritage and the
Scottish Homing Union (SHU), found there was "no evidence that birds of prey cause major losses
of racing pigeons at lofts or during races." It reported that 56% of racing pigeons were lost each year
but that the proportion taken by Eurasian sparrowhawks "often blamed for major losses" was
less than 1%, with at least 2% taken by peregrine falcons. The study was carried out by the Central
Science Laboratory; researchers worked with SHU members who provided data, information on
pigeon rings found at peregrine falcon nests and pigeon carcasses. [73]
From January to April 2009,[74] the Scottish Government conducted a trial translocation of Eurasian
sparrowhawks from around racing pigeon lofts
in Glasgow, Edinburgh, Kilmarnock, Stirling and Dumfries. The trial, which cost 25,000, was
supported by the Scottish Homing Union, representing the country's 3,500 pigeon fanciers. [75] The
experiment was originally scheduled for early in 2008 but was postponed because it would have
impinged on the birds' breeding season. It was criticised by the government's own ecological
adviser, Dr Ian Bainbridge, the government body Scottish Natural Heritage[76] and organisations
including the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds[77] and theScottish Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals.[78]
The findings, released in January 2010,[79] showed that only seven Eurasian sparrowhawks had been
removed from the area from five pigeon lofts. One hawk returned twice to the area of the loft, while
new birds began to visit two other lofts. The report found that The quantity and quality of the
observational data collected meant that it was impossible to draw any firm conclusions and the
government stated that no further research involving the trapping or translocation of raptors would
take place, while the SHU maintained that it was "very optimistic that licensed trapping and
translocation could at last provide some protection." [74]

Falconry[edit]

The Eurasian sparrowhawk is popular with falconers in Georgia.

The Eurasian sparrowhawk has been used in falconry for centuries and was favoured by
Emperor Akbar the Great (15421605) of the Mughal Empire. There is a tradition of using migrant
Eurasian sparrowhawks to catchcommon quail in Tunisia and Georgia, where there are 500
registered bazieri (sparrowhawkers) and a monument to bazieri in the city of Poti. Eurasian
sparrowhawks are also popular in Ireland.[80] At Cap Bon in Tunisia, and inTurkey, thousands are
captured each year by falconers and used for hunting migrant common quails. Although they were
formerly released at the end of the season, many are now kept because of the scarcity of migrants. [57]
In England in the 17th century, the Eurasian sparrowhawk was used by priests, reflecting their lowly
status;[81][82] whereas in the Middle Ages, they were favoured by ladies of noble and royal status
because of their small size.[83] The falconer's name for a male Eurasian sparrowhawk is a "musket";
this is derived from the Latin word musca, meaning 'a fly', via the Old French word moschet.[84] The
famous list in the mediaeval Book of St. Albansrefers to the female sparrowhawk as the "priest's
bird" and the musket as "the clerk's bird".
"An austringer [falconer] undertaking to train a sparrowhawk should be in doubt that he is taking on
one of the most difficult hawks available." A female Eurasian sparrowhawk is considered a bad
choice for a novice and the male is very difficult and demanding, even for an experienced handler.
They have been described as "hysterical little hawks" but are also praised as courageous and
providing "sport of the highest quality."[85] Philip Glasier describes Eurasian sparrowhawks as "in
many ways superior to hunting with a larger short-wing [hawk]" and "extremely hard to tame." They
are best suited for small quarry such as common starlings and common blackbirdsbut are also
capable of taking common teal, Eurasian magpies, pheasants and partridges.[86] A 19th-century
author remarked that this species was "the best of all hawks for landrails",[64] now known as corn
crakes.[87] In 1735, the Sportsman's Dictionary noted that"... she will serve in the winter as well as in
the summer, and will fly at all kind of game more than the falcon. If a winter sparrow-hawk prove
good, she will kill the pye, the chough, the jay, woodcock, thrush, black-bird, fieldfare, and divers[e]
other birds of the like nature."[88]

In culture[edit]

An adult male in Slovakia

In Teutonic mythology, the sparrowhawk, known as krahui or krahug, is a sacred bird in Old
Bohemian songs and lives in a grove of the gods. Holy sparrowhawks perch on the branches of an

oak tree that grows from the grave of a murdered man, and "publish the foul deed."[89] In some areas
of England, it was believed that the common cuckoo turned into a Eurasian sparrowhawk in winter.
[90]
The name Spearhafoc (later Sparhawk, Sparrowhawk) was in use as a personal name in England
before the Norman conquest in 1066.[91]
In 1695, John Aubrey wrote in his Miscellanies":[4]
'Not long before the Death of King Charles II a sparrow-hawk escaped from the Perch, and pitched
on one of the Iron Crowns of the White Tower, and entangling its string in the Crown, hung by the
heels and died. T'was considered very ominous, and so it proved.'
The musket, or musquet, originally a kind of crossbow bolt,[58] and later a small cannon, was named
after the male Eurasian sparrowhawk because of its size.[92] The British Gloster Aircraft
Company named one of their Mars series craft[93] the Sparrowhawk.[58]
In William Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor, Mrs Ford greets Robin, Falstaff's page, with
the words "How now, my eyas musket", eyas musket meaning a lively young man (an eyas is a
hawk nestling).[94] The BritishPoet Laureate Ted Hughes wrote a poem entitled Sparrow Hawk which
refers to this species.[95] Hermann Hesse mentioned this bird in his book Demian[96] and the bird is
also referred to in One Thousand and One Arabian Nights by Richard Francis Burton:[97]
Good sooth my bones, wheneas they hear thy name
Quail as birds quailed when Nisus o'er them flew
The Eurasian sparrowhawk was written about by Alfred, Lord Tennyson:[4]
A sparhawk proud did hold in wicked jail
Music's sweet chorister, the Nightingale
To whom with sighs she said: 'O set me free,
And in my song I'll praise no bird but thee.'
The Hawk replied: 'I will not lose my diet
To let a thousand such enjoy their quiet.'

Notes[edit]
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References[edit]

Newton, Ian (1986). The Sparrowhawk. Calton: T & A.D. Poyser Ltd. ISBN 0-85661-041-0.
del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, eds. (1994). Handbook of the Birds of the
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Accipiter
nisus.
Wikispecies has information
related to: Accipiter nisus

BirdLife species factsheet for Accipiter nisus

Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.8 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze

RSPB webpage with sound and video files. Retrieved 10 July 2009

Global Raptor Information Network species account. Retrieved 4 March 2010

Eurasian sparrowhawk videos, photos, and sounds at the Internet Bird Collection

Eurasian sparrowhawk photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)

Categories:
IUCN Red List least concern species

Falconry

True hawks

Accipiter

Birds of prey

Birds of Europe

Birds of Pakistan

Birds of the Middle East

Birds of India

Animals described in 1758

Birds of North Africa

African birds of prey