Topic 4:

Organic and Biological Chemistry

4.1 Systematic Nomenclature
4.2 Physical Properties
4.3 Alcohols
4.4 Aldehydes and Ketones
Organic
4.5 Carboxylic Acids
Chemistry
4.6 Amines
4.7 Esters
4.8 Amides
4.9 Proteins
Biological
4.10 Triglycerides
Chemistry
4.11 Carbohydrates

Topic 4:
Organic and Biological Chemistry

Introduction to hydrocarbons
Alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and
Carbohydrates
Carboxylic acids, esters and
triglycerides (fats and oils)
Amines, amides and proteins

Introduction
Organic chemistry - the study of hydrocarbons
(compounds of hydrogen and carbon) and their
derivatives.
Carbon:
the element of life on earth
4 valence electrons
it has room for 4 covalent bonds to 4 other atoms
Able to form single, double and triple bond

Organic compounds - molecules with carbon atoms

as main elements.
7 million organic compounds
1.5 million inorganic compounds

Modeling Organic Compounds

Molecular Formula 1-hexanol
C6H14O
- Number of atoms of each element present
Structural Formula
- Shows the individual atoms in a molecule and how they
are arrange

Molecular formula: C5H8O2

Other structural formula:

Saturated & Unsaturated HC

When C=C or CC bonds are present in the
hydrocarbon chain, where the hydrocarbon contain
less than the maximum number of hydrogen
atoms, its an unsaturated hydrocarbon.

If hydrocarbon chain contain only C-C bonds, it is

refer to as saturated hydrocarbon.

Unsaturated

Saturated

Saturated

Cyclics
Cyclics (cycloalkanes or cycloalkenes) are
alkanes or alkenes which form into a ring structure.
H2C CH2
C
H2

H2C CH2
H2C CH2

Cyclopropane

H2C CH2
H2C
CH2
C
H2
Cyclopentane

Cyclobutane
CH2
CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2
CH2

Cyclohexane

Aromatics
An aromatic compound has aryl group/ benzene
ring as its functional group:
In benzene ring, the electrons in the carbon to
carbon double bond are not held between just two
carbon atoms, but are spread over the whole ring,
the electrons are said to be delocalised.
Structural formula:
CH
CH

CH

CH

CH
CH

Molecular
formula:
C6H6

Physical Properties of Hydrocarbons

All hydrocarbons (HC) are non polar molecules,
HC molecules are attracted to each other only by
weak dispersion forces as secondary interactions.
As the length of hydrocarbon molecules increases,
the dispersion forces between molecules also
increases.
Small molecular mass hydrocarbons (< 5C), have
low boiling points and are gases at room
temperature (Eg. methane, propane, pentane).
Larger molecular mass hydrocarbons (> 5C) have
higher boiling point and usually liquid at room
temperature (Eg. hexane, octane, decane).

Alkanes
1.
2.
3.
4.

General formula: R R
Functional group: none
Systematic naming / nomenclature: alkane
Physical properties:
Non polar molecules
Molecules are held by very weak dispersion forces
small molecular mass alkanes gases at r.t.p.
but big molecular mass alkanes liquid at r.t.p.
(more dispersion forces between molecules)
have very low MP and BP (weak DF betw mol.)
not soluble in water (cannot form H-bond with
very polar water molecules)

5. Chemical properties:

Alkanes - generally considered chemically

unreactive because they contain no reactive
functional group.
But can undergo two main types of reaction:
(I) Complete combustion
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
(II) Substitution forming haloalkanes, where
hydrogen is substituted by a halogen in the
presence of light.
CH4 + Br2 CH3 Br + HBr
6. Preparation: through fractional distillation of

petroleum.

Alkene & Alkyne

1.

2.

2.
3.

General formula:

R R

RCCR

RCCR

Functional group: Carbon to carbon Carbon to carbon

double bond
triple bond
Systematic nomenclature: alkene
alkyne
Physical properties:
Non polar molecules
Molecules are held by very weak dispersion forces
small molecular mass alkenes gasses at r.t.p. but
big molecular mass alkanes liquid at r.t.p.
have very low MP and BP
not soluble in water

5. Chemical properties: More reactive than alkanes

(I) Complete combustion

CH3CH=CHCH3 + 6 O2 4 CO2 + 4 H2O
(II) Addition reaction
Hydrogenation add H2 across the double bond,
with metal catalyst (nickel or platinum); used
commercially to convert unsaturated vegetable oils
to saturated fat. [Fats and Oils]
CH3CH=CHCH3 + H2 CH3CH2CH2CH3
Halogenation react with halogens (Br2, Cl2)

Bromine Test: Bromine water (Br2 / H2O), a reagent

used to test the presence of double bonds because
orange bromine solution will be decolorised.
CH3CH=CHCH3 + Br2 CH3CHBrCHBrCH3

 Hydrohalogenation the hydrogen halides (HBr, HCl)

can added across a double bond.
CH3CH=CHCH3 + HBr CH3CH2CHBrCH3
Hydration the addition of water (catalysed by an acid)
to alkenes is an important reaction industrially, eg. to
produce ethanol (alcohol) from ethene.
CH3CH=CHCH3 + H2O CH3CH2CHOHCH3
Addition polymerization many alkenes and alkenes
can add to themselves to form very long-chained
macromolecules called polymers. [Topic 5: Materials]
C

6. Preparation: cracking of short chain alkanes with the

presence of platinum as catalyst

Systematic naming / Nomenclature

IUPAC naming
Identify longest chain of carbon atoms containing functional group
(parent name).
Number the carbon atoms - start with C nearer to the functional group.
Determine functional groups location and type.
When two same functional groups are present on the same carbon
atom, use the number twice.
When two or more functional groups are identical, indicates this by the
use of prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, and so on.
When branching first occurs at an equal distance from either end of the
longest, choose the name of that gives the lower number at the first
point of difference.
When two or more chains of equal length compete for selection as the
parent chain. Choose the chain with greater number of substituents.
Between a number and a number:
Between a number and an alphabet:
Between an alphabet and an alphabet:

3-bromo-2-chloro-3-methylpentane

2,4-dibromo-3,5-dichloropentan(e)-1,3-diene

2-chloro-5-methylhexane-3-ene

Derivatives of Hydrocarbons

R = hydrocarbons (saturated / unsaturated /

cyclic / aromatic) or hydrogen atom
X = functional group / reactive site
atoms or groups of atoms that govern
the physical and chemical properties of
an organic compound

Organic Families
Each family has a functional group to identify it.

1. Alcohols (-OH, hydroxyl group)

2. Aldehydes (-CHO, aldehyde group)

3. Ketones (-CO-, ketone group)

4. Carboxylic acids (-COOH, carboxyl group)
5. Esters (-COO-, ester group)
6. Amines (-NH2, amino group)
7. Amides (-CONH2, amide group)

Homologous Series
Homologous series has an associated functional group.
The formula of each member conforms to the same
general formula.
The formula of each member contains more CH2 group
than that of the previous member.
The physical properties of the members of a series
gradually changes as the molecules become heavier and
more complex
Physical state changes from gas to liquid to solid
Boiling point and melting point gradually increases
Solubility in a given solvent gradually decreases
The chemical properties of all the members of a series
are similar. If the chemical properties of the first members
are known then those of later members can be deduced.

Types of Organic Reactions

Combustion
Condensation (eg: esterification)
Addition (eg: hydrogenation, hydration,
bromination, chlorination)
Acidic hydrolysis
Alkaline hydrolysis (eg: saponification)
Redox reaction
Most organic reaction require special apparatus setup to carry out the reaction due to volatile organic
compounds and also the very slow reaction rate.

Organic reactions apparatus

Most organic reaction require special apparatus set-up
to carry out the reaction because organic compounds
are volatile and also to speed up the rate reaction.
Reflux apparatus
To prevent the loss of volatile
organic compound and to
increase the rate of organic
reaction by giving extended
heating
Reflux process: repeated
vaporisation and condensation

2. Distillation apparatus

Fractional distillation:
To separate two
miscible liquid with
different boiling point,
so as to purify /
concentrate one of the
organic compound.

Buchner filtration

apparatus
To separate precipitate
formed in an aqueous
solution.

Separation apparatus
To separate two immiscible liquid

Boiling chips
To prevent over heating, bumping of solution and to
make sure heat is distributed evenly throughout the
liquid during reaction.