Process Auxiliaries

Auxiliaries:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Pipe
Pipe fittings
Pipe supports
Valves
Measuring Instrument

Pipe:
It is a tubular item made of metal, Plastic, Glass etc. meant for conveying
any type of fluid.
Piping is the physical elements that interconnect the equipment.
Piping comes in different size and materials.

Pipe standards depends on Schedule Number and Nominal Pipe Diameter.

1.) Schedule Number= (1000* Allowable Internal Pressure) / Stress
Schedule numbers uses 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140 and 160.
Among these 40 is standard value.
2.) Nominal Pipe Diameter for 1/8 to 12 is equal to I.D while for greater
than 12 its equal to O.D.
Diameter (in)= 3.9qf0.45raw0.13
The wall thickness varies with the schedule number, nominal diameter
which is independent of schedule number is constant which permits use of
standard fittings and other tools.
Design of Piping Layout:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Choice of materials and Size:

Adequate Support
Instrumentations
Effect of temperature
Easy Installation

6) Maintenance and inspection

7) Safety

Figure.1 Piping Layout

In the figure, p-100-18 presences the piping material and its size.
The process piping layout shows the arrangement of the major pieces of
equipment and their interconnection like condenser, pump, Distillation
column, Reboiler.
It is a description of the nature of the process.
Details of the valves and fittings; and their arrangement.
Pipe Fittings: Pipe fittings are shapes which allow rigid straight pipe to change
both direction and diameter.
1.) Elbows: Elbows used to change the angle or direction of the pipe. Elbow
have two angles 1) 45 2) 90.
2.) T-fittings: Allow for branch lines.

3.) Couplings: Used to join two straight pieces of pipe of the same diameter.
4.) Reducers: Used to join pipe of different diameters
5.) Bushings: Used to make the diameter of a pipe fitting smaller.
6.) Adaptor: Used to change the end of a non-threaded pipe to male or female
threads as needed.
7.) Unions: Used to join pieces of pipe where pipes cannot be turned or when a
piece of equipment may have to be removed for maintenance or
replacement.
8.) Caps: Used to close the end of a dead end pipe.

Valve: Devices that control the flow of liquid or gas through a pipe.
Mainly three types of valves:
1.) On-Off Valve:
a.) Gate Valve: Gate valves are primarily designed to serve as
isolation valves. In service, these valves generally are either
fully open or fully closed. A gate valve is operated with a wheel
that moves a gate up and down.
Gate valves have either rising stems, which enable you to tell
visually if they are open or closed (although not as clearly as
the lever on a ball valve). They should be used only in the fully
open and fully closed positions. If a valve is left partially open,
the gate will vibrate and may become damaged. Their ability to
cut through liquids, gate valves are often used in the petroleum
industry.
Gate Valves
Advantages

Limitations

High Capacity

Poor Control

Tight Shutoff

Prone to cavitation

No water hammering

Cannot be used for throttling

Little resistance to flow

b.) Ball Valve: Ball valves are valued for their longevity and ability
to work perfectly after years of disuse. Inside a ball valve, a
sphere usually made of brass, chrome-plated brass, or stainless
steel has been drilled through from one end to the other.
Attached to the top of the sphere is a lever whose range of
movement is just a quarter turn.
Advantage to quarter-turn valves such as ball valves is that they
can be shut off quickly. Its much easier for persons of all
abilities to move a lever than to turn a wheel in gate valve.
Second, its possible at a glance to tell if a ball valve is open.
The disadvantage is that this makes water hammer more
likely. Required more space as compared to gate valve because
shutting off the water flow means turning the lever
perpendicular to the pipe, a ball valve may not work in certain
tight locations. Ball valves are durable, performing well after
many cycles, and reliable, closing securely even after long
periods of disuse. These qualities make them an excellent
choice for shutoff applications,
Water Hammering: Water hammer is a pressure wave caused
when a fluid in motion is forced to stop or change direction
suddenly. A water hammer commonly occurs when a valve
closes suddenly at an end of a pipeline system, and a pressure
wave propagates in the pipe. It is also called hydraulic shock.
Water hammering can cause pipelines to break if the pressure is
high enough at downside of pipe.
Ball Valves
Advantages

Limitations

Low cost

Poor throttling characteristics

High capacity

Prone to cavitation ( affect due to

pressure difference between two side
produce vapor and other reason is
continuous contact with liquid for long
period)

Low leakage and

maintenance

Water hammering

Tight sealing with

low torque

Required more space

Quickly operate
2.) Regulating Valve
a.) Globe Valve: These valves are used in systems where good
throttling characteristics and low seat leakage are desired
and a relatively high head loss in an open valve is
acceptable. they close slowly to prevent fluid hammer.
Globe Valves
Advantages

Limitations

Efficient throttling

High pressure drop

Accurate flow control valves

More expensive than other valves

Available in multiple ports

b.) Butterfly Valve: A butterfly valve is a valve which can be
used for isolating or regulating flow. The closing mechanism
takes the form of a disk. Operation is similar to that of a ball
valve, which allows for quick shut off. Butterfly valves are
generally favored because they are lower in cost to other
valve designs as well as being lighter in weight, meaning
less support is required. The disc is positioned in the center

of the pipe, passing through the disc is a rod connected to an

actuator on the outside of the valve. Rotating the actuator
turns the disc either parallel or perpendicular to the flow.
Unlike a ball valve, the disc is always present within the
flow, therefore a pressure drop is always induced in the flow,
regardless of valve position.
Butterfly Valves
Advantages

Limitations

Low cost and maintenance

High torque required for control

High capacity

Always pressure drop

Good flow control

3.) Non-Return Valve:
a.) Ball Check Valve: These are unidirectional valves and
permit the free flow in one direction only. These valves have
two ports: one for the entry of fluid and the other for the
discharge. They are consists of a housing bore in which ball
is held by a small spring force. The valve having ball as a
closing member is known as ball check valve. The various
types of check valves are available for a range of
applications. These valves are generally small sized, simple
in construction and inexpensive. Generally, the check valves
are automatically operated.
The ball is held against the valve seat by a spring force. It
can be observed from the figure that the fluid flow is not
possible from the spring side but the fluid from opposite side
can pass by lifting the ball against. However, there is some
pressure drop across the valve due to restriction by the
spring force. Therefore these valves are not suitable for the
application of high flow rate. When the operating pressure
increases the valve becomes more tightly seated in this
design.

b.) Poppet check Valve: The advantages of the poppet valves

include no leakage, long life and suitability with high
pressure applications.

Instrumentation: Used for measure various parameters of fluid flowing to pipe like
Temperature, Pressure, Flow.
Flow measurement:
1.) Orifice Meter: With an orifice plate, the fluid flow is measured through
the difference in pressure from the upstream side to the downstream side
of a partially obstructed pipe. The plate obstructing the flow offers a
precisely measured obstruction that narrows the pipe and forces the
flowing fluid to constrict. Most of the pressure drop is not recoverable,
that is it is inefficient.

Types of Orifice Plates

The simplest form of orifice plate consists of a thin metal sheet, having in
it a square edged or a sharp edged or round edged circular hole.
There are three types of orifice plates namely
1. Concentric
2. Eccentric and
3. Segmental type.

The concentric type is used for clean fluids. In metering dirty fluids,
slurries and fluids containing solids, eccentric or segmental type is used
in such a way that its lower edge coincides with the inside bottom of the
pipe. This allows the solids to flow through without any obstruction.
Limitations:
a.) Wear reduces the accuracy.
b.) Water hammering damage orifice plate.

c.) Venturi Meter: It consists of a cylindrical inlet section equal to the

pipe diameter ; a converging conical section in which the cross
sectional area decreases causing the velocity to increase with a
corresponding increase in the velocity head and a decrease in the
pressure head ; a cylindrical throat section where the velocity is
constant so that the decreased pressure head can be measured ; and a
diverging recovery cone where the velocity decreases and almost all
of the original pressure head is recovered.

C= dimensional coefficient, 0.935 to 0.988

A2= Area of throat
= D2/D1
Sg= Specific Gravity
H= Height difference in manometer
Limitations: This flow meter is limited to use on clean, non-corrosive
liquids and gases, because it is difficult to clean out or flush out the
pressure taps if they clog up with dirt or debris.

d.) Nozzle: The Flow nozzle is a smooth, convergent section that

discharges the flow parallel to the axis of the downstream pipe. Thus
the diameter ratio for a nozzle is smaller or its flow coefficient is

larger. Pressure recovery is better than that of an orifice but it is very

costly

e.) Rotameter: The Rotameter consists of a vertically oriented glass (or

plastic) tube with a larger end at the top, and a metering float which is
free to move within the tube. Fluid flow causes the float to rise in the
tube as the upward pressure differential and buoyancy of the fluid
overcome the effect of gravity. The float rises until the annular area
between the float and tube increases sufficiently to allow a state of
dynamic equilibrium between the upward differential pressure and
buoyancy factors, and downward gravity factors. The flow rate can be
read by observing the position of the Float. Glass tube eroded by solid
particle which damage tube.
f.) Pitot tube: Consider figure which shows flow around a solid body.
When a solid body is held centrally and stationary in a pipeline with a
fluid streaming down, due to the presence of the body, the fluid while
approaching the object starts losing its velocity till directly in front of
the body, where the velocity is zero. This point is known as the
stagnation point. As the kinetic head is lost by the fluid, it gains a
static head. By measuring the difference of pressure between that at
normal flow line and that at the stagnation point, the velocity is found
out.
Temperature Measurement:
1.) Thermometer: The liquid-in-glass thermometer is one of the most
common instruments used today to measure temperature. As the name

suggests, the instrument consists of a glass bulb containing a special

liquid. The bulb is connected to a stem that has a scale for measuring the
temperature. The liquid must expand and contract significantly in
response to a temperature increase or decrease. Changes in temperature
therefore lead to changes in the liquid level on the stem. The most
commonly used liquid in these types of thermometers is mercury.
2.) Thermocouple: When two conductors made from dissimilar metals are
connected forming two common junctions and the two junctions are
exposed to two different temperatures, a net thermal emf is produced, the
actual value being dependent on the materials used and the temperature
difference between hot and cold junctions. Thermocouples are
extensively used for measurement of temperature in industrial situations.
The major reasons behind their popularity are: (i) they are rugged and
readings are consistent, (ii) they can measure over a wide range of
temperature, and (iii) Good accuracy
3.) Bimetallic Thermometer: If two materials with different linear
coefficients are bonded together, as the temperature changes their rate of
expansion will be different. This will cause the entire assembly to bend in
an arc as shown in figure. When the temperature is raised, an arc is
formed around the material with the smaller
expansion coefficient.
Since this assembly is formed by joining two dissimilar materials, it is
known as a bimetallic element. In it, a bimetallic strip is wound in the
form of a long helix. One end of the helix is held rigid. As the
temperature varies, the helix tries to wind or unwind. This causes the free
end to rotate. The free end is connected to a pointer. The pointer actually
indicates angular rotation of the helix; however, since the rotation is
linear and a function of temperature, the scale is marked in units of
temperature.
Pressure Measurement
1.) Manometer: When the ends of the manometer tube are exposed to
different pressures, the high pressure pushes down on the fluid and the
level drops, forcing the fluid level to rise in the low pressure arm. The
pressure difference can be determined from the difference in height.

2.) Bourdon tube: A typical Bourdon tube contains a curved tube that is open
to external pressure input on one end and is coupled mechanically to an
indicating needle on the other end, as shown schematically below. The
external pressure is guided into the tube and causes it to flex, resulting in
a change in curvature of the tube. These curvature changes are linked to
the dial indicator for a number readout.