TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXPERIMENT 1: VELOCITY MEASUREMENT USING PITOT TUBE

No.
Title
1.1 Summary/Abstract
1.2 Purpose and Objective
1.3 Theory
1.4 Equipment and Description of Experimental Apparatus
1.5 Procedure
1.6 Data, Observation and Result
1.7 Analysis and Discussions
1.8 Conclusions
1.9 References
1.10 Appendixes
EXPERIMENT 2: DETERMINING OF DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT
No.
Title
2.1 Summary/Abstract
2.2 Purpose and Objective
2.3 Theory
2.4 Equipment and Description of Experimental Apparatus
2.5 Procedure
2.6 Data, Observation and Result
2.7 Sample Calculations
2.8 Analysis and Discussions
2.9 Conclusions
2.10 References
Experiment 1: Velocity Measurement Using Pitot Tube.

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1.1 SUMMARY/ABSTRACT.
In this experiment, there are one major thing should be done which are determining the air flow
velocity along the Pitot tube. According from that, there is velocity profiles produced due to the
different in pressure when doing this experiment (static pressure and stagnation pressure). Based on
that, Bernoullis equations are needed to compute the velocity for each condition.

1.2 PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES.
In this experiment student will learn the method of measuring air flow velocity using Pitot tube. Then,
the student will understand the working principle of Pitot tube as well as the importance of
Bernoullis equation in deriving and calculating the velocity.

1.3 THEORY.
1

A pitot tube is used to explore the developing boundary layer in the entry length of a pipe which has
air drawn through it. With Pitot tube, the velocity distribution profiles can be determined at a number
of cross-sections at different locations along a pipe. With Pitot tube, air flow velocities in the pipe can
be obtained by first measuring the pressure difference of the moving air in the pipe at two points,
where one of the points is at static velocity. The Bernoulli equation is then applied to calculate the
velocity from the pressure difference.
v

2p

or

2 gh'

(1)

p is the pressure difference between the pitot tube and the wall pressure tapping measured using
manometer bank provided (gx where x is the level of fluid used in the manometer), h is the
pressure difference expressed as a 'head' of the fluid being measured (air) The air density at the
atmospheric pressure and temperature of that day (kg/m3) , g is gravitational acceleration constant
(9.81 m/s2).

When fluid flows past a stationary solid wall, the shear stress set up close to this boundary due to the
relative motion between the fluid and the wall leads to the development of a flow boundary layer.
The boundary layer may be either laminar or turbulent in nature depending on the flow Reynolds
number. The growth of this boundary layer can be revealed by studying the velocity profiles at
selected cross-sections, the core region still outside the boundary layer showing up as an area of
more or less uniform velocity. If velocity profiles for cross-sections different distances from the pipe
entrance are compared, the rate of growth of the boundary layer along the pipe length can be
determined. Once the boundary layer has grown to the point where it fills the whole pipe crosssection this is termed "fully developed pipe flow".
Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number is a measure of the way in which a moving fluid encounters an obstacle. It's
proportional to the fluid's density, the size of the obstacle, and the fluid's speed, and inversely
proportional to the fluid's viscosity (viscosity is the measure of a fluid's "thickness"--for example,
honey has a much larger viscosity than water does).

Re

vd


: Fluid density
v

: fluid velocity

: obstacle size

: Coefficient of fluid dynamic viscosity

A small Reynolds number refers to a flow in which the fluid has a low density so that it responds
easily to forces, encounters a small obstacle, moves slowly, or has a large viscosity to keep it
organized. In such a situation, the fluid is able to get around the obstacle smoothly in what is known
as "laminar flow." You can describe such laminar flow as dominated by the fluid's viscosity--it's
tendency to move smoothly together as a cohesive material.
A large Reynolds number refers to a flow in which the fluid has a large density so that it doesn't
respond easily to forces, encounters a large obstacle, moves rapidly, or has too small a viscosity to
keep it organized. In such a situation, the fluid can't get around the obstacle without breaking up into
turbulent swirls and eddies. You can describe such turbulent flow as dominated by the fluid's inertia-the tendency of each portion of fluid to follow a path determined by its own momentum.
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow, critcal flow, occurs at a particular range of Reynolds
number (usually around 2500). Below this range, the flow is normally laminar; above it, the flow is
normally turbulent.

Calculation of air flow velocity

The manometer tube liquid levels must be used to calculate pressure differences, h and pressure
heads in all these experiments. Starting with the basic equation of hydrostatics:
p = gh

(2)

We can follow this procedure through using the following definitions:

Example:
Manometer tubes

1(static pressure*)

2(stagnation pressure)

Liquid surface readings

X1

X2

(mm)
Angle of inclination, = 0
Pressure term is used since this reading is in mm of manometer fluid and not the pressure of unit Pa.
Therefore the equivalent vertical separation of liquid levels in manometer tubes,
h = (x1 - x2)cos

(3)

If k is the density of the kerosene in the manometer, the equivalent pressure difference p is:
p = k gh = k g(x1 - x2) cos

(4)

The value for kerosene is k = 787 kg/m3 and g = 9.81 m/s2. If x1 and x2 are read in mm, then:
p = 7.72(x1 - x2)cos [N/m2]

(5)

The p obtained is then used in second equation (1) to obtain the velocity.
To use the first equation (1), convert this into a 'head' of air, h. Assuming a value of 1.2 kg/m 3 for
this gives:

h'

k ( x1 x 2 )
.
. cos
air 1000
[N/m2]

(6)

1.4 EQUIPMENT AND DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS.

1.5 PROCEDURE.
i.

Five mounting positions are provided for the pitot tube assembly. These are: 54 mm, 294 mm, 774

ii.

mm, 1574 mm and 2534 mm from the pipe inlet.

Ensure that the standard inlet nozzle is fitted for this experiment and that the orifice plate is removed

iii.
iv.

from the pipe break line.

Set the manometer such that the inclined position is at 00.
Mount the pitot tube assembly at position 1 (at 54mm, nearest to the pipe inlet). Note that the
connecting tube, the pressure tapping at the outer end of the assembly, is connected to a convenient
manometer tube. Make sure that the tip, the L-shape metal tube of the pitot tube is facing the

v.

incoming flow.
Note that there is a pipe wall static pressure tapping near to the position where the pitot tube assembly

vi.
vii.

is placed. The static pressure tapping is connected to a manometer tube.

Position the pitot tube with the traverse position of 0mm. Start the fan with the outlet throttle opened.
Starting with the traverse position at 0mm, where the tip is touching the bottom of the pipe, read and
record both manometer tube levels of the wall static and the pitot tube until the transverse position

viii.

touching the top of the pipe.

Repeat the velocity traverse for the same air flow value at the next position with the pitot tube
assembly. Make sure that the blanking plug is placed at the holes that are not in use.

1.6
1.7 DATA, OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS.
Data sheet for Velocity Measurement Using Pitot Tube
Traverse
Position
(mm)

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80

Traverse
Position
(mm)

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80

Pitot Tube at 54 mm Static Pressure

Reading 110 (mm), x1
Stagnation
Pressure
Reading
(mm), x2
104
102
100
100
99
100
101
102
104

x
(mm)

p
(N/m)

Velocity
(m/s)

6
8
10
10
11
10
9
8
6

46.32
61.76
77.2
77.2
84.92
77.2
69.48
61.76
46.32

8.6785
10.0211
11.2039
11.2039
11.7508
11.2039
10.6290
10.0211
8.6785

Pitot Tube at 774 mm Static Pressure

Reading 112 (mm), x1
Stagnation
Pressure
Reading
(mm), x2
104
102
101
100
100
100
102
104
105

x
(mm)

p
(N/m)

Velocity
(m/s)

8
10
11
12
12
12
10
8
7

61.76
77.2
84.92
92.64
92.64
92.64
77.2
61.76
54.04

10.0211
11.2039
11.7508
12.2733
12.2733
12.2733
11.2039
10.0211
9.3739

Traverse
Position
(mm)

Pitot Tube at 294 mm Static Pressure

Reading 110 (mm), x1
Stagnation
Pressure
Reading
(mm), x2
102
101
100
100
90
101
102
104
104

x
(mm)

p
(N/m)

Velocity
(m/s)

8
9
10
10
20
9
8
6
6

61.76
69.48
77.2
77.2
154.4
69.48
61.76
46.32
46.32

10.0211
10.6290
11.2039
11.2039
15.8448
10.6290
10.0211
8.6785
8.6785

Pitot Tube at 1574 mm Static

Pressure Reading 194 (mm), x1
Stagnation
Pressure
Reading
(mm), x2
194
188
160
118
106
120
160
190
194

x
(mm)

p
(N/m)

Velocity
(m/s)

0
6
34
76
88
74
34
4
0

0
46.32
262.48
586.72
679.36
571.28
262.48
30.88
0

0.0000
8.6785
20.6591
30.8872
33.2363
30.4780
20.6591
7.0860
0.0000

Pitot Tube at 2534 mm Static Pressure

Reading 178 (mm), x1

Stagnation
Pressure
Reading
(mm), x2
166
166
165
165
165
166
168
169
169

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80

x
(mm)

p
(N/m)

Velocity
(m/s)

12
12
13
13
13
12
10
9
9

92.64
92.64
100.36
100.36
100.36
92.64
77.2
69.48
69.48

12.2733
12.2733
12.7745
12.7745
12.7745
12.2733
11.2039
10.6290
10.6290

1.8 SAMPLE CALCULATION

Equations: p = 7.72 (x1 x2) cos
Velocity, v = (2 p) 1/2 = (2 gh)
(air) 1/2
Pitot Tube at 54 mm:
Static Pressure Reading, x1

= 110 mm

Stagnation Pressure reading, x2

= 104 mm

Pressure difference, p

= 7.72 (110-104) cos 0

= 46.32 (N/m)

Velocity,v = (2 p)1/2

= 8.6785 m/s

(air)1/2

Air Velocity Vs. Traverse Position.

35
30
25
20

Air Velocity (m/s)

15
10
5
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Traverse Position (mm)

54mm

294mm

774mm

1574mm

2534mm

1.8 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS.

A pitot tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity by determining
the stagnation pressure. Bernoulli's equation is used to calculate the dynamic pressure and hence fluid
velocity. The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow. As this tube
contains fluid, a pressure can be measured; the moving fluid is brought to rest (stagnates) as there is
no outlet to allow flow to continue. This pressure is the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as
the total pressure or (particularly in aviation) the pitot pressure. The measured stagnation pressure
cannot of itself be used to determine the fluid velocity (airspeed in aviation). However, Bernoulli's
equation states:
Stagnation pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure

Based on the figure above and graph plotted, it shows same velocity profile as a result. From that, we
can conclude the velocity profile is a parabolic shape. There is no value in velocity at the initial points
due to the friction force on the wall surfaces. In contrast, there is maximum value at the middle points
of pitot tube due to the no friction forces act on it or shear stress act in it. Hence, the air is moving
freely. Therefore the value of velocity increases until one points and then decreases again as initial
points. The Bernoulli equation is then applied to calculate the velocity from the pressure difference.
There are three major error when doing experiments which are random error, fixed error and
experimental error. When taking the reading of manometer tube, student should reading carefully to
avoid parallax error that can affect the calculation on determining the velocity of air. There are some
experimental error of the instruments itself that are too long to be used this can contribute on how to
get a better result. The velocity profile should be a parabolic shape. When the air flows past the pipe,
the shear stress set up close to boundary due the relative motion between the air and the wall of the
pipe. Therefore, we can say that the air velocity or the graph figure should be differ on each situation.

1.9 CONCLUSIONS.
Based on this experiment, conclude that the velocity of air is not same at any points. This
happen due to the reaction forces occur. This velocity can be calculated by using Bernoullis
equation from given the different pressure (static and stagnation pressures). Besides that, we
also can determine and know the velocity profile at the different location along a pipe using
pitot tube. Then, the student will understand the working principle of pitot tube as well as the
importance of Bernoullis equation in deriving and calculating the velocity.
Therefore the objectives are achieved.

1.10

REFERENCES.
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/flow-meters-d_493.html
http://moodle.uniten.edu.my/moodle/course/view.php?id=111

1.11

APPENDIXES.
Appendix A (Sample Calculation):

Experiment 2: Determination of Discharge Coefficient.

2.1 SUMMARY/ABSTRACT.
In this experiment we use orifice plate as a main component. An orifice plate meter is a device for
measuring the discharge for the flow of liquids or gases through a pipe. In this experiment, we are
going to determine the discharge coefficient experimentally for an orifice plate in an airflow pipe.
Also using the static pressure tapings provided, we are determining the pressure distribution along the

10

pipe downstream of the orifice plate. From the obtained C D of the orifice plate, we will determine the
CD of a small nozzle.

2.2 PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES.
In this experiment student need to determine the discharge coefficients, C D for orifice plate and the
small nozzle.

2.3 THEORY.
The orifice plate meter forms a jet, which expands to fill the whole pipe, some diameter distance
downstream. The pressure difference between the two sides of the plate is related to the jet velocity,
and therefore the discharge, by the energy equation:
Q A j v j A o Cc v j A oCc C v 2gh

(1)
where

Q =
Aj =
Ao =
vj =
Cc =
Cv =
g =
h =

discharge (volume/time)
jet cross-section area at minimum contraction (vena contracta)
orifice cross-section area (d2/4: d = orifice size)
jet velocity at minimum contraction (vena contracta)
coefficient of contraction of jet
coefficient of velocity of jet
gravitational acceleration (9.81 ms -2)
pressure difference 'head' of air across orifice (refer to equation (6) of Exp. I)

These two coefficients are normally combined to give a single coefficient of discharge: C D = Cc.Cv

Q CEquation
D Ao 2 gh(1) now becomes

(2)
If Q can be determined independently, then the discharge coefficient can be determined as follows:-

CD

Q
A o 2gh

(3)

Q i A i C ' D 2gh i
Values of Qi can be determined if the standard nozzle is fitted at the pipe inlet.
(4)
If hi = the drop in pressure head across the inlet, the discharge = (k/air )* (xbefore nozzle xafter nozzle):
in which Ai = standard nozzle cross-section area (= d2 /4) and CD assumed to be 0.97. Values of
h I are obtained from the manometer tube levels connected to the pipe inlet pressure tapping and open
to the atmosphere.
Calculating the CD of orifice plate:
11

From equation (4), with the Q i obtained from standard nozzle where C D of standard nozzle is
assumed Q
to be 0.97, we can calculate the C D of orifice plate. Assuming that Qi across standard nozzle
o
C D Qo across
and
orifice plate is the same, apply equation (3)
Ao 2 gho

(5)
Where

ho = (k/air)*(x across orifice)

Ao = cross section area of orifice plate hole

2.4 EQUIPMENT AND DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS.

Figure 2 : Experiment Diagram

12

2.5 PROCEDURE
i.

Insert the orifice plate in position (taking care to observe the instructions as to) in which the

ii.

surface should face the approaching airflow.

Connect all the static pressure tapping points to the manometer tubes ensuring that one
manometer tube remains unconnected to record room air pressure and that one is attached to

iii.

the first tapping point adjacent to the standard inlet nozzle which should be fitted.
Turn on fan with low airflow (damper plate closed) and read all manometer tubes, including

iv.

any open to the air (reading should be taken after the fan is on).
Gradually increase air flow by increasing the damper opening to 100%, and take read at all
opening.

2.6 DATA, OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS.

Table 2.6.1: Static Pressure Readings when using Standard Nozzle (80mm)
Damper Openings (% Openings)
0%

25 %

Points

50 %

75 %

100 %

mm of kerosene

Room Pressure

102

102

102

102

102

After Nozzle

105

108

109

109

109

54 mm

105

108

109

110

110

294 mm

105

109

110

111

111

774 mm

105

111

112

114

113

Before Orifice

105

112

114

119

114

After Orifice

119

190

210

220

222

1574 mm

116

170

188

194

198

2534 mm

114

158

170

177

178

Cd

1.153

0.689

0.671

0.654

0.632

13

Table 2.6.2: Static Pressure Readings when using Small Nozzle (50 mm)
Damper Openings (% Openings)
0%

25 %

Points

50 %

75 %

100 %

mm of kerosene

Room Pressure

104

102

102

102

102

After Nozzle

112

139

146

148

150

54 mm

112

141

148

150

152

294 mm

109

126

130

132

132

774 mm

109

125

130

132

132

Before Orifice

110

127

131

133

133

After Orifice

122

190

206

212

214

1574 mm

119

174

190

194

198

2534 mm

117

164

176

180

181

Cd

1.413

3.240

3.242

3.254

3.260

*(Sample Calculation on Appendix B)

14

Kerosene VS Tapping Position

Kerosene

240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100

Tapping Position
Standard Nozzle

Small Nozzle

Graph 2.6.1: Kerosene Vs Tapping Position.

Cd VS Re
1.2
1.1
1
Cd

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000 20000 21000 22000
Re

Graph 2.6.2: Cd Vs Re for Standard Nozzle.

15

Cd VS Re
3.5
3
2.5
2
Cd

1.5
1
0.5
0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

Re

Graph 2.6.3: Cd Vs Re for Small Nozzle.

2.7 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS.
An orifice plate is a device used for measuring the volumetric flow rate. It uses the same principle as
a Venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's principle which states that there is a relationship between the
pressure of the fluid and the velocity of the fluid. When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases
and vice versa.

Based on the experiment and figure above, when the air flow part through the orifice plate, the
velocity of air became higher than normal. This is due to the contraction in diameter at the centre of
the orifice plate. According to the Bernoullis equation, when the pressure is lower, the velocity is
higher. This was approved by the manometer reading in this experiment. In addition, with an orifice
plate, the air flow is measured through the difference in pressure from the upstream side to the
16

downstream side of a partially obstructed pipe. The plate obstructing the flow offers a precisely
measured obstruction that narrows the pipe and forces the flowing air to constrict.
When calculation had been done, noted that the C d value obtained for orifice and small nozzle is not
same. This is due to the equation difference on calculating these C d values. In this experiment, the C d
value for orifice plate is decreases while the C d value for small nozzle in increases. Area for orifice
plate is the main parameter that can affect these values. Hence, we obtained the different value for C D
based on the value of diameter for orifice.
By doing this experiment, we know that when the damper opening increases, the value of C D
increases for orifice plate.
In this experiment, the manometer reading changes when the damper opening changes. This is
because the air flows past faster when the percentage of damper opening became higher. As
mentioned before, when the air velocity is high, then the atmospheric pressure is low, therefore the
manometer reading will increase. This is proved by the calculation based on Bernoullis equation.
Basically, usage of orifice plate in the experiment will cause a drop in pressure. In contrast with the
graph plotted, the pressure is increase. Knowing that there are hole at the center of orifice plate hence
it will resist the airflow as in figure below:

Therefore, after the orifice plate, the air velocity decreased a little but still in a high magnitude. Show
that the orifice plate made the air velocity increased.

2.8 CONCLUSIONS.
Based on this experiment, student can determine the discharge coefficient, C D for orifice plate and
the CD for small nozzle. There are different values in discharge coefficient for orifice plate and small
nozzle. These reading are calculated based on the reading of manometer, the size of orifice plate and
the small nozzle. We know that the air velocity is depending on the orifice plate and the size of the
nozzle too.
Therefore the objectives are achieved.

2.9 REFERENCES.
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/flow-meters-d_493.html
17

2.10

http://moodle.uniten.edu.my/moodle/course/view.php?id=111
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orifice_plate

APPENDIXES.
Appendix B (Sample Calculation):
Determination of Discharge Coefficient. (0% damper openings)
1. QI
= Ai CD2ghi
= /4(0.08)2(0.97) [2(9.81) (787/1.23) ((105-102)/1000)]
= 0.029
2. CD orifice plate

= Q/AO2gh
= 0.029/ [(/4) (0.05)2 (2) (9.81) (787/1.23) ((119-105)/1000)]
= 1.153

3. Qsmall nozzle

= Ai CD2ghi
= /4(0.08)2(1.53) [2(9.81) (787/1.23) ((122-110)/1000)]
= 0.0278

4. CD small nozzle

= Q/Asmall nozzle(2gh)
= 0.0278/[(/4)(0.05)2(2)(9.81)(787/1.20)((112-104)/1000)]
= 1.413

5. Reynolds Number, Re = vd/

= (1.2)(0.03/0.002)(0.82)
1.08x10-3
=

13666.67

18