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digital audio workstation. The drummers played a simple 2-bar rhythm pattern (see Figure 1) for approximately three minutes in each feel. They had
time to memorize and practice the pattern for ten minutes prior to the recordings. The pattern in 4/4 meter featured periodical events on ride and hihat cymbals. Snare and bass drum played a mixture of metrically regular and
syncopated rhythmic elements.
The three feels or phrasing styles were: ahead, on top, and laid
back. The first is supposed to have a driving quality, the second is said to
appear on the beat, whereas the latter is expected to sound relaxed. In a
fourth recording, the drummers played the ride and hi-hat cymbal tracks
alone and tried to synchronize them as precisely as possible to the metronome.
All physical note onsets of the approximately 17,000 rhythmic events
were detected using the software LARA (www.hslu.ch/lara). For the metronome click track a threshold level of -60 dBFS was defined, and the first sample exceeding the threshold was considered as the onset of each metronome
sound. For the instrumental sounds, a two level approach was used. In a first
step, onset times were detected with an automated process. In a second step,
the resulting data was manually reviewed and compared to the waveform
plots of the recordings. Due to the close-miking, characteristic features of the
transients were clearly visible in the waveforms and served as visual cues for
the manual adjustment of the onsets. A second application of the procedure
to a subset of around 1,000 events yielded an average error of 0.1 ms for the
snare, bass drum, and hi-hat and 1 ms for the ride.
A rigid sixteenth-note reference timing grid was computed from the
measured metronome beats. For each instrumental onset time, the difference
to the corresponding time of the grid was calculated (deltaGrid). These values
represent the displacements to the external metrical reference. In addition,
the differences between hi-hat cymbals, snare, and bass drum onsets to the
ride sixteenth onsets was also computed (deltaRide). These values represent
the relative displacements from the internal metrical reference.
RESULTS
For the descriptive analysis, the deltaGrid values were used. An overview of
the results for performers 1 and 2 is given in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The
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Hi-hat
Snare drum
Bass drum
Ahead
-22 (23)
-35 (22)
-24 (18)
-34 (19)
On top
-10 (18)
-19 (19)
-12 (17)
-20 (20)
17 (16)
5 (21)
Laid back
14 (17)
3 (21)
As precise as possible
-9 (16)
-20 (15)
Hi-hat
Snare drum
Bass drum
Ahead
-17 (13)
-22 (13)
-13 (11)
-18 (15)
On top
-19 (10)
-25 (10)
-11 (8)
-12 (11)
-3 (11)
-13 (13)
Laid back
As precise as possible
-26 (9)
5 (10)
-3 (14)
-27 (10)
tables show the mean values and standard deviations of the measured deltaGrid for each instrument played in each feel. All values are shown in milliseconds, rounded to 1 ms for clarity. Positive values denote that the instrument
lagged behind the metronome in the average; negative values denote that the
strokes anticipated the metronome.
The timing profile of player 1 (Table 1) confirms the basic assumption
(hypothesis 1) very clearly. The playing instructions ahead/on top/laid
back appear consistently in all instruments: in the ahead feel, the strokes
are placed between 22 ms (ride) and 35 ms (hi-hat) earlier than the metronome clicks. Conversely, the strokes in the laid back feel are played between
3 ms (hi-hat) and 17 ms (snare drum) behind the metronome. The playing
instruction on top resulted in a rhythmic placement right between ahead
and laid back, with an anticipation between 10 ms (ride) to 20 ms (bass
drum), relative to the reference timing grid. The playing instruction as metronomically precise as possible resulted in mean displacements similar to
the on top feel. The standard deviation is slightly smaller than in the other
playing instructions. For player 1, to perfectly synchronize with the metronome means to actually play the strokes 10 ms (ride) and 20 ms (hi-hat) earlier than the perceived metronome clicks.
In player 2s data, ahead and laid back feels are clearly differentiated.
On average, ahead strokes are between 9 ms (hi-hat) and 18 ms (snare
drum) earlier than laid back strokes. The on top timing is basically identi-
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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Roland Stahl, Lucerne University of Applied Sciences
and Arts, for his consulting in statistical questions. We would also like to thank Natalie
Kirschstein for her attentive proofreading.
Address for correspondence
Lorenz Kilchenmann, Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Zentralstrasse
18, Lucerne 6003, Switzerland; Email: lorenz.kilchenmann@hslu.ch
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