GAS EXCHANGE

Different organisms have different mechanisms for obtaining the gases they require.
Diffusion is required to supply all organisms with oxygen.
The efficiency of diffusion is increased if there is:
1.

A large surface area over which exchange can take place.

2.

A concentration gradient without which nothing will diffuse.

3.

A thin surface across which gases diffuse.

There are other factors involved, e.g. where appropriate, a good blood supply to carry the oxygen
away to the tissues and to maintain a steep concentration gradient.
The process of diffusion will be faster in warm conditions as molecules have more energy and
therefore move faster. So temperature will also affect the efficiency of the diffusion.
Fick's Law
Fick's law is used to measure the rate of diffusion.
Fick's Law states that:

(The symbol a means 'proportional to')

The larger the area and difference in concentration and the thinner the surface, thequicker
the rate.
This means that water, a small molecule at a higher concentration inside the body than outside,
will continually diffuse out of the animal and evaporate away. This makes the diffusion surface
moist.

Unicellular organisms
Unicellular Organisms do not have specialised gas exchange surfaces. Instead gases diffuse in
through the cell membrane.
The smaller something is, the smaller the surface area is but, more importantly, the bigger the
surface area is compared to its volume.
In other words, unicellular organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio. They are
therefore efficient when it comes to exchanging gases through their membrane.
Also, all parts of the organism are supplied with oxygen because the diffusion path is short.
Multicellular organisms
Multicellular Organisms are bigger than Unicellular organisms. This makes efficient diffusion of
gases more difficult.
However, if they are small, or large but very thin (like the flatworms, Platyhelminths), the outer
surface of the body is sufficient as an exchange surface because the surface area to volume
ratio is still high.

Larger organisms need specialised exchange surfaces e.g. gills or lungs.

Land-living organisms usually have internal gas exchange surfaces to prevent too much water
being lost from the body.

GAS EXCHANGE IN HUMAN

The gas exchange surface of a mammal is the alveolus.
There are numerous alveoli - air sacs, supplied with gases via a system of tubes (trachea,
splitting into two bronchi - one for each lung - and numerous bronchioles) connected to the
outside by the mouth and nose.
These alveoli provide a massive surface area through which gases can diffuse. These gases
diffuse a very short distance between the alveolus and the blood because the lining of the lung
and the capillary are both only one cell thick.
The blood supply is extensive, which means that oxygen is carried away to the cells as soon as it
has diffused into the blood. Ventilation movements also maintain the concentration gradients
because air is regularly moving in and out of the lungs.

This breathing in (inspiration) and breathing out (expiration) is controlled via nervous
impulses from the respiratory centre in the medulla of the brain.
Both the intercostal muscles (in between the ribs) and the diaphragm receive impulses from the
respiratory centre. Stretch receptors in the lungs send impulses to the respiratory centre in the
brain giving information about the state of the lungs.

Process of inspiration (breathing in)

1.

external intercostal muscles contract

2.

ribs and sternum move up and out

3.

width of thorax increases front to back and side to side

4.

diaphragm contracts

5.

diaphragm moves down, flattening

6.

depth of thorax increases top to bottom so the...

volume of thorax increases.
pressure between the pleural surfaces decreases.
lungs expand to fill thoracic cavity.
air pressure in alveoli is less than atmospheric pressure.
air is forced in by the higher external atmospheric pressure.
As the lungs fill with air the stretch receptors send impulses to the expiratory part of the
respiration centre to end breathing in.
Process of expiration (breathing out)

1.

External intercostal muscles relax

2.

ribs and sternum move down and in

3.

width of thorax decreases front to back and side to side

4.

diaphragm relaxes

5.

diaphragm moves up

6.

depth of thorax decreases top to bottom. So the ...

 volume of thorax decreases.

pressure between the pleural surfaces increases.
lung tissue recoils from sides of thoracic cavity
air pressure in alveoli is more than atmospheric pressure.
air is forced out.
As the air leaves, the stretch receptors are no longer stimulated. The inhibition of breathing in
(via the expiratory part of the centre) stops so breathing in can start again.
Chemoreceptors
There are also chemoreceptors in the medulla and certain blood vessels that are sensitive to
changes in carbon dioxide levels in the blood.
If the level is too high (the pH would drop, enzyme action would be affected with serious
results), impulses are sent from these cells to the inspiratory part of the centre so that breathing
rate increases.
This means that carbon dioxide is got out of the body as quickly as possible and more oxygen
comes in.

Health Disease

Health can be defined as a person's physical, mental and social condition.

Good health is more than being free from disease; it is having a positive outlook on life
and feeling good physically. To enjoy good health, a person needs proper shelter,
nutrition, exercise, sleep and rest. Good hygiene and the access to medical and social care

are also important.

Disease is a disorder or malfunction of the mind or body, which destroys good health.
Disease may have a single cause - for example, malaria or be multifactorial, such as heart
disease. Diseases have characteristic symptoms, which may be physical, mental or both.
Those that have a sudden onset with rapid changes, but only last for a short time are
called acute, while the effects of chronic disease may continue for months or years.

Categories of disease

There are nine main categories of disease but some diseases are more difficult to
classify and fit into more than one of them.

Physical disease

These diseases involve temporary or permanent damage to the body and include all
the other categories except mental disease where there is no sign of physical damage to
the brain. An example would be leprosy.

Infectious disease

Pathogens are organisms living in or on our bodies, causing disease. Infectious diseases
are caused by pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protoctists,
worms and insects, which can be transmitted from person to person. This may be via
normal social contact - for example,chicken pox, or via food and water, sexual contact or

an animal bite.
Carriers are people who can transmit the pathogen but do not have the disease symptoms.

Non-infectious diseases

These are all diseases, which are not caused by pathogens and cannot be passed on by
physical contact. An example would be sickle cell anaemia.

Deficiency diseases

These are nutritional diseases caused by an inadequate or unbalanced diet. One or more
essential nutrient is missing or in short supply - for example, a shortage of Vitamin C
causes scurvy.

Inherited diseases

These diseases are caused by genes and can therefore be passed from parent to child.

They are also sometimes called genetic diseases or disorders.

In Britain, the most common inherited disease is cystic fibrosis, which is characterised
by a build-up of sticky mucus. This makes breathing difficult and can act as a breeding
ground for bacteria, so sufferers need daily physiotherapy to remove the mucus.

It is caused by a recessive faulty allele and so parents may be carriers for the disease
without having any symptoms. As yet, genetic diseases may be treated but not cured

because we cannot replace the faulty gene (gene therapy).

The Human Genome Project involves scientists in many countries and began in 1990.

It aims to:

Determine the sequence of the bases throughout all the DNA in human cells.
Identify the estimated 1000, 000 genes formed by the bases.
Find the location of the genes on the 23 human chromosomes.
Store all this information for research.
Consider the ethical, legal and social issues arising from this information.

The findings have already had a major impact, such as the devising of diagnostic tests to
see if parents are carriers for a particular disease. In the future, drugs that act against the

faulty gene causing a disease may be developed, which will have fewer side effects and

be more effective.
The replacement of faulty genes or gene therapy may become commonplace.
Many people are concerned about the implications of genetic testing. In many cases there
may be no treatment for a disease that we can test for. There are also risks of
discrimination by employers, insurance companies and others if they discover an
individual has a positive test for a faulty gene.

How reliable will the test be?

How will they be made available to the world's poorest nations?

Degenerative diseases

These diseases are characterised by a gradual loss of function, in one or several organs
or tissues. In old age, this is often the result of the failure of the bodies repair mechanisms

- for example, loss of mobility due to worn joints.

However, degenerative diseases can strike in ones youth or middle age. They may be the
result of poor nutrition in childhood or due to the immune system attacking the bodies,
own cells.

There are three main categories:

Diseases of skeletal, muscular and nervous tissues - for example, osteoarthritis.

Cardiovascular diseases of the circulatory system - for example, coronary heart disease.

Cancers.
Mental disorders

These disorders affect a person's mind, but may be accompanied by physical

symptoms.Emotions, thoughts, memories and personal and social behaviour can be

affected.
Some mental diseases are caused by degeneration of brain tissue - for
example, Alzheimer's - a progressive deterioration in memory is followed by a general
decline in all mental faculties (dementia). Other mental disorders seem to be
accompanied by changes in the blood flow to the brain - for example, Schizophrenia.

Social diseases

This is a very wide category that can include almost all infectious diseases and
multifactorial diseases, which are influenced by people's living conditions and their
personal behaviour.For example, deficiency diseases may be the result of lack of choice
of food, due to shortage of money.

Self-inflicted diseases

These diseases are caused by damage to a person's health by their own decisions and
behaviour. Included in this category would be the choice to smoke or misusing drugs,

sunbathing or eating a high fat diet.

Deliberate self-harm, such as attempted suicide, could also be placed here although it is
often an indication of poor mental health.

Terms used to describe diseases

An infectious disease, which is always present in a population, is called endemic.

An epidemic occurs when a disease suddenly spreads rapidly and affects many
people. If a disease spreads over a continent or even the world it will be
termed pandemic.

Health Statistics

Epidemiology is the study of patterns of diseases and the factors affecting its spread.
Incidence, prevalence and mortality for a disease may be determined. Collecting
information on the distribution of disease helps to identify the underlying causes and if it

turns out to be infectious, may point to how it is transmitted.

Other causes such as the links between smoking and lung cancer may also be determined.
The data on morbidity (numbers ill) and mortality (numbers who have died) for a
disease when expressed in certain ways enables comparisons across cities or countries to

be made.
Statistics can be used to monitor the effectiveness of health provisions by both
governments and the World Health Organisation (WHO).

Global patterns of disease

Data collected by WHO shows that in developing countries, the main cause of death is
infectious diseases, while in developed countries, very few deaths are caused by

pathogens.
The reasons for this is that the incidence of infectious disease is low in developed
countries due to vaccination, good standards of hygiene and nutrition, and the availability

of antibiotics if they do contract one.

Although globally health is improving, there are still many poor people in the world and
poverty is responsible for the highest death rates in some countries. In the richer
countries, degenerative diseases are the biggest killers. This is mainly due to lifestyles
that put people at risk of heart disease and cancers.

Smoking and diseases

Tobacco companies do not declare the ingredients in cigarettes, but upon analysis, they

contain over 4000 different chemicals, many of which are toxic.

There are three main ingredients, which damage the gaseous exchange system or the
cardiovascular system.

Chemicals found in cigarettes

Tar
This is a mixture of aromatic substances, which settles on the airway linings and
stimulates changes that may lead to obstructive lung disease and lung cancer.
Carbon monoxide
This gas diffuses across the alveoli into the blood and onto the red blood cells, combining
with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin. This stops the haemoglobin from

becoming fully saturated and so it carries 5-10% less oxygen.

This places a strain on the heart as the heart muscle receives less oxygen and carbon

monoxide can damage directly, the linings of arteries.

Nicotine
This drug is absorbed readily into the blood and stimulates the nervous system to reduce
the diameter of arterioles and the adrenal glands to release adrenaline. This increases
heart rate and blood pressure and decreases the blood supply to the extremities - for

example, the hands and feet.

Another effect is that platelets become stickier which, can lead to an increased risk of

blood clots forming.

Diseases
Lung disease
After heart disease and strokes, this is the most common cause of illness and death in the

UK.
Chronic bronchitis
Tar stimulates goblet cells and mucus glands to enlarge, producing more mucus. It
destroys the cilia inhibiting the cleaning of the airways and mucus (containing dirt,

bacteria and viruses) builds up blocking the smallest bronchioles.

A smoker's cough is the attempt to move the mucus but it damages the epithelia

resulting in scar tissue, which narrows the airways and makes breathing difficult.
Infections like pneumonia may further inflame the linings resulting in a very severe

cough and large quantities of phlegm.

Emphysema

Due to constant infection, phagocytes are attracted to the lungs where they release
elastase - an enzyme that breaks down the elastin in the alveoli walls, to enable them to
reach the surface where the bacteria are. Without adequate elastin, the alveoli cannot

stretch, so they recoil and many burst.

Large air spaces appear, reducing the surface area for gas exchange and making sufferers
breath more rapidly. As it progresses, patients become breathless and wheezy - they may
need a constant supply of oxygen to stay alive.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

This very disabling disease is the result of chronic bronchitis and emphysema
occurring together. Troublesome breathlessness often only occurs once half of the lung
tissue has been destroyed, which can only rarely be reversed. Britain has the highest
death rate from this disease in the world.
Lung cancer
Tar contains carcinogens, which react with the DNA in epithelial cells and cause

mutations, which can lead to tumours.

Although it takes twenty to thirty years to develop, most growth of the tumour occurs
prior to any symptoms, which include coughing up blood due to tissue damage. Once
discovered, it's usually well advanced and requires surgery to remove it, followed up by
chemotherapy or radiotherapy.

Links between smoking and diseases

These can be put into two groups:
Epidemiological evidence looks for patterns in the diseases, which smokers suffer from.
It only shows an association and not a causal link.
Experimental evidence attempts to prove a causal link.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is very rare in non-smokers and 90% of deaths
from it can be attributed to smoking. 98% of people with emphysema smoke and 20% of
smokers suffer from it. Deaths from pneumonia and influenza are twice as high among
smokers.

Lung cancer is eighteen times more likely in smokers and one third of all cancer deaths
can be attributed to smoking. 25% of smokers die from lung cancer and the risks are
higher if they inhale, start young, smoke a large number of cigarettes a day and smoke

over a long period of time.

The risks of developing lung cancer fall as soon as smoking stops but it takes ten years

for the risks to fall to that of a non-smoker.

Experimental evidence includes the development of tumours in animals exposed to
smoke and the identification of carcinogens in tar. Both lung cancer and chronic
obstructive lung disease have been observed in dogs and tar has caused cancerous

growths in the skin of mice.

The cardiovascular system

 Cardiovascular diseases are degenerative diseases of the heart and circulatory system.
They are responsible for 50% of deaths in developed countries and are multifactorial smoking being one risk factor.
Atherosclerosis
This is caused by a build-up of fatty material in artery walls, which reduces the flow
of blood and therefore oxygen to the tissues. An atheroma is a build up of cholesterol,
fibres, dead muscle cells and platelets and is more likely to develop upon damage to the
artery wall by high blood pressure, carbon monoxide or nicotine.
Blood clots (thrombosis) become more likely and if one develops in the coronary artery
a heart attack may be the result, while if it occurs in an artery supplying the brain, a
stroke may result.
Coronary heart disease
This is a disease of the coronary arteries, which branch from the aorta, to supply the
heart muscle. If atherosclerosis, of these vessels occurs, then the heart has to work
harder and blood pressure rises. This makes it difficult for the heart to receive the extra
nutrients and oxygen it requires during exercise.
Three forms exist:

Angina is severe chest pains upon exercising caused by a shortage of blood to the heart
muscle but causes no death of heart tissue and stops upon resting.

Heart attacks occur upon the blocking of a moderate branch of the coronary artery by a
blood clot and cause starvation and death of heart tissue.

Heart failure is when the coronary artery starts to block up and results in a gradual
weakening of the heart.

Stroke
These occur if an artery in the brain bursts and blood leaks into the brain tissue or
when an artery supplying the brain becomes blocked. The brain tissue becomes starved of
oxygen and dies. Strokes can be fatal or very mild and may affect speech, memory and
control of the body.
Links between smoking and cardiovascular disease
Smoking increases the concentration of blood cholesterol, which is a risk factor, so
smokers increase the risk of having heart disease or a stroke. The risks of developing the
disease increases with age and men are more at risk than women.
Being overweight increases the risk as does eating a diet high in saturated fat and salt.
Diets with more antioxidants (vitamins) and soluble fibre decrease the risk as does taking

regular exercise. Having diabetes raises the risks and high alcohol intake is another
contributory factor.
This is a disease associated with affluence and is avoidable by a change in lifestyle.
Treatments involve:

Drugs to lower blood pressure, decrease risks of clots, reduce retention of fluids and
decrease blood cholesterol.

Coronary by-pass surgery involves the use of blood vessels from - for example, a leg to
replace a diseased vessel and carry blood from the aorta to a place beyond the blockage.

Heart transplants are very expensive and it is difficult to obtain matching tissue from
donors.

Better than treatment is obviously prevention. This can be achieved via education
highlighting the risk factors and by screening for those most at risk. Unfortunately, bad eating
and smoking are hard habits to kick.

Exercise
Pulse rate and blood pressure
When the heart contracts, the surge of blood distends the arteries, which contain elastic
tissue. The stretch and recoil of the arteries travels as a wave along them and can be felt
as your pulse. The pulse rate is identical to the heart rate and at rest can be used to give
an indication of fitness.
People who are physically fit often have a low resting pulse rate and their pulse rate
returns to normal quickly after exercise. This is because they have a large stroke volume
(their heart can pump a lot of blood each time) and so a small increase in pulse rate
results in a big increase in output (cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate).
The maximum arterial pressure caused by contraction of the left ventricle of the heart is
called the systolic pressure and is the pressure at which blood leaves the heart. The
minimum pressure in the arteries is called the diastolic pressure. It reflects how much
resistance the blood meets in the small arteries and capillaries and so how hard the heart
must work.

 A reading of

would mean that your systolic blood pressure is 140 mm Hg and your

diastolic blood pressure is 90 mm Hg.

Systolic pressure will rise during exercise but diastolic pressure rarely changes in healthy
people. If both are high at rest, this suggests that somebody is suffering from
hypertension. In the long term, this condition can lead to heart failure, heart attacks or
strokes. The condition has been linked to high alcohol intake, smoking, obesity, too much
salt in the diet and genetic factors.
Aerobic exercise and its affect on the body
This is any exercise, which is powered by aerobic respiration in the muscles and so
requires them to be supplied with oxygen. This means that the lungs, heart and blood
vessels are working efficiently and so with training they improve their ability at
oxygenating and pumping the blood around the body.
Prior to exercise, your body anticipates an increase in demand and adrenaline is released.
This causes the constriction of the arterioles in the gut and skin, diverting blood to the
skeletal muscles. The blood supply always remains stable to the vital organs, the brain,
kidneys and heart.
The glycogen stores are broken down releasing glucose and the fat stores release fatty
acids. Both of these can be used to increase respiration rate and produce more ATP, which
is what powers the muscle cells.
At the same time, the bronchioles dilate in the lungs, in response to adrenaline and more
oxygen can get into the blood. The output from the heart rises and maximises aerobic
respiration. As more oxygen is used up, the more the oxyhaemoglobin dissociates and
this rate of dissociation is also increased by an increase in carbon dioxide levels in the
blood, a temperature rise or a pH fall.
Often during strenuous exercise, there is not enough oxygen for complete aerobic
respiration and anaerobic respiration starts. This produces lactate and carbon dioxide,
which causes the further dilation of the arterioles supplying the muscles and so the blood
flow to them.
Lactate is dangerous because it reduces the pH in cells and decreases the efficiency of the
enzymes working inside them. It also causes fatigue and pain (stitch), so it is taken to the
liver and converted back to glucose because it is too rich a source of energy to be
excreted.
The oxygen debt

 Whenever lactate is produced by anaerobic respiration, an oxygen debt is being built up.
This debt is paid back at the end of the exercise by breathing more deeply than you would
normally need to at rest.
This oxygen is used to convert the lactate to glucose, the haemoglobin to
oxyhaemoglobin, oxygenate the myoglobin and supply the higher metabolic rate caused
by many organs working harder than usual.
For lengthier exercise, oxygen supply must equal oxygen demand and so an athlete will
be more successful the more the muscles are supplied with oxygen.
To increase fitness, you need to train at about 70% of your hearts maximum heart rate for
twenty minutes, three times a week. A more intense approach would get quicker results
but four or five times a week is the maximum recommended frequency.

The benefits of exercise

These are far reaching and include:

A decrease in resting heart rate and an increase in stroke volume due to an increase in
heart size. This reduces blood pressure.

The tidal volume and vital capacity of the lungs increase so oxygen can be taken up more
quickly.

The muscles will increase in size and have a greater density of capillaries, more
mitochondria, more glycogen and myoglobin.

Exercise increases the use of fat and so helps to reduce weight, cholesterol and
atherosclerosis. It increases your resistance to infection and decreases the chance of a
stroke, coronary heart disease or osteoporosis.

Your balance, strength, co-ordination and flexibility will all improve as your ligaments
and tendons strengthen and you are less likely to suffer from lower back pain.

Finally, exercise improves your mood and decreases stress.