1. In terms of mitochondria suggest a difference between primitive cells and modern cells.

More genes in the DNA of mitochondria of primitive cells. They have migrated to the
nucleus
2. Mitochondria itself has DNA. Where in the cell is the gene that encode for the
mitochondria.
Nucleus.
3. Suggest what will happen if these genes which code for the production of mitochondria
are altered.
Altered or defective or absence of mitochondria. This will lead to lactic acidosis.
Increased lactic acid as the pyruvate (end product of glycolysis) cannot enter the
mitochondria and is converted to lactic acid which accumulates in the body (results is
metabolic derangement).
4. Describe mitochondrias double membrane (paragraph 3)and its function.
It has an in inner membrane and an outer membrane. The space in between is called
the inter membrane space where H+ ions (from the matrix) are pumped out causing
accumulation of H+ ions in the inter-membrane space -> an imbalance of H+ ions within
the organelle that eventually leads to conversion of ADP to ATP. The inner membrane
contains proteins (that enabled the pumping of H+ ions).
5. According to paragraph 3 there are tiny protein motors embedded in the mitochondrial
membrane. Suggest how these motors are made of and how they work.
They are protein channels containing specific enzymes (hence called as protein
complexes). The protein channels help energy rich molecules (such as NADH/ NAD
from glycolysis etc) to bind on it. The enzymes help in accepting high-energy electrons
and transfer the electrons to the subsequent protein complexes, while the protein
channels allow H+ ions to move through it to inter-membrane space , it uses up energy
as the H+ ions are pumped against the gradient.
6. What is the role of oxygen in aerobic respiration?
It is the final electron acceptor.
7. Cyanide is a poisonous substance to humans as it interferes with Electron Transport
Chain. Suggest how cyanide can interfere with the ETC and its consequence.
Binds to the enzymes in the protein complexes embedded in the mitochondrial inner
membrane irreversibly inhibiting the enzymes. As a result the high-electrons entering
mitochondria (i.e. of NAD, NADH) are no longer passed on to the subsequent complexes
and hence doesnt reach the final complex (4th complex) where oxygen is present as a
final electron acceptor.
Consequences:

NAD, NADH which bind to the complexes are not converted to NAD+, NADH+ which
are needed for many other cycles in the cell such as glycolysis so those processes
get deranged.
High energy electron are not transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane
hence H+ ions cant be pumped against the gradient -> No conversion of ADP to ATP

8. Can a patient suffering from Cyanide poisoning be treated with oxygen in order to
enhance aerobic respiration?
No. In cyanide poisoning the issue is not defective delivery of oxygen to ETC but rather
the inability to utilize the available oxygen in ETC.
9. State 3 ways in which mitochondria is similar to bacteria.
Look a like, use chemiosmosis, similarities in genome.
10. Today, some 99% of human mitochondrial proteins are encoded in the nucleus.
(paragraph 5). What about the remaining 1% and why is it significant?
Encoded in the mitochondria itself. the genes that have remained in the mitochondrion
have been linked to a series of devastating diseases, indicating the importance of fully
functional mitochondria.
11. Free radicals are formed as a result of oxidation. How can free radicals be reduced?
Use of anti-oxidants such as Vitamin C, E.
12. After years of tracking down candidate genes for the diseases (paragraph 15). Why do
you think it took such a long time to track down genes?
-

Diversity of human genome (in fact most genes havent been understood yet)
Mitochondrial deficiency can give rise to a diverse spectrum of illnesses and
therefore difficult identify by particular pattern e.g. any symptom, in any organ, at
any age, and with any mode of inheritance.
mitochondrial proteins (in addition to composing the mitochondria) have a role in
preventing certain illness not related to mitochondria. Mutations in a gene encoding a
small mitochondrial protein can result in genetic diseases of other organs

13. Describe the following terms:

a. Chemiosmosis
b. Free radicals

14. The function of insulin is to lower the blood sugar levels.

a. Suggest a short term consequence of persistently high blood sugar levels in plasma.
DKA, intracellular dehydration, delayed wound healing
b. Long term high sugar can cause damages to kidneys (diabetic nephropathy), eye
(diabetic retinopathy) and nerves (diabetic neuropathy). Suggest why these 3 types
of tissues are subjected to the harmful effects of sugar

c. Indicate some lab tests to rule out high sugar. Fasting blood sugar (empty stomach
for 8 hours prior to testing), Postprandial Sugar test (fast for 8 hours, then take a
meal, wait for 1.5 hours more than test blood), Random Blood Sugar (requires no
specific dietary advice prior to testing and therefore results may show
inconsistencies and could be less reliable than FBS or PPBBS), Other tests include
Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT) and Glycosylated Hemoglobin (HB1AC)
d. Patients who are diabetic are required to have strict control of blood sugar levels
(within normal range) and be on insulin before undergoing and type of operation.
Suggest possible reasons.
- Surgical wound may not heal if sugar level is high
- Surgery itself is a stress to the body and will cause increase in sugar levels (as
stress release norepinephrine which increases sugar levels) hence will be difficult
to control sugar levels using medicines (oral hypoglycemics)
- Oral hypoglycemics (anti-diabetic medication) cannot be administered on the day
of surgery (as patient will be Nil Per Orally prior to surgery), neither can it be
administered during or after surgery (unconscious)
e. Suggest why insulin cannot be administered orally. Gastric juice damages insulin
f. Suggest the preferred route to administer insulin and explain why. Subcutaneously
as it is changes (blood) plasma sugar levels gradually, easier to administer (allows
self administration), undamaged by gastric juice. (Intra venous administration will
cause rapid and severe reduction in sugar which is detrimental to body and can
cause permanent brain damage)
g. State a side effect of insulin. Hypoglycemia/ Low sugar level leading to brain
damage, multiple organ failure (shock) and death.
h. Explain why brain is the first organ to be affected by low sugar levels? Brain uses
glucose as its sole fuel while other organs can use alternatives in absence of
glucose.
i. Oral hypoglycemics (anti-diabetic medication) can lower the blood sugar levels.
Suggest their mode of action.
- Helps in the secretion process of insulin (that are already formed and stored).
(Makes intracellular calcium availability which transport insulin vesicles to cell
membrane and fuse with surface causing the contents of the vesicle (insulin) to
be released.
- Interferes with glucose absorption in the intestine
- Makes peripheral tissues (such as muscles) more sensitive to insulin.