Wear 301 (2013) 102108

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Wear
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wear

Abrasive impact wear and surface fatigue wear behaviour

of FeCrC PTA overlays
Renno Veinthal a,n, Fjodor Sergejev a, Arkadi Zikin a,b, Riho Tarbe a, Johann Hornung c
a

Department of Materials Engineering, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia
AC2T research GmbH, Viktor-Kaplan-Strae 2, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria
c
-S
Castolin Gesellschaft GmbH, Industriezentrum NO
ud Strae 14, Objekt M24 2355 Wiener Neudorf, Austria
b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 15 September 2012
Received in revised form
17 January 2013
Accepted 25 January 2013
Available online 14 February 2013

The conventional FeCrC overlay is studied due to the lack of information regarding the response of
this material system to impact wear conditions. Previously the same material system has been
successfully used in erosion wear conditions. The high stress abrasive impact wear resistance and
low and high surface fatigue wear behaviour of a FeCrC overlay (FeCrCmatrix) produced by plasma
transferred arc welding (PTA) were studied.
The overlays with varied PTA hardfacing process cooling parameters were tested. The cooling
parameters were as follows: (1) active coolingapplication of gas cooling of substrate during the
welding process; (2) passive coolingapplication of copper plate under substrate with constant
temperature of 20 1C and (3) standardcooling in the air. Different cooling time leads to differences in
microstructure and formation of residual stresses (surface cracks, etc.).
The abrasive impact testing reveals the difference in the overlays response to the cyclic stressing at
high impact energy. The surface fatigue wear (SFW) testing is accompanied by the abrasive impact wear
(AIW) testing. The SFW incorporates cyclic loading of the overlays surface with spherical indenter with
radius of 10 mm at high loads, while in AIW testing the specimens are bombarded almost in normal
direction with granite gravel particles (diameter of o 6 mm) with the energy in the range of
0.140.52 J.
The study proposes the relation between high energy impact/abrasive wear behaviour and the
surface fatigue wear behaviour of FeCrC hardfacings produced under varying cooling conditions.
& 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
PTA hardfacing
FeCrC hardfacing
Surface fatigue wear
Abrasive impact wear

1. Introduction
Core components such as crushers are exposed to heavy
impact wear and require efcient surface protection measures
to avoid costly downtimes and to reduce costs for expensive spare
parts. Wear resistance against abrasion and/or impact are often
required to extend the lifetime of machinery equipment efciently [1]. Several studies have been conducted for investigation
of wear mechanisms and suitable material combinations for
impact wear conditions typical to crushers, mixing and milling
equipment [2,3].
The relationships between wearing motion and wear mechanisms are affected by reinforcement-related parameters and matrix
material. The importance of internal microstructural parameters in
composite wear has been noted, e.g., by Berns [4]. The reinforcement
type is noticeably a strong factor in material wear. It has been

Corresponding author. Tel.: 372 6203351.

E-mail address: renno.veinthal@ttu.ee (R. Veinthal).

0043-1648/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2013.01.077

indicated that it overshadows such internal parameters as size and

spacing of reinforcement particles. Also the size of the reinforcement
and the spacing between reinforcements has earlier been found to
affect the wear rates. No direct conclusion can be drawn upon the
wear performance of a specic alloy as the wear of each composite
has to be evaluated separately, mainly because different types of
reinforcement have different effects on composite wear rate as a
function of reinforcement volume fraction [3].
The plasma transferred arc welding method, PTA, was developed in the 1960s from the plasma arc welding method, PA. The
PTA process exhibits enormous potential because the PTA overlays have a lower production cost and a higher productivity
compared to thermal sprayed coatings, as well as easy operation
and no need for any special surface treatment [58]. This is
because one of the main features of the PTA welding method is
the low dilution of the deposit, which is from 3% to 10%. The low
dilution enables the use of single-pass layer to achieve the
intended deposition properties [9].
Fe-based alloys are used under severe conditions where
erosion or abrasion are the main degradation mechanisms [1].

R. Veinthal et al. / Wear 301 (2013) 102108

High chromium white irons (CWIs) and FeCrC overlays have

been widely applied in areas where erosive degradation is a
common occurrence [10]. It has been reported by Kirchganer
et al. [1] that in heavy impact applications, martensitic structures
based on FeCrC alloy containing nely precipitated Niobium
carbides behave best.
The main alloying elements used to produce the FeCrC PTA
overlays are chromium, Cr (1135%) and carbon, C (1.86%); the
wear resistance of the alloys is achieved by the presence and
distribution of carbides in the ductile matrix [4]. The FeCrC
alloys can present a hypoeutectic, eutectic or hypereutectic
structures depending on the content of alloying elements and
the solidication process [11].
In many previous studies it was reported that changes in
process parameters can inuence wear behaviour of FeCrC
hardfacings. However there is no information in literature found
about inuence of cooling speed on the properties of FeCrC PTA
overlays. Therefore the main aims of present research are to study
the high energy impact/abrasive wear behaviour and the surface
fatigue wear behaviour of FeCrC hardfacings produced under
variation of cooling conditions.

The PTA processing parameters were optimized and are

related to the welding behaviour taking into account the defects
of produced weld seam (porosity and cracks), microstructure and
dilution with substrate. The optimized hardfacing parameters for
every cooling condition are listed in Table 1.
A comprehensive microstructural evaluation of the plasma
hardfacing was carried out by optical microscopy (OM) equipped
with a digital camera (MEF4A, Leica Microsystem).
2.2. Wear testing apparatus
2.2.1. Surface fatigue wear (SFW)
The problem of bodies in contact was formulated by Hertz and
is known as the Hertzian contact problem. The solution for half
space body (in our case spherical indenter) in contact with plane
(overlays plane surfaces) is well described and analytically simple
(Eqs. (1)(4)).
Main information obtained from such solution is the stress
strain curve or pressure depth dependences. The indentation
stress can be calculated by formulae if contact radius a, contact
between indenter and surface of the studied coating, is known
pm

2. Experimental
2.1. Materials and welding parameters
The FeCrC ( 44% C; 2022% Cr; max. 2% Si, S, P; rest Fe) alloy
powder was used in the present research as initial material for the
PTA process.
PTA hardfacing was performed using a EuTronics Gap 3001 DC
apparatus (Fig. 1).
The welding was performed in a single layer. Mild steel 1.0037
with thickness of 8 mm was used as substrate. The deposition
of FeCrC was performed under simulation of different cooling
conditions, where the temperature of substrate material was
controlled during hardfacing process. The cooling conditions were
as follows: (for sample K1) standardcooling in the air; (for the
sample K2) passive coolingapplication of copper plate under
substrate with constant temperature of 20 1C; and (for the sample
K3) active coolingapplication of gas cooling of substrate during
the welding process.

103

pa2

The mean contact pressure can be calculated, if the indentation strain a/R can be dened and elastic mismatch factor k for
indented material and indenter is available, as


3E a
,
2
pm
4pk R
where E is the elastic modulus of the indented material and R is
the radii of the indenter.

Table 1
Welding parameters of the FeCrC hardfacing alloys using different cooling
parameters.
Parameter

Welding current [A]

Oscillation speed [mm/s]
Oscillation width [mm]
Welding speed [mm/s]
Distance torch/part [mm]
Plasma gas, Ar [l/min]
Cooling time 800500 1C [s]

Cooling conditions
K1 (standard)

K2 (passive)

K3 (active)

90110
2530
20
0.60.8
9
1.31.5
88

90110
2530
20
0.60.8
9
1.31.5
63

90110
2530
20
0.60.8
9
1.31.5
15

Table 2
Surface fatigue wear (SFW) testing conditions.
Feature/parameter

Description
Available

Distance from centre of the disk to

the point of impact of hammer [mm]
Number of hammers [pcs]
Impacting mass of the hammer [g]
Frequency of disk rotation [Hz]
Frequency of the impacts [Hz]
Speed of the hammer in the impacting
point [m/s]
Energy of the impact [mJ]
Ball (indenter) diameter [mm]
Material of the indenter
Fig. 1. PTA welding plant at AC2T research GmbH.

Tested

210
112
10160
120
1240
1.3y25.0

6
67.4
3
9
1.98

3500
132
330
10
Zirconium
oxide (97% ZrO2 and 3% MgO)

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R. Veinthal et al. / Wear 301 (2013) 102108

The contact radius a can be calculated according to the

Hertzian contact solution by
a3

4 kPR
,
3 E

where k is the elastic mismatch factor of the materials in contact,

and can be calculated as


9
E
k
1n2 0 1n02 ,
4
16
E
where E, E0 , n and n0 are the elastic modulus and Poissons ratios of
the material and the indenter correspondently.
The surface fatigue wear tests were performed using the
surface fatigue wear tester designed and produced in Tallinn
University of Technology (TUT) for single spot testing. The
detailed description of the system is given elsewhere [12], main
parameters used in this study are given in Table 2. The dynamic
load in the test rig is transferred from the hammer that is
connected to, and accelerated by the rotating disk. The schematic
representation of the surface fatigue wear tester is shown in
Fig. 2. The transferred energy of impact (impulse up to 500 mJ)
depends on the speed and mass of a hammer and can be adjusted
as needed. Several hammers (maximum number is 12 pcs.) can be
fastened on the periphery of the disk allowing increase of the
frequency at least up to 240 Hz. The affordable frequency of the
impact is higher than that of hydraulic or electromagnetic testers
and the energy is higher than that of pneumatic ones.
The test set-up enables studying of materials behaviour under
conditions of dynamic compressive stresses (at-to-at contact)

Fig. 2. Surface fatigue wear tester.

All experiments were conducted in air at room temperature

(2072 1C) with a relative humidity (RH) of 45 75%.
In the present study spherical indenter made of zirconium
oxide (see Table 2) with diameter of 10 mm, commercially
available from RedHill Inc was used. The elastic modulus of the
indenter is 195 GPa, and Poissons ratio is 0.27, as stated by the
producer. This data was used in following calculations.
At least three tests for every number of cycles, starting from
103 up to 106 cycles, were performed for each FeCrC PTA
overlay. The energy of impact was selected as 132 mJ to replicate
high loads in the contact between tested overlays and indenter.

2.2.2. Abrasive impact wear (AIW)

Abrasive impact wear (AIW) of the PTA overlays was determined with an experimental impact tester DESI developed in TUT.
Disintegrator type impact tester (Fig. 3) consists of one rotor with
impact membersngers (14 ngers on a row) with the specimens xed on them. Abrasive materialgranite gravel was fed in
the central part and moves from feed blades to impact members.
Wear rate Im in milligram per kilogram was determined as the
mass loss of the target sample per mass of abrasive particles and
was calculated as follows:
Im

Dmbst hst
AQ w

where Dm is the average mass loss (mg), bst the standard

working zone width of the specimen (15.0 mm), hst the standard
working zone height of the specimen (16.3 mm), A the average
active surface area of the specimen (Abh, where b and h are the
average width and height of the specimen subjected to wear,
respectively); Q the mass of abrasive used in the experiment (kg)
and w the fraction of abrasive material allocated for a specimen.
The AIW was determined at three different particle velocities
(40, 60, and 80 m/s) corresponding to the impact energies of 0.14,
0.27 and 0.52 J. In the experiments 15 kg of granite gravel was
used with particle size o6 mm. (Fig. 4). The estimated impact
angle was about 901. Fraction of abrasive material allocated for
specimen (w) is determined by the computational method combined with the graphical analysis. In a simplied manner it can be
stated that the mass of abrasive colliding with a single specimen
is proportional to total mass of abrasive like 9.41 out of 3601.
Detailed explanation of the calculus method is given in [13].
A set of reference material (specimen made of mild steel) was
included in all AIW test to verify the stability of the test. The
specimens were cleaned with acetone and compressed air and
weighed with an accuracy of 0.1 mg before and after tests. Before
the primary test the specimens were subjected to wear-in process
in the same conditions to achieve the steady rate wear regime.
The standard testing mineral material was granite gravel. For
the calculation of kinetic energy, 50 g of granite gravel was
weighed and individual granite particles were counted. It was
found, that 50 g of granite gravel contained 318 particles in
average. Average mass per particle was determined by
mp

mabr
n

where mp is the mass of a particle, mabr is the total mass of

abrasive particles, n is the number of particles (counted), he is the
kinetic energy of a particle by contacting the 1st circle of the pins
can be calculated by
Epk

Fig. 3. Abrasive impact wear tester.

mp v2
50  103  58:32

 0:27 J
2
318  2

Kinetic energies for other rotational velocities are calculated in

the same way.

R. Veinthal et al. / Wear 301 (2013) 102108

105

Fig. 4. Granite gravel used in AIW tests (a) micrograph and (b) particle size distribution obtained by sieve analysis.

Fig. 5. OM micrographs of FeCrC hardfacings: K1 is standard cooling conditions; K2 is passive cooling conditions; and K3 is active cooling conditions.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Microstructure and mechanical properties
Fig. 5 illustrates the typical cross-sectional OM micrographs of
the coatings produced based on varying cooling conditions. It was
found that different cooling times can lead to the signicant
changes in the material microstructure. Hardfacing produced by
standard cooling conditions (K1) exhibits typical hardphases-rich
hypereutectic structure. The carbide phases are presented in two
different shapes: hexagonal plated morphology and spine-like
shape, forming M7C3 proeutectic carbides [14]. Certain amount of
undissolved initial FeCrC particles was also detected.
For the hardfacing, which was produced under active cooling
conditions (K3), there is signicant changes found in the microstructure, especially in the size of primary carbides. It was found
that the average size of carbide particles decreased about factor of
4 during the process. This can be attributed to the increased
cooling speed during hardfacing process. As a result, a negrained microstructure is achieved. Additionally, it should be
outlined that the amount of undissolved FeCrC particles is
increased. This can also be correlated with the time required for
the solidication of welding seam during hardfacing. Active
cooling conditions lead to extremely rapid cooling and as a
result to more pronounced renement of the microstructure,

highlighting ne-grained primary carbides as shown in Fig. 5 for

sample K3.
The rapid cooling speed can be correlated with the amount of
primary M7C3 carbides and undissolved FeCrC particles in the
matrix. According to the quantitative analysis, using X-ray diffraction analysis yielded the approximate amount of phase M7C3 in K1
at 55 wt%, in K2 at 51 wt% and in K3 at 39 wt%; the amount of
FeCrC particles for hardfacing were K15 wt%, K211 wt% and
K316 wt%. X ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed on an
XPert powder diffractometer (PANalytical, Netherlands) using CuKa
radiation in the BraggBrentano geometry at 40 kV and 30 mA.
The measurements were conducted in the continuous mode.
Modulus of elasticity E, is the measure of materials ability to
sustain the elastic deformation. Material with higher elastic
modulus can absorb more energy during loading and can be
classied as more stiff material.
The modulus of elasticity is commonly used for assessment of
the wear resistance of coatings (lms) for tribological applications, especially in combination with hardness H. There are three
main parameters proposed for analysing the coating wear behaviour. The H/E ratio is related to the elastic strain to failure of the
coating [15]. The resistance of the coating to plastic deformation
is associated with parameter H3/E2. The fracture toughness of the
coating can be related to empirical parameter (H/E)1/2 [15].
According to Hills theory the (E/H)1/2 is related, and equals, to

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R. Veinthal et al. / Wear 301 (2013) 102108

the r0/b ratio (r0 is the cavity radius and b is the plastic zone
radius). We propose to designate H/E 1/2 as the toughness ratio as
it can be linked with the plastic zone radius and allows comparing
overlays considering the deformation work or potential driving
force of the crack formation. All these parameters for studied
coating are summarized in Table 3.
The elastic modulus for studied coating systems was measured
with the use of sharp indentation (Vickers pyramid) according to
the procedure proposed in [16] and using a testing system Zwick
Z2.5 equipped with a universal hardness measurement head. The
comparative loaddisplacement (Ph) curves for FeCrC PTA
overlays are shown in Fig. 6.
The K2 overlay has the highest hardness and relatively high
elastic modulus compared with two other FeCrC PTA overlays
described in current study. The above mentioned parameters
linking the wear behaviour and mechanical properties of coatings
are most fortunate in case of K2 overlay. This can be attributed to
better performance of K2 overlay in surface fatigue wear (SFW)
and abrasive impact wear (AIW) testing at relatively high loads.
Indentations at the loads of 200 and 300 N were performed to
nd the stable repetition in the results, and to provoke sufcient
plastic deformation in the overlays. All indentations were
repeated at least three times.
The indentation curves (Fig. 6) are distributed in logical
sequence in regard with hardness, but wear resistance to plastic
deformation ratios (H3/E2) are very similar for K1 and K3 overlays,
and are most favourable for K2 overlay.
3.2. Surface fatigue wear (SFW) test results
Repeated loading at the same point proved to be an efcient technique for assessment of the contact behaviour of the

coatings [1719] and engineering ceramics [20]. The response of

the material to the cyclic indentation in some way reproduces the
repeated contact between two wearing components. Similar
contact conditions can be found from lot of applications, like
bearings, stamping and cutting tools, machine part in contact
under high loads.
The graphs representing the mean contact pressure dependence on the indentation strain for studied FeCrC PTA overlays
are shown in Fig. 7. The coating K1 seems to have the most
promising behaviour as the rst straining starts at the high
pressure level if compared with other overlays, and K1 sustains
the highest pressure at moderate strain of 0.08 mm/mm.
The indent depth is the smallest for K3 overlay as it has the
highest elastic straining response to the contact and the fracture
toughness parameter ((H/E)1/2, see Table 3) is comparatively high.
Coating with the lowest elastic response and the lowest resistance to plastic deformationK3 is obviously the worst performer at this case.
It is possible to see how the performance is changed in the
sense of cyclic loading (see Fig. 8). The competition between
different overlays is most tough at the relatively high number of
loading cycles, starting from about 50,000 cycles.
The mean contact pressure becomes almost equal after 105
cycles. The K2 overlay shows the highest mean contact pressure
value after maximum number of cycles of the test (106 cycles).
The relatively low performance at low number of cycles ( o105)
of K2 can be associated with the smaller size of primary carbide
phase. After the number of contact cycles reaches certain threshold value (which is 105 at this impact energy) the binder will be
extruded and the area of contact area increases thereby reducing
the contact stresses involved.

Table 3
Relationships between tribological behaviour and mechanical properties of the
coatings studied.
Elastic
modulus E
[GPa]

Elastic
strain
ratio
H/E

Toughness
Resistance to
plastic deformation ratio
ratio
H3/E2
(H/E)1/2

7070 716 1627 0.33

7425 723 1627 0.34
6260 718 1357 0.10

0.0436
0.0458
0.0463

13.47
15.59
13.44

Coating Hardness
H [MPa]

K1
K2
K3

0.209
0.214
0.215

Fig. 7. The indentation strain of the tested overlays under mean contact pressure.

Fig. 6. Indentation loaddisplacement curves for studied FeCrC PTA overlays at

300 N load.

Fig. 8. Dependence of the mean contact pressure on the number of cycles for
overlays in the Hertzian contact.

R. Veinthal et al. / Wear 301 (2013) 102108

Fig. 9. Largest indent (after 106 cycles of loading) for FeCrC PTA overlays tested in the SFW test.

Fig. 10. The fatigue striations in the K1, K2 and K3 overlay on the edge of the contact after the SFW test.

The fractographic investigations have shown that the K1

overlay has less visible damage sites within or near the indentation site, see Fig. 9. It can be attributed to its lowest H/E value
which is commonly associated with good performance in impact
wear conditions.
The cleavage marks are visible mostly near the centres of the
indent and on the contact circle, in the zone of the maximum
tensile stresses. The traces of the cyclic straining in this area are
visualized by K1 and K2 (Fig. 10). Same marks of fatigue striations
can be found in each overlay, but less of them are visible on the
surface of the K1 overlay (Fig. 10).

3.3. Abrasive impact wear (AIW) test results

The AIW test conrmed the results obtained by the SFW test.
The wear rate of PTA overlay fabricated using active cooling K3
showed about 1015% higher wear rate compared to those made
by standard (K1) or passive cooling (K2), as shown in Fig. 11. In
the current study K2 has the highest H/E1/2 ratio, and a comparably high ability to withstand plastic deformation.
Microcracks can be seen in the carbides FeCrC on the wear
surface of the sample K1 in Fig. 12. The existence of microcracks
can be closely related to the formation of spalling pits.
During the AIW test, samples experienced a combination of
impact, ploughing and cutting. With the growth of the microcracks, the FeCrC reinforcement particle would spall off and
leave a spalling pit on the surface. As active cooling leads to the
biggest amount of the FeCrC carbides (up to 16 wt%) it can
explain lower performance of material K3 in AIW tests. On the
other hand material K3 contains only 39% M7C3 type of carbides
which may make it more vulnerable to ploughing and cutting
compared to materials K1 or K2, containing 55 and 51% M7C3 type
of carbides, correspondingly. The difference in performance
becomes more evident with higher impact energies. Another
factor, inuencing the wear performance of PTA overlays is
residual stress state which according to visual observations
leads to crack formation trough the overlay. In the current study

Fig. 11. Dependence of AIW rate on impact energy of abrasive particle.

Fig. 12. Fractured carbide of sample K1 in the AIW test at 40 ms  1.

107

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R. Veinthal et al. / Wear 301 (2013) 102108

K1 in AIW test at 60 ms-1

K1 in AIW test at 40 ms-1

Fig. 13. Fractured carbide of sample K1 in the AIW test at 40 and 60 ms  1.

(AIW test energies varying 0.140.52 J) it cannot associate with

the lower performance of K3 overlay.
The whole area of specimen shown in Fig. 13 is covered with
small dimples, the ductile tearing sites, and traces of severe
plastic deformation of the surface. The carbide phases are crushed
being impacted by large abrasive particles and the brittle fracture
takes place. The cleavage facets are marked with white arrows
(Fig. 13).
The observed fractographical behaviours for low and high
impact energies are mostly identical with some disparity in
ductile fracture. Increase in the impact energy (particle velocity)
from 0.14 J (40 m/s) to 0.27 J (60 m/s) serve to convey a larger
amount of plastic deformation to take place. This is indicated by
difference in dimples size; with lower energy of impact the
dimples are larger in size.

4. Conclusions

1. FeCrC powder can be successfully applied for the fabrication

of wear resistant hardfacing using the PTA technology and
under variation of cooling speed.
2. The cooling rate affects the mechanical properties of the PTA
overlay. Passive cooling leads to increase in hardness without
change in elastic modulus. Active cooling reduces hardness
and elastic modulus of FeCrC overlay.
3. The impact wear rates of PTA weld FeCrC overlays show that
passive cooling provides improvement in abrasive impact
wear performance e.g., at impact energies above 0.5 J abrasive
wear resistance of overlays obtained by passive cooling is
about 15% higher compared to FeCrC overlays obtained with
active cooling. This is attributed to the highest resistance to
plastic deformation ratio (H3/E2) of the materials tested.
4. The abrasive impact wear (AIW) test results are similar to
those of surface fatigue wear tests (SFW) at low impact
energies (below 0.2 J) following the common understanding
of the importance of low H/E value in impact wear conditions.

Acknowledgements
This work has been carried out in cooperation with Austrian
Center of Competence for Tribology (AC2T research GmbH). This
work was supported by the Estonian Ministry of Education and
Research (target nanced Project SF01400091) and the Estonian
Science Foundation, Grant no. ETF7889 and partially supported by
the Austrian Comet-Program (governmental funding programme for pre-competitive research) via the Austrian Research
Promotion Agency (FFG) and the TecNet Capital GmbH (Province

of Niederosterreich).
Authors are also grateful to Castolin Eutectic
GmbH for helpful work and providing powder materials. Student
mobility has been supported by graduate school Functional
materials and technologies receiving funding from the European
Social Fund under Project 1.2.0401.09-0079 in Estonia.
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