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What are English grammar articles?

An article is a word that is used before a noun to show


whether the noun refers to something specific or not. A, anand the are articles.

Examples:
"I need a chair."

In the sentence above we find the article "a". It shows us that the speaker does not need
a specific chair. He can have any chair.
"I want an apple."

In the sentence above we find the article "an." It shows us that the speaker does not want
a specific apple. He can have any apple.
"I want the red apple."

In the sentence above we find the article "the." It shows us that the speaker wants
a specific apple.
In English, there are two kinds of grammar articles.

The Definite Article


(For example: the box)

"Definite" means "clear, obvious."


The definite article tells us that the noun is specific. The speaker talks about a particular (or
known) thing.
The definite article in English is "the."
Examples:
"The car I bought broke down."
"He has a son and a daughter. The daughter is a doctor."
"The actors were really good."
"I remember the day we first met."
"The" can be used before both singular and plural nouns.
Examples:
"The flower he gave her was very beautiful."
"The flowers on the table are nice."

The Indefinite Article


(For example: a box)

"In-" means "not," and "definite" means "clear, obvious."


"Indefinite" means "not clear, not exact."
The indefinite article tells us that the noun is not specific. The speaker talks about any one of
that type of thing.
The indefinite articles in English are "a" and "an."
Examples:
"I need a pen."
(The speaker doesn't tell us which pen he needs. He simply needs a pen, any pen.)
"Lisa wants to see a movie."
(The speaker doesn't tell us which movie Lisa wants to see. She wants to see some movie.)
"Joe has a car."
(The speaker doesn't tell us which car Joe has. He has some car.)
"She is a dancer."
(She dances for a living.)

What is the difference between "a" and "an"?


"A" and "an" have the same meaning.
We use "a" before a consonant sound.
Examples:
a dog
a building
a country
a professor
a university
We use "an" before a vowel sound.
Examples:
an apple
an umbrella
an eye
an hour
Important!
We use "a" and "an" only before a singular noun. We can't use "a" and "an" before a plural noun.
Examples:
Correct: a car.
Incorrect: a cars.
Correct: an orange.
Incorrect: a oranges.
What is the difference between "a" and "the"?
"The" is used to talk about specific or known things. These are usually things that have been
mentioned before or that the listener is familiar with.
"A" (or "an") is used to talk about things which are not specific. These are usually things that
haven't been mentioned before or that the listener is unfamiliar with.
Let's say I tell you: "I went to see a doctor last week."

Explanation: I went to see some doctor. I didn't mention him before, and you are not familiar
with him. Another option is that it is not important who he is. So I use the word "a".
Then I say: "The doctor said I should get more rest."
Now you already know which doctor I am referring to. I am referring to the doctor I went to see.
So I use the word "the."
Next I say to you: "Do you remember the movie we watched together?"
I use the word "the" because I mention a specific movie you know which movie I am talking
about.
Then I tell you: "Well, I've seen a better movie since!"
You are not familiar with the new movie, so I use the word "a".
I also tell you: "A man on the street stepped on my foot."
You don't know who exactly stepped on my foot, I've never mentioned him before. So I use the
word "a".
Finally, I tell you: "I am a singer."
This sentence simply means that I sing for a living. If I said: "I am the singer", you would
understand that I am the singer that was mentioned before.
For example:
- "Wow! I heard a great singer is coming to town."
- "Oh, it's me. I am the great singer."
Now that we understand the general idea of English grammar articles, here are some more
specific details:
Specific Uses of English Grammar Articles
In this case
Example Sentence
You mention something
I have a problem.
for the first time.
You want to say that something
This is a table.
belongs to a certain group.
Use "a" / You want to say that someone belongs
She is a designer.
"an"
to a certain group.
You want to say that
I've built a strong ship.
something is that kind of thing.
You want to say that
He is a nice guy.
someone is that kind of person.
Use "the"
You talk about a specific thing.
The feeling I got was

very strange.

No article

It is clear which thing


you are talking about.
There is only one such thing.
You talk about
something in general.
You talk about cities,
countries, streets, etc.

I passed the test!


Look at the sun.
Pigs can't fly.
Diving can be difficult.
We visited Italy.

First, let's review the basics. A singular noun (like teacher, umbrella,lamp) refers to one person
or thing. A plural noun (like pencils, cups,ideas, papers) refers to more than one person or
things.

For a full explanation and lots of practice with plural nouns, be sure to check out our English
Plural Nouns, a Step-by-Step Guide book, which you can purchase and download instantly!

Adding -s, -es, or -ies


We add -s to most regular plural nouns.

Examples:

chairs

apples

pillows

books

But, if the noun ends in -ch, -s, -sh, -x, or -z, we add -es to form plural nouns. If the noun ends in
a vowel then -y, we just add -s. But, if the noun ends in a consonant then -y, we remove the y and add -ies.

Examples:

beach --> beaches

class --> classes

wish --> wishes

box --> boxes

waltz --> waltzes

baby --> babies

Irregular Plural Nouns


Some nouns in English have irregular plural forms. It is important to memorize the most
common ones.

Examples:

child --> children

man --> men

woman --> women

foot --> feet

tooth --> teeth

mouse --> mice

knife --> knives

life --> lives

half --> halves

wolf --> wolves

sister-in-law --> sisters-in-law

Identical Singular and Plural Forms


Some nouns in English, especially some animals, have the same form whether they are singular
or plural. This means that we do not add -s.

Examples:

sheep --> sheep

deer --> deer

fish --> fish

moose --> moose

series --> series

species --> species

Plural-only Nouns
Some nouns in English only have a plural form. This means that we cannot use them as singular
nouns.

Some nouns are "pair" nouns.

Examples:

pants --> pants (a pair of pants)

trousers --> trousers (a pair of trousers)

scissors --> scissors (a pair of scissors)

glasses --> glasses (a pair of glasses)

clothes --> clothes

pajamas --> pajamas

congratulations --> congratulations

leftovers --> leftovers

Countable and Uncountable Nouns


Be sure to review the pages that explain countable and uncountablenouns. Most nouns in English
are countable. But sometimes we cannot say how many there are of a noun. This means that the
noun is uncountable. Here are some common examples.

Examples:

sugar

milk

coffee

money

food

work

news

water

electricity

happiness
A preposition is a word which is used before a noun to show its connection to another word in
the sentence.

For example:
The dog rests on the armchair.

(The word "on" is used before "the armchair". We understand that the dog ison the armchair. He
is not under it, above it or beside it, for example.)
The name "preposition" (pre + position) means "put before".
So prepositions usually come before the noun.
Here are some more examples:
She stands by the tree.

The cat leans against the garbage can.

The sign is under the car.

The rocket went through the heart.

They flew into the snow.

She is reading to her babies.

He is climbing up that mountain.

A preposition can come before a pronoun as well.


For example:

This is for you!

She is standing beside him.

A preposition is a word or phrase that comes before a noun or pronoun to show its connection to
the other words in the sentence.
Prepositions can show place, time, position, or method.

Prepositions starting with "A"

About

1. in a circle around; on every side


(*It is more common to use the word "around" in these sentences.)

The people stood about (around) the preacher.

The fence was built about the house.

She put her arms about me.

2. near

The phone rang about midnight.

We are about home.

There are many stray cats about our farm.

3. with regard to, concerning

He was worried about the children.

His honesty is what I like about him.

Sammy forgot about the party.

4. shows the subject of something said or written

What is Lilly talking about now?

Will spoke about his childhood.

I read a book about dinosaurs.

Above

1. in a higher place; over

We flew above the grand canyon.

Ben lives above the pizza shop.

A president is above a vice-president.


(The president outranks the vice-president.)

2. more than; greater

Children above five-years-old will be allowed to ride the bus.

Women above 40 need to have regular exams.

His score was above average on the test.

Across

1. on or to the other side of something

They flew across the blue Atlantic Ocean.

My best friend lives across the street.

Mike rode his bike across the town.

2. to spread over or through

The sunlight spread across the horizon.

The secret spread quickly across the office.

The smell spread across the room.

After

1. following

My mom and dad arrived yesterday after lunch.

You can watch television after you finish your chores.

The show starts 15 minutes after six.

Against

1. in opposition to; in competition with

Jenny and I played on teams against each other.

The president voted against the law.

The United States fought against Japan during the war.

2. leaning on or touching something

Lean all the logs against that tree.

The rain was beating against my window.

He was pushing against the brick wall.

Along

1. in a line matching the length of something

Please line up along the west wall.

The plane flew along the horizon.

We rode horses along the beach.

Among

1. in a group

The child was lost among the crowd of tourists.

I feel most comfortable singing when I am among family.

Can you see the egg among the bushes?

Around

1. near

She will arrive around 8:00 tonight.

I will be around the house tomorrow if you call.

My keys have to be around here somewhere

2. on all sides; circle

The children gathered around their teacher.

Please walk around the table.

There is a ring around the planet Saturn.

As

1. used to show a condition, role, job

He worked as a plumber for ten years.

My father served as president of the men's club.

I am speaking as a teacher, not as her mother.

At

1. the place where something is located

I only drink water when I am at work.

Please park at the back of the house.

She types at her desk.

2. because of; in reaction to

I laughed at him when he fell down.

My mom was angry at me for hitting my brother.

The dog sits at my command.

Prepositions Starting with "B"

Before

1. at an earlier time

Stan arrived at work before his boss.

The show start 15 minutes before noon.

Call me before you leave your house.

2. in front of

Turn west before the school.

He stood before me in the line.

The teacher stood before the class.

Behind

1. losing in a competition

Tommy finished behind Billy in the race.

My team was behind at halftime.

Mr. Jones is behind Mr. Smith in the voting polls.

2. at the back of something; opposite of "in front"

My sister snuck up behind me and scared me.

I hid behind the tree.

The criminal is behind bars. (in jail)

Below

1. in a lower place; under; less than

The ice cream shop is one floor below the clothing store.

It was ten degrees below zero last night.

A vice-president is below the president.


(The vice-president does not have as much power as the president.)

Beneath

1. not good enough; less than

He thinks cleaning the house is beneath him.


(He thinks he is too important to clean the house.)

I'm not going to take that job because it is beneath me.


(I deserve a better job.)

2. lower than; under; below

We had class beneath the big oak tree.

My name is beneath yours on the bus list.

He was hiding beneath the rock.

Beside

1. next to

Please stand beside your parents.

We live beside the park.

Who is standing beside you in this picture?

Besides

1. other than or in addition to; except; but

Can you cook anything besides pizza?

Nobody is finished besides (except) me.

Besides being expensive, that dress is perfect!

Between

1. in the middle of

Janet said she would be home between 6:00 and 6:30.

The bride walked between the aisles.

Did you cut down the tree between the two houses?

2. used to show two or more people or things

I can't choose between the red car and the blue car.

She does not have any time to date between work and her children.

Please keep this secret between us.


(Do not tell anyone else the information.)

But

1. other than; except; besides

Mom said I could buy anything but candy with my Christmas money.

Nobody is home but me.

I don't like any girls but my sister.

By

1. near; close to; beside

The dog should walk by you.

We live by the zoo.

We were talking by the fence.

2. used to show someone (or something) performs an action

The law was vetoed by the President of the United States.

She was stung by a bee.

That book was written by John Smith.

Prepositions Starting with "C" - "I"

D E F
G H I

Concerning

1. relating to; about

The phone call was concerning her children.

We had a meeting concerning our future raises.

The teacher talked to my parents concerning my bad grades.

Down

1. along a path

Can you walk down this street to get to the grocery store?

We floated down the stream.

My classroom is located down this hallway.

2. from a higher to a lower place

The firefighter slid down the pole.

I dropped my ring down the drain.

Rain fell down from the sky.

During

1. at some time; throughout

Please don't call me during work.

I work during the night and sleep during the day.

I like to ski during the winter when it is snowing.

Except/Except for

1. not including; other than

Except for math, I passed every class this year!

I work every day except Friday.

Everyone was sick except my dad who took care of us.

For
"For" has many definitions. Here are three of the most common with examples.

1. going to or showing something is given to someone


I bought this shirt for you.
(I'm giving this shirt to you.)

When does the next train leave for Boston?


(When is the next train going to Boston?)

I leave for work at 8:15 every morning.

2. because of; used to show why something is done

You should be studying for your test.

We dress up for church.

I cried for the victims of the accident.

3. in place of; instead of; to help

Dan is playing for the injured player.

The substitute is teaching for Mrs. Johnson.

Can you carry those boxes for me?

From

1. Used to show the cause of something

I am suffering from bronchitis.

She is tired from running the race.

I learned how to dance from watching a television show.

2. starting point; origin

Jane moved here from Kansas.

My family is originally from Germany.

I walked to school from my house.

3. source

I borrowed a coat from him.

She spoke from her heart.

The magician pulled a rabbit from his hat.

In
There are many ways to use the preposition "in". Here are just a few of the most common
examples.

1. within; inside

I left my purse in the car.

Hold the kitten gently in your hands.

We swam in the big swimming pool.

2. during

I was born in the 1980s.

She had all of her children in her thirties.

Call me in the morning.

3. used to show method, material, form, or color of something

The bride was dressed in white satin.

The prayer was said in Latin.

I wrote the words in my best handwriting.

Inside

1. in; into; within

Wait for your mom inside the school.

I live inside the city limits.

I am looking for cookies inside the cookie jar.

Into

1. toward the inside; in the direction of

Please do not come into the room without knocking.

My boyfriend looked into my eyes when he said, "I love you."

The class is taking a field trip into the city.

2. hitting or touching

The bird ran into the window.

He bumped into the woman and spilled her coffee.

The car ran into the tree.

Prepositions Starting with "L" - "O"

M N

Like

1. similar to; comparable to

Don't act like a baby.

That perfume smells like roses.

He looks like his father.

Near

1. close to; next to

The train will arrive near dark.

I will wait for you near the entrance.

There's a palm tree near the hut.

Next to

1. besides, other than, in comparison

I am the tallest person in my family, next to my mom.


(My mom is taller than I am. I am second tallest.)

Next to you, John is the highest paid employee.


(You are the only employee who makes more money than John.)

2. beside, on the side of

I parked my car next to yours.

The bride walks next to her father.

The goat is sitting next to the bear.

Of
This tiny word has many uses as a preposition. Here are a few of the most common uses.

1a. belonging to or connected with someone or something

The final score of last night's football game was 35-12.

Do you know the price of a movie ticket?

The President of the United States will be visiting our city.

1b. belonging to or connected with a group of people or things

Are you one of Mary's sisters?

Please hand me one of those pencils.

The three of us flew to China last year.

2. from a certain place

The residents of my town built the city park.

Some plants of Hawaii are endangered.

The people of Mexico speak Spanish.

3. used with measurements and time

My birthday is the sixteenth of November.

You must be 18 years of age to attend.

Mom bought three bags of groceries.

Off

1. remove; shows something has been separated or removed

Please take off your muddy shoes before coming in the house.

She cut all of her hair off.

I took your name off the list.

2. away from a price or time

Everything is 20% off the original price.

The coupons took $5 off my total.

The shortcut will knock 10 minutes off your drive.

3. down or away from

Stay off the wet cement!

I live 15 miles off the main road.

The bird fell off the wire.

On
Here is another tiny word with many uses as a preposition. Here are some of the most common
uses of the word on.

1. covering something; part of the surface

Most people put butter on their toast.

Put your jacket on before you go outside.

I wear my grandmother's ring on my left ring finger.

2. about

I need to check out a book on zebras.

Did you see that television series on Thomas Jefferson?

The teacher gave us an exam on prepositions.

3. used to show a date or day something will happen or already happened

Our next meeting will be on February 10.

Ben saw a deer on his way to work yesterday.

I have a date on Wednesday.

4. used to show a type of transportation

Tony was on the bus this morning.

Didn't you see me on my bike?

I live to travel on a plane.

Onto

1. moving to a position on something

Can you copy those songs onto a CD?

Tom dropped his ice cream onto the clean floor.

I climbed onto the horse's back.

Opposite

1. on the other side; next to; across from

Put the stamp opposite your name.

Our house is opposite the park.

During the interview, she sat in the chair opposite me.

Outside

1. opposite of inside; in a place near

Meet me outside the library.

Put your name on the outside of the envelope.

Leave the dog outside the house.

Over

1. covering; on top of

She is wearing a sundress over her swimsuit.

Lay the blanket over his legs.

I put my hand over her mouth to keep her quiet.

2. to, from, or at a higher place (not touching); above

The geese flew over our heads.

I saw the clouds coming over the mountains.

He likes to cook marshmallows over the campfire.

3. going across; from one side to the other side

We flew over the Atlantic Ocean.

I just crossed over the border of Mexico.

Follow the bridge over the river.

4. more than

I waited at the office over two hours.

The swimming pool is open if the temperature is over 70 degrees.

She does not date men over 35.

5. during

A foot of snow fell over the last three days.

He has grown up over the years.

We talked over coffee.

Prepositions Starting with "R" - "Z"

S T U
V W X Y Z

Regarding

1. concerning or relating to; about

The teacher said, "I need to speak with you regarding your son's behavior."

The staff met regarding the future of the museum.

I have a question regarding the directions you gave me.

Since

1.from a time in the past until a later time in the past or present

I have not seen him since high school.

Since the divorce, I have not dated anyone.

They have been married since 1975.

Through

1. by; because of

She learned to play basketball through watching her brother.

I financed my car through the bank.

You will learn through reading.

2. from the beginning to the end of a time

The baby cried through the entire movie.

I went home sick halfway through the workday.

Nick slept through Biology class.

3. from one side to the other side; in and out

The baseball went through the window.

We hiked through the woods.

The spotted creature came through the front door.

To

1. used to show relation or connection

Is John is related to you? Yes, he is my cousin.

I am married to Joe Smith.

Sally is secretary to the school principal.

2. going toward something or someone; in the direction of

We are driving to my grandmother's house.

I am flying to Texas this summer.

Throw the ball to me.

Toward/Towards

You can use either toward or towards in your sentences. Some say that toward is more popular
in American English and towards is more popular in British English. Others say it depends on
what area of the United States you are visiting.

1. in the direction of

She turned her face toward/towards me.

We are flying toward/towards Los Angeles, California.

The hunter aimed the gun toward/towards the deer.

Under

1. less than; younger than

Preschool is for children under 6 years of age.

The car was priced under $12,000.

The baby was asleep for under an hour.

2. below; beneath

Can you see the fish under the water?

Mom wants to have a picnic under the big tree.

I think there is a monster under my bed.

Underneath

1. under; below; beneath

She is wearing a sleeveless shirt underneath her sweater.

My apartment is located underneath Bill's Bakery.

The man was hiding underneath his desk.

Unlike

1. different from; in contrast; not normal

Your bad behavior is unlike you.


(It is not normal for you to behave badly.)

The smell was not unlike the smell of cooked spinach.


(The smell was similar to the smell of cooked spinach.)

Unlike the rest of his family, he is short.

Until

1. up to a point in time

We lived in that house from 1987 until 2012.

Shane will not be home until Wednesday.

I forgot to mail my taxes until it was almost too late.

Up

1. along a path

We live 5 miles up the dirt road.

The dog swam up the river.

The bride walked up the church aisle.

2. moving to a higher place

Tom and Bob hiked up the mountain.

The squirrel ran up the tree trunk.

Amanda is climbing up the rope.

Upon

1. on
*Upon is a more formal than the word "on."

Once upon a time...


(This is a common way to start a fairy tale story.)

The Queen sat upon her throne.

She wore the hat upon her head.

Via

1. by using

We talked via email.

She heard about the surprise party via Kathy.

Nick is flying to California via American Airlines.

2. through

We traveled to New Mexico via Arizona.

The students go to the library via my classroom.

Blood moves through the body via the heart.

With

The word "with" is a very common preposition in the English language. Here are just three of the
many definitions of the word "with."

1. together

I am having dinner with my best friend.

Mike lives with his grandparents.

Put the dictionary on the bottom shelf with the other books.

2. having something

I like the girl with the red dress.

Look at the man with the dog!

Tim is the only one in our family with green eyes.

3. using

Open the door with the key.

I will pay for the gas with my credit card.

The letter was sealed with a kiss.

Within

1. before a time has passed

I will leave within an hour.

You need to return to the doctor within three days.

She plans to move within a year.

2. inside; in
*Within is the formal way to say "inside."

I have sorrow within my heart.

Many languages are spoken within the United States.

She stored all of her things within the closet.

Without

1. not doing something

Grace cannot sleep alone without a nightlight.

He fixed the leak without breaking anything else.

She passed the test without studying

2. not having; not using

She cannot read without her glasses.

He was driving without a license.

My son baked a cake without my help.

For example, the word and is a coordinating conjunction.


Example sentences with "and":

We are hungry and thirsty.


He asked us to clean our rooms and wash the dishes.

John works as a teacher and Beth works as a nurse.

The mailman is running away and the dog is chasing him.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions in the English language.


An easy way to remember the coordinating conjunctions is to rememberFANBOYS.
F = for
A = and
N = nor
B = but
O = or
Y = yet
S = so
Coordinating conjunctions always go between the words or phrases that they are connecting.
In the examples below, the equal parts of the sentences that are being joined are underlined. The
coordinating conjunction is bold.
Examples:
I will be late to the party, for I am working until seven.
Tom likes to read and write.
Sally does not like the mountains, nor does she like the ocean.
I wanted to ride my bike, but the tire was flat.
Fred wants peas or carrots for supper.
I love chocolate, yet I do not eat chocolate ice cream.
She was late to work, so her boss made her stay after five.

Rules for using a coordinating conjunction

1. Put a comma before the coordinating conjunction when it is used to connect two
independent clauses.
A clause is a group of words the contain a subject and a verb.
An independent clause (or main clause) expresses a complete thought. It can stand alone as a
sentence. For example, "I like apples."
(A dependent clause does not express a complete thought. It cannot stand alone as a sentence.
For example, "that I saw last month.")
Examples of independent clauses:

Tom walked the dog.


Subject = Tom
Verb = walked
"Tom walked the dog" is an independent clause.

Tom grabbed the mail.


Subject = Tom
Verb = grabbed
"Tom grabbed the mail" is also an independent clause.

These two independent clauses can be combined with a coordinating conjunction. When we
combine these two sentences, the second "Tom" will be changed to "he."
Examples:

Tom walked the dog, so he grabbed the mail.


OR
Tom walked the dog, and he grabbed the mail.

Both parts of the sentence have a subject and verb (before and after the coordinating
conjunction).
Here are a few more examples of coordinating conjunctions connecting independent clauses.
Incorrect: I want to go see a movie but my sister has my car.
Correct: I want to go see a movie, but my sister has my car.
Incorrect: Lisa loves cats yet she does not want one living in her house.
Correct: Lisa loves cats, yet she does not want one living in her house.

2. When using a coordinating conjunction to connect two items, do not use a comma.
In the example above with Tom and his dog, we can leave out the comma if we do not have two
independent clauses. We do this by leaving out the subject in the second part of the sentence
(he).
Example:

Tom walked the dog and grabbed the mail.


("Tom walked the dog" is an independent clause, but "grabbed the mail" is not.)

Here are a few more examples of how to use a coordinating conjunction to connect two items
that are not independent clauses.

Incorrect: She likes apples, and bananas.


Correct: She likes apples and bananas.
Incorrect: My brother is young, but smart.
Correct: My brother is young but smart.

3. When using a coordinating conjunction with a list of items (three or more in number),
the comma before the coordinating conjunction is optional.
You should put or leave out the comma before the coordinating conjunction based on the style
guide you are using.
Example with comma:

She is cooking chicken, potatoes, corn, and carrot.

Example without comma:

She is cooking chicken, potatoes, corn and carrot.

These were the uses of the coordinating conjunction.

What are punctuation marks?

A punctuation mark is a mark (sign) used in writing to divide texts


into phrases and sentences.
Some common punctuation marks are:

period (full stop) ( . )


comma ( , )

question mark ( ? )

exclamation mark ( ! )

colon ( : )

semicolon ( ; )

single quotation marks ( ' ' )

double quotation marks ( " " )

parentheses ( ), brackets [ ] and braces { }

hyphen ( )

en dash ()

em dash ( )

ellipsis (. . . )

apostrophe ( ' )

slash ( / )

Some additional punctuation marks are:

ampersand ( & )
asterisk ( * )

at sign ( @ )

bullet ( )

degree symbol ( )

number sign ( # )

percent sign ( % )

underscore symbol ( _ )

copyright symbol ( )

registered trademark symbol ( )

trademark symbol ( )

dollar sign ( $ )

English punctuation rules


Click on the individual punctuation marks for more information and examples.

To end a sentence

period (full stop) ( . )


question mark ( ? )

exclamation mark ( ! )

ellipsis (. . .)

To separate phrases or items

comma ( , )
semicolon ( ; )

To begin a list

colon ( : )

To quote or indicate a title

single quotation marks ( ' ' )


double quotation marks ( " " )

To indicate extra information

parentheses ( ), brackets [ ] and braces { }


em dash ( )

To show alternatives

slash ( / )

Read also
Colon vs Semicolon
Comma Splices

Why is punctuation important?


When we speak, we can pause or emphasize certain words and phrases to help people understand
what we are saying.
In our writing, we use punctuation to show pauses and emphasis. Punctuation marks help the
reader understand what we mean.
A punctuation mark is a mark, or sign, used in writing to divide texts into phrases and
sentences and make the meaning clear.
In this lesson, we will look at some common punctuation marks and mistakes. You will see
examples of what happens if you omit or misuse some common punctuation marks.

End Punctuation
End Punctuation is the most common punctuation in the English language. You must use end
punctuation at the end of every sentence to avoid confusion.
The three most common ways to end a sentence are

period ( . )
The elephant is big.

question mark ( ? )
Where is the man?

exclamation mark ( ! )
The huge elephant sat on the man!

End punctuation tells the reader where each sentence ends. It also helps the reader understand the
writer's emotions about the subject. For example, an exclamation mark ( ! ) tells the reader that I
am excited or yelling.
Here is a paragraph without end punctuation:
Do you like to sing My mom and I sing in a choir that meets every Tuesday Last week we sang
Christmas carols at a nursing home The residents of the nursing home enjoyed our visit It was
fun Would you like to join us next Tuesday
You can see that it is very difficult to read and make sense of the paragraph. Every sentence runs
straight into the next sentence.
Here is the same paragraph with end punctuation:

Do you like to sing? My mom and I sing in a choir that meets every Tuesday. Last week, we sang
Christmas carols at a nursing home. The residents of the nursing home enjoyed our visit! It was
fun! Would you like to join us next Tuesday?
Now, you can see questions, statements, and exclamations in the paragraph. You can see that the
writer is excited about singing and enjoyed singing for the residents of the nursing home. The
writer also asks if you like singing and would like to join their choir.

Incorrect uses of end punctuation


Using the wrong end punctuation can cause confusion for the reader.
Consider these three sentences:
1. Richard wants to marry Rose.
2. Richard wants to marry Rose!
3. Richard wants to marry Rose?
The words of each sentence are the same, but the end punctuation greatly changes the meaning:
1. Richard wants to marry Rose.
By using a period, the writer is simply stating a fact. The writer does not show any feelings about
the situation.

2. Richard wants to marry Rose!


With an exclamation mark, the writer shows emotion about the situation. The writer is
probablyexcited.
3. Richard wants to marry Rose?
By using a question mark, the writer has turned the sentence into a question. The writer
seems surprised and is asking for clarification.

Commas
Commas are another very important type of punctuation. Commas tell the reader where to pause.
Commas also separate phrases, ideas, and items in a list. Commas help avoid confusion.

A) Using commas in lists:


Here is a list without commas:

Sally likes to eat chocolate hot dogs and broccoli.

Without commas, it sounds like Sally likes to eat hot dogs and broccolicovered in chocolate!
Yuck!
Here is the same list with commas:
Sally likes to eat chocolate, hot dogs, and broccoli.
Now, we see that Sally actually likes three foods:
1. chocolate
2. hot dogs
3. broccoli

B) Commas for phrasing


Here is another funny example:

1. It is time to eat David!


2. It is time to eat, David!
1. In the first sentence, it sounds like we are going to eat David for lunch!
2. The comma in the second sentence shows the writer that we are actually informing David that
it is time to eat.

Quotation marks
Quotation marks are another common punctuation mark in the English language. Quotation
marks are used with commas to inform the reader that someone is talking or being quoted.
Example:
"Punctuation is important," my teacher said. "Without punctuation marks, your writing
would be very confusing."
Without quotation marks and commas, it would be difficult to understand what the character is
saying.
Punctuation is important my teacher said without punctuation marks your writing would
be very confusing
Quotation marks are also very important when you are quoting words someone has already said.
Example:

Maya Angelo said, "If you don't like something, change it. If you can't change it, change
your attitude."
Maya Angelo is a famous author and poet. When I am quoting her, I show her exact words by
enclosing them in quotation marks. By using quotation marks, I am giving her credit for her
words.

Apostrophes
Apostrophes are another commonly misused form of punctuation. Apostrophes are used to show
ownership and missing letters in contractions.
Misplaced apostrophes can cause confusion for readers.
Example:
it's = it is
its = ownership

Correct:

The dog sleeps in its house.


The house belongs to the dog.
Incorrect:
The dog sleeps in it's house.
This does not make sense because we would not say, "The dog sleeps in it is house."

Example:
boy's = ownership
boys = more than one boy

Correct:
The boy's room is painted blue.
The blue room belongs to the boy.

Incorrect:
The boys room is painted blue.
In this example, we do not know if the room belongs to one boy(boy's) or more than one
boy (boys').

Correct:
The boys are sleeping in the tent.
There is more than one boy sleeping in the tent.

Incorrect:
The boy's are sleeping in the tent.
The apostrophe is not needed in this sentence because we are not showing ownership.

A final note about punctuation


These were just a few examples of the importance of using punctuation in our writing.
It is important to use punctuation correctly to help the reader understand our writing.

Without punctuation, our writing would be a confusing mess!


A sentence is a group of words that are put together to make one complete thought. We use
punctuation marks at the end of every sentence.
1) Use a period (.) at the end of a sentence that is a statement.
Examples:

I like cats.
Apples are red.

2) Use an exclamation point (!) at the end of a sentence that is exciting or should be said loudly.
Examples:

Watch out!
I won the race!

3) Use a question mark (?) at the end of a sentence that asks a question.
Examples:

Where is the bathroom?


Are you home?

Uses of question marks

1) Use a question mark when you are trying to get information. This type of sentence is called

an interrogative sentence.
Many interrogative sentences start with question words such as who, what, when, where, why or
how and end with a question mark.
Examples:

Where is the gas station?


Who is your teacher?

Why did you stop here?

How did you do that?

What color is the shirt?

When will you arrive?

Interrogative sentences can also start with forms of the words "do" and"be."
Examples:

Did they go to the party?


Does he like apples?

Do you know her name?

Are you there?

Is she the teacher?

2. Use a question mark at the end of a sentence when you turn a statement into a question to get
a specific answer. This type of question is used when the speaker is hoping for a certain answer.
Examples:

You promise to call me every day?


See you there at 8:00 tonight?

3. Use a question mark at the end of a tag question.


A tag is a word or phrase that is added to a sentence.
A tag question is a statement followed by a short question. Tag questions are very common in
English and are used to ask if you agree with the statement.
Examples:

You speak English, don't you?


The dog is brown, right?

You paid the bill, didn't you?

Lisa is not here, is she?

4. Use questions marks after each question in a series, even if the question is not a complete
sentence.
Example:

Do you want to eat pizza? chicken? hamburgers?

Note that you do not capitalize each choice because they are all a part of the same sentence. This
sentence could also be asked as one complete question using only one question mark at the end:

Do you want to eat pizza, chicken or hamburgers?

5. Use a question mark after a rhetorical question.


A rhetorical question is a type of question to which no answer is required.
Examples:

Who cares?
Isn't it a beautiful day?

Are you kidding me?

Tips for using question marks


1)

DO NOT use a question mark after an indirect question.


An indirect question is question found in a declarative sentence.
A declarative sentence is a sentence in the form of a statement. It is not a command or
question. It simply states an idea.
Incorrect: I asked her to pay the bill?
Correct: I asked her to pay the bill.
Incorrect: The teacher asked for their homework?

Correct: The teacher asked for their homework.


2) DO NOT put a space before a question mark.
Incorrect: What color is the ball ?
Correct: What color is the ball?

What is the exclamation mark?


The exclamation mark is a simple vertical line above a period.
In English it is only used at the end of a sentence.
It looks like this: !

When is the exclamation mark used?


An exclamation mark is used to give emphasis to a statement. This means the writer wants the
reader to understand there is strong feeling or urgency to the statement.
For example:

1. A warning
In a story, the main character tells his daughter: "Watch out!"
The exclamation mark tells us that the man is scared and is calling out to his daughter.
Without the exclamation mark, the statement is not as urgent: "Watch out."

2. A direct order
If you read a sign on a door that says "Do Not Enter!" the exclamation mark helps catch your
attention.
You are more likely to notice "Do Not Enter!" than if it says "Do Not Enter."
The exclamation mark tells you that it might be dangerous to go through that door.

3. Expressing strong feelings


When we speak, we often use our voices and body movements (also known as "body language")
to show feelings.
In writing, other ways must be used. One way is to use an exclamation mark.
The exclamation mark can be used to show surprise, fear, happiness, etc.
For example:

Fear: "That dog is going to bite me!"

Anger: "Shut up!"

Surprise: "The bus is early today!"

Happiness: "It is good to see you again!"

How often should an exclamation mark be used?


Exclamation marks should not be "overused." That means, dont use them too much.
Use exclamation marks when you really want the reader to know you are making a strong
statement.
Here is an example of a sentence where too many exclamation marks were used:
"It was raining! I took my umbrella to school! The wind blew it away! I arrived at school all
wet!"
A better way to write this would be: "It was raining. I took my umbrella to school. The wind
blew it away. I arrived at school all wet!"
The writer is expressing a strong feeling in the last sentence, so it is perfectly okay to use an
exclamation mark there.

Final words of advice


Try not to use exclamation marks in "formal" writing for example, in a job application
letter or an essay.
Feel free to use them in "informal" writing - for example when e-mailing or texting friends.
They are very helpful in expressing emotions.

Adverbs usually answer the following questions:


Where? Home. ("I went home.")
When? Yesterday. ("We met yesterday.")
How? Slowly. ("The turtle moves slowly.")
How often? Sometimes. ("Sometimes it stops responding.")
How long? Temporarily. ("She is staying with us temporarily.")
How likely? Surely. ("Our team will surely win!")
To what degree? Very. ("She was very pleased.")
An adverb can describe a verb:
She runs quickly.
An adverb can describe an adjective:
She is so beautiful.
An adverb can describe another adverb:
She smokes very rarely.
An adverb can describe an entire sentence:
Naturally, you don't have to come.
The word "adverb" comes from the Latin ad- (in addition) and verbum(word).

In many cases (but not always!) adverbs have the following form:
Adjective + "-ly"
Examples:
Quick + ly = quickly
Strange + ly = strangely
Dead + ly = deadly
Sudden + ly = suddenly
Clever + ly = cleverly
Brave + ly = bravely
Real + ly = really

When an adjective ends with "y" replace the "y" with an "i":
Heavy + ly = heavi + ly = heavily
Happy + ly = happi + ly = happily
When the adjective ends with an "e" drop the "e":
True + ly = tru + ly = truly
However, there are many adverbs that do not end in "-ly":
Fast, very, hard, home, just, too, well, never, sometimes, and so forth.

We can divide English adverbs into several categories:


Adverbs of degree, adverbs of manner, adverbs of place,
adverbs of time, adverbs of frequency, adverbs of duration,
adverbs of probability, comparative adverbs and superlative adverbs.

Adverbs of degree
Adverbs of degree show us the strength or degree of the action or state.
They answer the following questions:
How much? To what degree?
Examples:
Very, highly, totally, perfectly, partially, almost.
He answered perfectly.

Example sentences:

He is very concerned about you.


You are totally right.

We almost made it to the train.

Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of manner show us the way the action is done. They answer the following question:
How?
Examples:
Well, badly, nicely, slowly, loudly, quietly, happily, sadly, secretly, weakly.
They run happily.

Example sentences:

He handled the situation well.


She listened secretly to their conversation.

The children ran happily to their father.

Adverbs of place
Adverbs of place show us the location of the action or state. They answer the following question:
Where?

Examples:
Home, here, there, outside, inside, away, around, anywhere, abroad, up, down, out.
He is home.

Example sentences:

We are here.
He went home.

We found him outside.

She looked up.

Adverbs of time
Adverbs of time show us the time of the action or state. They answer the following question:
When?
Examples:
Now, soon, later, yesterday, tomorrow, early, before, lately, recently.
They are having dinner now.

Example sentence:

Let's talk now.


I will do it later.

He promised to write back soon.

What are you doing tomorrow?

We haven't met before.

Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of frequency show us the frequency of the action or state. They answer the following
question:
How often?
Examples:
Always, never, sometimes, often, rarely, usually, occasionally.
I will never do that!

Example sentences:

I always brush my teeth after a meal.


We often meet and chat.

He is usually here on time.

Adverbs of duration

Adverbs of duration show us the length of the action or state.


They answer the following question:
For how long?
Examples:
Forever, constantly, temporarily, briefly.
He will forever be her little boy.

Example sentence:

He is working there temporarily.


We spoke briefly.

I will be forever grateful.

Adverbs of probability
Adverbs of probability show us the chances for the action or state to happen. They answer the
following question:
How likely?
Examples:
Certainly, maybe, probably, possibly, surely.

He is probably in trouble.

Example sentences:

She will certainly forget about it.


Maybe we'll come after all.

It will probably not work.

Surely you are not serious!

Comparative adverbs
"Comparative" means "comparing something to something else."
Comparative adverbs show us which action or state is better, worse, stronger, weaker, and so
forth.
Examples:
More, less, better, worse, faster, slower, farther, closer.
She writes faster than most people.

Example sentences:

Maggie works out more seriously than Donna.


She eats less than her friends.

You are better than this.

We couldn't go slower even if we wanted to.

Let's get closer.

Superlative adverbs
"Superlative" means "of the highest degree."
Superlative adverbs show us which action or state is the best, the strongest, and so forth.
Examples:
Best, most, least, worst, strongest, fastest, slowest.
They like each other best.

Example sentences:

He knows best.
It was the most boring experience.

He shouted the loudest, so he won.

He ran the slowest, so he lost.

An adjective is a word that describes a person or thing.


Examples:
Big, pretty, expensive, green, round, French, loud, quick, fat.
Example sentences:

He has big blue eyes.


The new car broke down.

The old lady was talking in a quiet voice.

The word "adjective" comes from the Latin word jacere, which means "to throw."

Different Types of adjectives


Adjectives can be divided into several types:
Opinion
Nice, pretty, stupid, original, expensive, etc.
A sweet girl

Size
Big, small, large, tiny, enormous, little, etc.

An enormous cupcake

Age
Young, old, new, ancient, antique, etc.
An antique car

Shape
Round, square, flat, straight, etc.
A round coin

Color
Blue, red, white, black, dark, bright, yellowish, etc.

A red apple

Origin
Italian, British, Mexican, western, southern, etc.
An Italian pizza

Material
Metal, wooden, plastic, golden, etc.
A wooden house

Determiners
A determiner is a word that comes before a noun to show which person or thing you are talking
about.
Examples:
A, an, the, my, your, some, any, several, enough, any.
Example sentences:

I have a red hat.


Please give me my bag.

Some people decided to leave.

She doesn't want any money.

They watched several movies.

Some people consider determiners to be a type of adjective. What's special about determiners is
that you usually can use only one determiner at a time.
Incorrect: He has the my ticket.
Correct: He has my ticket / He has the ticket.
Click here to read more about English Determiners.

Nouns that act like adjectives


Sometimes nouns function as adjectives. In other words, they come before another noun and
describe it.
Examples:

Sports car
Orange juice

Television station

Coffee shop

Book cover

The order of adjectives

A noun can have several adjectives describing it.


Examples:
"She bought a new red Italian table."
"He is a great, successful father."
There are certain rules on the correct order of these adjectives.
This is the order you should generally follow:
Determiner -> opinion -> size -> age -> shape -> color
-> origin -> material -> a word describing purpose/function
Examples:

A nice little coffee shop


(Determiner -> opinion -> size -> purpose/function word)
My huge new swimming pool
(Determiner -> size -> age -> purpose/function word)

Several Chinese plastic cups


(Determiner -> origin -> material)

The round yellow ball


(Determiner -> shape -> color)

Adjectives from the same type:


When you have several adjectives from the same type, you should separate them with commas
or a conjunction (and, but).
Examples:
A cheap, good meal
A happy, smart man
The beautiful, original painting
My nice and sweet cat
An expensive but important trip

Comparative adjectives
"Comparative" means "comparing something to something else."
Comparative adjective show which thing is better, worse, stronger, weaker, and so forth.

Examples:
Better, worse, bigger, smaller, nicer, fatter, thinner, more dangerous.
Example sentences:

She is a better student than her brothers.


The test was worse than I'd expected.

You are stronger than me.

He seems healthier.

You are more beautiful than her.

Superlative adjectives
"Superlative" means "of the highest degree."
Superlative adjectives show us which thing is the best, the strongest, and so forth.
Examples:
Best, worst, strongest, smallest, cheapest, most expensive.
Example sentences:

You are my best friend.


This is the worst day of my life.

Even the smallest donation helps.

This is the most expensive restaurant I've ever heard of.

Possessive adjectives are used to show ownership.


Possessive adjectives are similar to possessive pronouns, but possessive adjectives always come
before a noun.
Possessive adjectives work as an adjective by modifying the noun.
These are the possessive adjectives and the subjects they represent:

Subject

Possessive Adjective

My

You (singular)

Your

He

His

She

her

It

Its

We

Our

You (plural)

Your

They

their

Sentence structure
Possessive Adjective + Noun
When we talk about possessive adjectives, we say they show "ownership" for the subject.
"Ownership" in this form means that it belongs to that subject.
Examples:

The tall woman is her mom.


This sentence means that the tall woman belongs to her. She is the tall woman's daughter.
The possessive adjective her modifies the noun mom.

Your car is small.


This sentence says that the small car belongs to you or you own the small car.
The possessive adjective your modifies the noun car.

1. My
The possessive adjective my shows ownership (possession) for the subjectI.
Examples:

My dog is brown.
(I own the brown dog.)

That is my horse.
(I own the horse.)

Please hand me my book.


(The book belongs to me or I own the book.)

2. Your (singular and plural)


The possessive adjective your shows ownership (possession) for the subjectyou.
Examples:

Is that your cat?


(Does the cat belong to you? The cat is your possession.)

Please turn in your homework.


(Turn in the homework that belongs to you.)

Don't be late for your interview.


(The interview belongs to you.)

3. His
The possessive adjective his shows ownership (possession) for the subjecthe.
Examples:

He is traveling to see his sister.


(She belongs to him/his family.)

His gift is on the table.


(He owns the gift.)

He loves his job as a chef.


(He has the job. The job belongs to him.)

4. Her
The possessive adjective her shows ownership (possession) for the subjectshe.
Examples:

Her computer is broken.


(She is the owner of the computer. It is her possession.)

She loves her husband.


(Her husband belongs to her. She is his wife.)

Do you know her name?


(The name belongs to her.)

5. Its
The possessive adjective its shows ownership (possession) for the subjectit.
Examples:

Its nest is made of twigs.


(The nest belongs to it.)

Its tire is flat.


(The tire is part of it [the bike, the car, the truck].)

The dog buried its bone in the yard.


(The bone belongs to it/the dog.)

DO NOT use an apostrophe with this form of its.


It's = It + is
Examples:

It's raining today.


(It is raining today.)

Does she know if it's fixed now?


(Does she know if it is fixed now?)

6. Our
The possessive adjective our shows ownership (possession) for the subjectwe.
Examples:

Our car is new.


(We own the new car.)

Have you seen our children?


(The children belong to us.)

Our chicken has laid an egg.


(We own the chicken.)

7. Their
The possessive adjective their shows ownership (possession) for the subjectthey.
Examples:

Their kitchen is clean.


(They own the clean kitchen.)

They are finishing their chores.


(The chores belong to them.)

Their turtle is a good pet.


(They own the turtle.)

Possessive Pronouns

Do not confuse possessive adjectives with possessive pronouns.


Possessive pronouns show ownership.
They usually come after the noun or object.
The possessive pronouns are:

mine

yours (singular and plural)

his

hers

its

ours

theirs

Examples:

The hat you found is mine.


(I own the hat.)

That coat is yours.


(You own the coat.)

The little boy is hers.


(The little boy belongs to her. He is her son.)

The dog is theirs.


(They own the dog.)

Comparatives and superlatives are types of adjectives and adverbs that are used to compare
two or more things or people.
Comparative means to compare one thing to another.
Comparative adjectives and adverbs compare two things or people.

Comparative Adjectives:
Jan is taller than Sally.
Sally's blue uniform is more colorful than Jan's pink uniform.
Comparative Adverbs:

Sally jumps higher than Jan.


Jan is cheering more quietly than Sally.

Superlative means to the highest degree or the most.


Superlative adjectives and adverbs compare three or more things or people.

Superlative Adjectives:
Mrs. Smith is the shortest person in the group.
Kate is wearing the most colorful outfit.
Superlative Adverbs:
Mrs. Smith talks most quietly.
Bob and Sam laugh loudest at Mary's joke.
In this lesson, you will learn how to form and use comparative and superlative adjectives and
adverbs.

Comparative and SuperlativeAdjectives


Word Form

Examples

Comparative
Rule

fine
One syllableadjectives ending in "e"

wise
large

Examples

Superlative
Rule

finer
Add "r"

wiser
larger

Examples
finest

Add "st"

wisest
largest

big
One syllable adjectives ending with
one voweland one consonant

fat
hot

Double the
final
consonant and
add the suffix
"er"

tall
One syllable adjectives with two
vowels or ending with twoconsonants

smart
neat

Two syllable adjectives ending in "y"

angry
happy

Add the suffix


"er"

Change the
"y" to "i" and
add the suffix
"er"

important

Add the word


"more" before
dangerous
the adjective

gentle
Adjectives with two syllables ending
in "er", "le", "ow"

hollow
yellow

hotter

smarter
neater

Add the suffix


"est"

Add the suffix


"er"
(If the word
ends in "e",
just ad "r")

more
important
more
dangerous

gentler
hollower
yellower

hottest

smartest
neatest

prettiest
Change the "y"
to "i" and add
the suffix "est"

happier
more
beautiful

fattest

loudest

prettier
angrier

biggest

tallest

louder

Do not change
beautiful
the word
Adjectives with two or more
syllables not ending in "y"

fatter

Double the final


consonant and
add the suffix
"est"

taller

loud
pretty

bigger

angriest
happiest

Do not change
the word
Add the word
"most" before
the adjective

Add the suffix


"est"
(If the words
ends in "e", just
add "st")

most
beautiful
most
important
most
dangerous

gentlest
hollowest
yellowest

Of course there are exceptions to the rules. (Exception means that they do not follow the rules.)
Here are just a few of the most common adjective exceptions.

Word

Comparative form

Superlative form

good

better

best

bad

worse

worst

far

farther

farthest

far

further

furthest

many

more

most

little

less

least

Some two syllable adjectives can follow two rules. Both forms of these words are grammatically
correct.
For example:
Word

Comparative forms

Superlative forms

friendly

friendlier
more friendly

friendliest
most friendly

quiet

quieter
more quiet

quietest
most quiet

simple

simpler
more simple

simplest
most simple

The elephants are the loudest animals on the boat.


The giraffes are taller than the penguins.
The most gentle animal is the dove.
The elephant is bigger than the monkey.

The first bear feels better than the second bear.


The third bear feels the best of all three bears!
The bear in the middle feels the worst.

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