Transformations

A transformation T:VW is a function that maps

elements from vector space V to W

The function
f(x, y) = x2 + 2y
is a transformation because it maps R2 into R

Linear Transformations

1.Introduction to Linear Transformations

2.The Kernel and Range of a Linear
Transformation
3.Matrices for Linear Transformations

1.Introduction to Linear Transformations

A function T that maps a vector space V into a vector space W:

mapping
T : V
W,

V: the domain of T

V ,W : vector spaces
W: the codomain of T

Image of v under T
If v is a vector in V and w is a vector in W such that

T ( v) w,
then w is called the image of v under T
(For each v, there is only one w)

The range of T
The set of all images of vectors in V (see the figure on the
next slide)

The preimage of w
The set of all v in V such that T(v)=w
(For each w, v may not be unique)
The graphical representations of the domain, codomain, and range
For example, V is R3, W is R3, and T
is the orthogonal projection of any
vector (x, y, z) onto the xy-plane, i.e.
T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
(we will use the above example many
times to explain abstract notions)
Then the domain is R3, the codomain
is R3, and the range is xy-plane (a
subspace of the codomain R3)
(2, 1, 0) is the image of (2, 1, 3)
The preimage of (2, 1, 0) is (2, 1, s),
where s is any real number

Ex 1: A function from R2 into R2

T : R 2 R 2 v (v1 , v2 ) R 2
T (v1 , v2 ) (v1 v2 , v1 2v2 )

(a) Find the image of v=(-1,2) (b) Find the preimage of w=(-1,11)
Sol:
(a) v (1, 2)
T ( v) T (1, 2) (1 2, 1 2(2)) (3, 3)

(b) T ( v) w (1, 11)

T (v1 , v2 ) (v1 v2 , v1 2v2 ) (1, 11)
v1 v2 1
v1 2v2 11
v1 3, v2 4 Thus {(3, 4)} is the preimage of w=(-1, 11)

Linear Transformation

V ,W vector spaces
T : V W A linear transformation of V into W if the
following two properties are true

(1) T (u v) T (u) T ( v), u, v V

(2) T (cu) cT (u),

c R

Notes:
(1) A linear transformation is said to be operation preserving
(because the same result occurs whether the operations of addition
and scalar multiplication are performed before or after the linear
transformation is applied)

T (u v) T (u) T ( v)
Addition
in V

Addition
in W

T (cu) cT (u)
Scalar
multiplication
in V

Scalar
multiplication
in W

(2) A linear transformation T : V V from a vector space into

itself is called a linear operator

Ex 2: Verifying a linear transformation T from R2 into R2

T (v1 , v2 ) (v1 v2 , v1 2v2 )

Pf:

u (u1 , u2 ), v (v1 , v2 ) : vector in R 2 , c : any real number

(1) Vector addition :
u v (u1 , u2 ) (v1 , v2 ) (u1 v1 , u2 v2 )

T (u v) T (u1 v1 , u2 v2 )
((u1 v1 ) (u2 v2 ), (u1 v1 ) 2(u2 v2 ))
((u1 u2 ) (v1 v2 ), (u1 2u2 ) (v1 2v2 ))
(u1 u2 , u1 2u2 ) (v1 v2 , v1 2v2 )
T (u) T ( v)

(2) Scalar multiplica tion

cu c(u1 , u2 ) (cu1 , cu2 )
T (cu) T (cu1 , cu 2 ) (cu1 cu 2 , cu1 2cu 2 )
c(u1 u 2 , u1 2u 2 )
cT (u)

Therefore, T is a linear transformation

Ex 3: Functions that are not linear transformations

(a) f ( x) sin x
sin( x1 x2 ) sin( x1 ) sin( x2 )
(f(x) = sin x is not a linear transformation)

sin( 2 3 ) sin( 2 ) sin( 3 )

(b) f ( x) x 2
( x1 x2 ) 2 x12 x22
(1 2) 2 12 22

(f(x) = x2 is not a linear transformation)

(c) f ( x) x 1
f ( x1 x2 ) x1 x2 1
f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) ( x1 1) ( x2 1) x1 x2 2
f ( x1 x2 ) f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) (f(x) = x+1 is not a linear transformation,
although it is a linear function)

In fact, f (cx) cf ( x)

Notes: Two uses of the term linear.

(1) f ( x) x 1 is called a linear function because its graph
is a line
(2) f ( x) x 1 is not a linear transformation from a vector
space R into R because it preserves neither vector
addition nor scalar multiplication

Zero transformation:
T :V W

Identity transformation:
T :V V

T ( v) 0, v V
T ( v) v, v V

Theorem 1 : Properties of linear transformations

T : V W , u, v V
(1) T (0) 0 (T(cv) = cT(v) for c=0)
(2) T ( v) T ( v) (T(cv) = cT(v) for c=-1)
(3) T (u v) T (u) T ( v) (T(u+(-v))=T(u)+T(-v) and property (2))
(4) If v c1v1 c2 v2 cn vn ,
then T ( v) T (c1v1 c2 v2 cn vn )
c1T (v1 ) c2T (v2 ) cnT (vn )
(Iteratively using T(u+v)=T(u)+T(v) and T(cv) = cT(v))

Ex 4: Linear transformations and bases

Let T : R3 R3 be a linear transformation such that
T (1,0,0) (2,1,4)
T (0,1,0) (1,5,2)
T (0,0,1) (0,3,1)

Find T(2, 3, -2)

Sol:
(2,3,2) 2(1,0,0) 3(0,1,0) 2(0,0,1)
According to the fourth property on the previous slide that

T (c1v1 c2v2 cn vn ) c1T (v1 ) c2T (v2 ) cnT (vn )

T (2,3,2) 2T (1,0,0) 3T (0,1,0) 2T (0,0,1)

2(2,1,4) 3(1,5,2) 2T (0,3,1)
(7,7,0)

Linear Transformations

Basis vectors span vector space

Know where basis goes, know where rest goes
So we can do the following:

Transform basis

Store as columns in a matrix

Use matrix to perform linear transforms

Linear Transforms

Example: T ( x, y ) ( x 2 y ,2 x y )
(1,0) maps to (1,2)
(0,1) maps to (2,1)
Matrix is

1 2

2 1

Ex 5: A linear transformation defined by a matrix

0
3
v1
2
3

The function T : R R is defined as T ( v) Av 2

1

v 2

(a) Find T ( v), where v (2, 1)

(b) Show that T is a linear transformation form R 2 into R3

Sol:

(a) v (2, 1)

R 2 vector R 3 vector

0
3
6
2
T ( v) Av 2
1 3

1
1 2
0
T (2,1) (6,3,0)
(b) T (u v) A(u v) Au Av T (u) T ( v)
T (cu) A(cu) c( Au) cT (u)

(vector addition)
(scalar multiplication)

Theorem 2 : The linear transformation defined by a matrix

Let A be an mn matrix. The function T defined by
T ( v) Av
is a linear transformation from Rn into Rm

Note:

R n vector

R m vector

a11 a12 a1n v1 a11v1 a12v2 a1n vn

a21 a22 a2 n v2 a21v1 a22v2 a2 n vn
Av

am1 am 2 amn vn am1v1 am 2 v2 amn vn

T ( v) Av
T : Rn
R m

If T(v) can represented by Av, then T is a linear transformation

If the size of A is mn, then the domain of T is Rn and the
codomain of T is Rm

Ex 7: Rotation in the plane

Show that the L.T. T : R 2 R 2 given by the matrix

cos
A
sin

sin
cos

has the property that it rotates every vector in R2

counterclockwise about the origin through the angle
Sol:
(Polar coordinates: for every point on the xyv ( x, y) (r cos , r sin ) plane, it can be represented by a set of (r, ))
rthe length of v ( x 2 y 2 )
the angle from the positive
x-axis counterclockwise to
the vector v

T(v)
v

cos sin x cos

T ( v) Av

sin cos y sin

r cos cos r sin sin

r sin cos r cos sin

r cos( )

r sin( )

sin r cos
cos r sin
according to the addition
formula of trigonometric
identities

rremain the same, that means the length of T(v) equals the
length of v
+the angle from the positive x-axis counterclockwise to
the vector T(v)
Thus, T(v) is the vector that results from rotating the vector v
counterclockwise through the angle

Ex 8: A projection in R3
The linear transformation T : R3 R3 is given by

1 0 0
A 0 1 0

0
0
0

is called a projection in R3

1 0 0 x x
If v is ( x, y, z ), Av 0 1 0 y y
0 0 0 z 0
In other words, T maps every vector in R3
to its orthogonal projection in the xy-plane,
as shown in the right figure

Ex 9: The transpose function is a linear transformation from

Mmn into Mn m

T ( A) AT

(T : M mn M nm )

Show that T is a linear transformation

Sol:

A, B M mn
T ( A B) ( A B)T AT BT T ( A) T ( B)
T (cA) (cA)T cAT cT ( A)
Therefore, T (the transpose function) is a linear transformation
from Mmn into Mnm

2. The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation

Kernel of a linear transformation T

Let T : V W be a linear transformation. Then the set of
all vectors v in V that satisfy T ( v) 0 is called the kernel
of T and is denoted by ker(T)
ker(T ) {v | T ( v) 0, v V }
For example, V is R3, W is R3, and T is the
orthogonal projection of any vector (x, y, z)
onto the xy-plane, i.e. T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
Then the kernel of T is the set consisting of
(0, 0, s), where s is a real number, i.e.

ker(T ) {(0,0, s) | s is a real number}

Ex 1: Finding the kernel of a linear transformation

T ( A) AT (T : M 32 M 23 )

Sol:
0 0
ker(T ) 0 0

0
0

Ex 2: The kernel of the zero and identity transformations

(a) If T(v) = 0 (the zero transformation T : V W ), then
ker(T ) V
(b) If T(v) = v (the identity transformation T : V V ), then
ker(T ) {0}

Ex 5: Finding the kernel of a linear transformation

x1
1 1 2
3
2
T (x) Ax
x
(
T
:
R

R
)
2

1 2 3 x
3
ker(T ) ?
Sol:
ker(T ) {( x1 , x2 , x3 ) | T ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) (0,0), and ( x1, x2 , x3 ) R3}
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) (0,0)

x1
1

0
x2
1 2

3 0
x3

 1 1 2 0 G.-J. E. 1 0 1 0
1 2 3 0 0 1 1 0

x1 t 1
x2 t t 1

x3 t 1

ker(T ) {t (1,1,1) | t is a real number}

span{(1,1,1)}

Ex 6: Finding a basis for the kernel

Let T : R 5 R 4 be defined by T (x) Ax, where x is in R 5 and
1
2
A
1

2 0
1 3
0 2
0 0

1 1
1 0
0 1

2 8

Find a basis for ker(T) as a subspace of R5

Sol:
To find ker(T) means to find all x satisfying T(x) = Ax = 0.
Thus we need to form the augmented matrix A 0 first

A
1
2

0
2 0
1 3
0 2
0 0

1 1
1 0
0 1
2 8

0
1
0 G.-J. E. 0

0
0

0
0

x1 2s t
2 1
x s 2t
1 2
2

x x3 s s 1 t 0

4
t
4

0 4
x5 t
0 1

0 2
1 1
0 0
0 0

0 1
0 2
1 4
0 0

0
0
0

B (2, 1, 1, 0, 0), (1, 2, 0, 4, 1): one basis for the kernel of T

Theorem 3: The kernel is a subspace of V

The kernel of a linear transformation T : V W is a
subspace of the domain V
Pf:

T (0) 0 (by Theorem) ker(T ) is a nonempty subset of V

Let u and v be vectors in the kernel of T . Then
T (u v) T (u) T ( v) 0 0 0
T is a linear transformation

T (cu) cT (u) c0 0

(u ker(T ), v ker(T ) u v ker(T ))

(u ker(T ) cu ker(T ))

Thus, ker(T ) is a subspace of V (according to Theorem 4.5

that a nonempty subset of V is a subspace of V if it is closed
under vector addition and scalar multiplication)

Corollary to Theorem 3 :
Let T : R n R m be the linear fransformation given by T (x) Ax.
Then the kernel of T is equal to the solution space of Ax 0

T (x) Ax (a linear transformation T : R n R m )

ker(T ) NS ( A) x | Ax 0, x R n (subspace of R n )
The kernel of T equals the nullspace of A (and these two are
both subspaces of Rn )
So, the kernel of T is sometimes called the nullspace of T

Range of a linear transformation T :

Let T : V W be a linear transformation. Then the set of all
vectors w in W that are images of any vectors in V is called the
range of T and is denoted by range (T )
range (T ) {T ( v) | v V }
For the orthogonal projection of
any vector (x, y, z) onto the xyplane, i.e. T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
The domain is V=R3, the codomain
is W=R3, and the range is xy-plane
(a subspace of the codomian R3)
Since T(0, 0, s) = (0, 0, 0) = 0, the
kernel of T is the set consisting of
(0, 0, s), where s is a real number

Theorem 4: The range of T is a subspace of W

The range of a linear transformation T : V W is a subspace of W

Pf:

T (0) 0 (by Theorem)

range(T ) is a nonempty subset of W

Since T (u) and T ( v) are vectorsin range(T ), and we have

because u v V

T (u) T ( v) T (u v) range(T )
T is a linear transformation

cT (u) T (cu) range(T )

because cu V

Range of T is closed under vector addition

because T (u), T ( v), T (u v) range(T )

Range of T is closed under scalar multi

plication because T (u) and T ( cu) range(T )

Thus, range(T ) is a subspace of W (according to Theorem 4.5

that a nonempty subset of W is a subspace of W if it is closed
under vector addition and scalar multiplication)

Notes:
T : V W is a linear transformation
(1) ker(T ) is subspace of V (Theorem 2)
(2) range (T ) is subspace of W (Theorem 3)

Kernel

0
T

V
Range

Corollary to Theorem 4:
Let T : R n R m be the linear transformation given by T (x) Ax.
The range of T is equal to the column space of A, i.e. range (T ) CS ( A)
(1) According to the definition of the range of T(x) = Ax, we know that the
range of T consists of all vectors b satisfying Ax=b, which is equivalent to
find all vectors b such that the system Ax=b is consistent
(2) Ax=b can be rewritten as

a11
a12
a
a
Ax x1 21 x2 22




am1
am 2

a1n
a
xn 2 n b


amn

Therefore, the system Ax=b is consistent iff we can find (x1, x2,, xn)
such that b is a linear combination of the column vectors of A, i.e. b CS ( A)
Thus, we can conclude that the range consists of all vectors b, which is a linear
combination of the column vectors of A or said b CS ( A) . So, the column space
of the matrix A is the same as the range of T, i.e. range(T) = CS(A)

Use our example to illustrate the corollary to Theorem 3:

For the orthogonal projection of any vector (x, y, z) onto the xyplane, i.e. T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
According to the above analysis, we already knew that the range
of T is the xy-plane, i.e. range(T)={(x, y, 0)| x and y are real
numbers}
T can be defined by a matrix A as follows

1 0 0
A 0 1 0 , such that
0 0 0

1 0 0 x x
0 1 0 y y

0 0 0 z 0

The column space of A is as follows, which is just the xy-plane

1
0
0 x1
CS ( A) x1 0 x2 1 x3 0 x2 , where x1 , x2 R
0
0
0 0

Ex 7: Finding a basis for the range of a linear transformation

Let T : R 5 R 4 be defined by T (x) Ax, where x is R 5 and
1
2
A
1

2 0
1 3
0 2
0 0

1 1
1 0
0 1

2 8

Find a basis for the range of T

Sol:
Since range(T) = CS(A), finding a basis for the range of T is
equivalent to fining a basis for the column space of A

1
2
A
1

2 0
1 3
0 2
0 0

c1 c2

c3

1 1
1
1 0 G.-J. E. 0

0
0 1

2 8
0

c4

c5

0 2
1 1
0 0
0 0

0 1
0 2
B
1 4

0 0

w1 w2 w3 w4 w5

w1 , w2 , and w4 are indepdnent, so w1 , w2 , w4 can

form a basis for CS ( B )
Row operations will not affect the dependency among columns
c1 , c2 , and c4 are indepdnent, and thus c1 , c2 , c4 is
a basis for CS ( A)
That is, (1, 2, 1, 0), (2, 1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0, 2) is a basis
for the range of T