Refraction at a single curved

spherical surface
This is the beginning of a sequence of classes which
will introduce simple and complex lens systems
We will start with some terminology which will become
more important as we get farther along
We will also introduce sign conventions which are very
important to doing geometrical optics correctly

Refraction at a curved surface

Geometrical construction for exact ray
Small angle (paraxial) approximation
Focal points of single surfaces
January 01

LASERS 51

Terminology-object
Object is something that
emits light
Often symbolized by arrow
Each object point emits rays
in all directions
Usually only base and tip of
arrow are considered
Some rays go through optical
system, dont

Length of arrow is object

height

Rays from the object are

referred to as being in
object space
January 01

rays
from tip
of object

object

Entrance pupil
of optical
system
rays from
base of
object

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Terminology-image
Rays coming from optical
system converge to the
image
Assuming perfect optical
system
This is called real image
Image can be observed on a
screen

These rays are referred to

as being in image space
Length of arrow is image
height
Image height / object height
= magnification
January 01

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Object
Point

Terminology

a
b

Optical System

a
b

Image Space

c
Optical Axis
Obj
ectObject Space
spac
c
y
a
r
e
e
c
a
p
ray
Image-s

Image point

Optical system= one or more refracting/reflecting surfaces

Often rotationally symmetric, centers of curvature all on one line,
the optical axis much more complicated if not symmetric

Each ray entering the optical system corresponds to one

ray leaving the optical system (a-a, b-b, c-c)
For a perfect optical system, all rays leaving an object point
intersect at a single point, the image point

Physically rays in object space are line segments

Start at source, end at first surface of optical system
January 01

In optics, we extend the ray in both directions to an infinite line

Do the same for image space rays, extend to infinity in both directions

LASERS 51

Terminology-3D considerations

Light leaves the object

going in all directions
object in vertical plane
Rays entering optical
system in vertical
plane are meridional
Rays entering in
horizontal plane are
sagittal

Meridional rays

First surface in
optical system
Skew ray

Object

Sagittal rays

For an object on the optical axis all rays are meridional

When meridional and sagittal rays form images in
different positions, the system has astigmatism
Any ray which is not meridional (whether sagittal or
not) is called a skew ray
skew rays are more difficult to trace or to understand
January 01

LASERS 51

Geometrical optics sign conventions

Very important to be consistent, avoid errors

Not universal, many variations
Surfaces numbered in the order which light strikes them
(not always left to right)
Surface zero is object, last surface is image
1. Light travels left to right (for ray-tracing, not in real life!!!!)
or exits the system to the right when mirrors are in system

2. Radius positive when the center is to the right of the surface

3. Distances between surfaces positive when measured to the right
4. Index of refraction positive except negative when light travels to the left
5. Angles positive when measured in counterclockwise direction
6. Heights positive when above optical axis
Note: small font indicates conventions that are only important in
catadioptric
systems, i.e. systems which include mirrors LASERS 51
January
01

Single ray refraction at spherical interface

i

y
a
r
l
a
i
t
i
u
n
I
t1

n1

Refracted
ray
i

t2

n2

All distances, angles and indices are positive except u

Snells law relates i and i
use geometry to get relation between u, and u
Real ray tracing is messy and complicated
When angles and beam height, h, are small, the
paraxial approximation makes things much easier
January 01

LASERS 51

Construction to find refracted ray

n1
A
Index=n1

parallel

P
n2

B
C
Index=n2

Draw incident ray, and a radius to the point,P, where ray

strikes surface
Mark a point, A, along incident ray a distance n1 from P
Mark a point, B, along radius a distance n2 from point A
Connect the points A and B
The refracted ray is parallel to the line AB
January 01

LASERS 51

Rays from one point dont converge to

one point
Four rays graphically traced
n1=1
n2=1.5

Rays striking higher on surface cross axis closer to

surface
undercorrected spherical aberration

Rays not far from optical axis come close to a

single point
January 01

LASERS 51

Paraxial (small angle) rays-Gaussian optics

nu

-nu h/R

u1

u2
C

s1

n1
surface

Vertical scale is greatly

exaggerated

n2

s2
index circles

h n1u1 n2u 2
From green triangle =
R
n2 n1
Paraxial
n2 n1
or n1u1 n2u2 =
h refraction
R

index circles become lines

radius line not
equation
perpendicular to surface
Since u1=h/s1, and u2=-h/s2
n1 n2 n2 n1 h doesnt
+ =
appear!!!
s1 s2
R
January 01

LASERS 51

Focal points
R

R
f2=secondary
focal
length

f1=primary
focal
length

n2>n
n1
n1R
n2 R
f1 =
f2 =
n2 n1
n2 n1
Rays from an infinitely distant object converge at the
secondary focal point (within the paraxial approximation)
set s1= in imaging equation
Rays from primary focal point are refracted parallel to
axis, image at infinity
set s2= in imaging equation

n1

January 01

n2>n1

LASERS 51

Lateral magnification
y1
F
C
s2

s1
n1

n2>n1

Objects off the axis also image to

a single point in paraxial optics
image to a point off the axis in
image space

For extended objects, each point

is imaged
January 01

y2

From similar triangles

(shaded)
y2
s2 R
n1s2
m
=
=
y1
s1 + R
n2 s1

LASERS 51

How we see

For a real object

Light emitted from each part is collected by the eye

For a real image projected on a screen

Screen reflects light from each point, some enters eye

For a virtual image

Optical system deviates rays so they appear to be
coming from a point on a real object.
Optical processing part of brain cant tell difference
January 01

LASERS 51

Real and virtual objects and images

n2>n1
n1
Real object
Real image

n1 n2<n1
Real object
Virtual image

n2<n1
n1
Virtual object
Real image

Images
Real: rays in image space intersect at image
Virtual: rays in image space diverge from image point,
but dont actually meet at the point

Objects
Real: rays in object space intersect at object
Virtual: rays in object space converge to object point,
but dont actually meet at the point

Sign convention automatically covers all cases!!

LASERS 51

January 01

Lenses

A simple lens consists of two spherical surfaces

bounding a homogeneous medium
refractive index on both sides of the lens is often but not
always the same

Ray tracing through a lens (sequential raytracing)

trace the ray (either real or paraxial) through the first
surface using previous formulae
follow it in a straight line till it strikes the second surface
trace the ray through the second surface
January 01

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PropertiesSecond
of lenses (paraxial)
Principal Plane

Secondary focal
point
f

Rays from infinity focus at the back focal point

The point where the final ray and the incident ray
intersect determines the second principal plane
Second focal length is the distance from the
second principal plane to the second focal point
Distance from back surface to focal point called
back focal length or BFL

January 01

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Paraxial properties of lenses (cont.)

First
Principal Plane

Primary focal
point
f

Front (or primary) focal point and first principal

plane defined similarly
distance from primary focal point to first principal plane is
the first focal length

If the index on both sides of the lens is the same,

then first and second focal lengths are the same
called effective focal length (EFL)
January 01

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Importance of principal planes

Focal
points

Principal planes

Ray from object, parallel to optical axis seems to deflect

at 2nd principal plane; goes through 2nd focal pt.
Ray from object, passing through 1st focal pt. deflects at
1st principal plane; emerges parallel to optical axis
Image located at intersection of these rays in image space
All the refraction appears to take
place at the principal planes
January 01

LASERS 51