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Aniruddha Sinha
Mechanics: science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies
boundaries
Fluid mechanics may be called fluid dynamics when treating fluids at
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What is a fluid?
engineers/scientists
Closer look at molecular structure is more fruitful for categorization
Arrangement of molecules
Their energy
Distance between them
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www.schoolphysics.co.uk/
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freedom of movement
Liquids are easily deformed but not easily compressed (i.e., change
www.physicalgeography.net
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freedom of motion
Gases are easily deformed and compressed
They cannot form a free surface (expands to fill any volume)
chemwiki.ucdavis.edu
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external forces
Elastic: regain shape when force is removed
Inelastic: otherwise
Exception: Geological scales (formation of mountains) large forces
Fluids (both liquids and gases) under the action of forces have
www-mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk
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the next
Corollary: We can write derivatives such as dp/dx
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Kn =
Flow becomes continuum as distance between particles reduces w.r.t. domain size
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standard conditions?
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standard conditions?
Ans: About 3 107
Large enough for robust definition of fluid properties (e.g., density)
Micron-sized element still meaningful in study of most everyday flows
Distance between air molecules is 3 109 m
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standard conditions?
Ans: About 3 107
Large enough for robust definition of fluid properties (e.g., density)
Micron-sized element still meaningful in study of most everyday flows
Distance between air molecules is 3 109 m
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If the fluid density is expected to change from point to point, the element
size should not be too large
This will affect the resolution of the property estimate
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:= lim
V
M
,
V
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Velocity
In fluid mechanics, various particles of the fluid move with different speeds
As we change x, y , z, or t the velocity changes:
V = V (x, y , z, t)
Velocity is a vector field, i.e.,
u = u (x, y , z, t) ,
v = v (x, y , z, t) ,
w = w (x, y , z, t)
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Shear force
,
Surface area
Normal stress, p :=
Normal force
Surface area
Surface forces are proportional to surface area, so that shear and normal
stress do not depend on the surface area or size of the fluid particle; e.g.:
Shear stress =
Shear force
lim
area0 Surface area
Note that this limit must be seen in the context of the continuum hypothesis
Therefore, in the strictest sense,
Shear stress = limV
Shear force
Surface area
Normal force
Surface area
with the relevant surface of the fluid particle being oriented as desired
throughout the limiting procedure
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Pressure
Fnormal
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Shear stress
Consider a fluid particle, with one of its
(locally-plane) surfaces being of area A
The fluid or solid neighbouring this surface will
exert a tangential force Ftangent
A
Ftangent,1
Ftangent,2
Ftangent,1
1 := limV
A
min < < max ,
Ftangent,2
2 := limV
A
SI unit of shear stress is N m2 (its rare that shear strain is reported in Pa)
N.B.: Shear stress always tries to stop the fluid particle from moving; it is
frictional force per unit area
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Shear stress
Shear stresses always offers resistance
Shear stresses tend to make the
velocities of neighbouring particles more
equal
Shear stress is zero when fluid is not
flowing
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Properties of fluids
Fluid properties can be classified as:
Physical properties
Constitutive properties: relation between two physical properties
Examples of physical properties:
Density
Surface tension
Vapour pressure
Examples of constitutive properties:
Viscosity
Bulk modulus (compressibility)
Thermal conductivity
Mass diffusivity
Properties (or variables) of flow (as opposed to those of the fluid):
Velocity
Pressure
Temperature
Density (yes, may be a property of flow too!)
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a non-rectangular particle
To be precise, shear strain is the change in included angle (in radians)
N.B.: rate of change shear strain for solid w.r.t. time is zero
Even when shear force is unchanged, the shear strain of fluid changes w.r.t.
time; i.e., finite shear strain rate
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At time t
X
At time t + t
u(y + y)
Xu
x
X
u(y)
Xl
xy
u/y
At time t
X
At time t + t
u(y + y)
Xu
x
X
u(y)
Xl
xy
u/y
At time t
X
At time t + t
u(y + y)
Xu
x
X
u(y)
Xl
xy
u/y
Newtonian fluids
Fluids for which remains constant in the equation xy = u/y are
called Newtonian fluids
N.B. The for Newtonian fluids may still vary with temperature, but is
independent of the actual shear stress imposed
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this simple linear relation between shear stress and shear strain rate
Instead a more general relation may be a more appropriate model for
such fluids
xy = A + B (u/y )
the index n
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xy = A + B (u/y )
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www.ce.utexas.edu
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www.ce.utexas.edu
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discontinuity at interfaces
*www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUTkqZeiMow
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momentum
Mathematically, viscosity is the transport property that accounts for
Ev =
dp
dp
=
dV /V
d/
Ev =
dp
dp
=
dV /V
d/
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity is also a constitutive property of a fluid
It relates the transport of heat to the temperature field
Its a measure of how quickly thermal energy diffuses through a medium
Thermal conductivity is given by Fouriers law of heat conduction
qx =
T
x
of heat flux
Negative sign accounts for heat flow down the temperature gradient
SI unit is Wm1 K1
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T
x
xy =
u
y
Temperature gradient
Velocity gradient
Thermal conductivity
viscosity
Surface tension
Drops of liquid exist freely in nature
They resemble balloons i.e., outer surface
dL4
dL1
Fluid interface
dL3
Dew drop
Mercury drops
dL2
isnt symmetric
Gas molecules outside exert negligible
attractive forces
Thus there is a net attractive force on molecules at the surface direct
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p
+ R21
R11
p dA
dL1
dL2
R1
dL1
R2
dL2
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2aw
R
4as
R
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(a) Rise of column for a wetting liquid. (b) Free-body diagram for calculating
height difference, h. (c) Depression of column for a non-wetting liquid.
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Vapour pressure
Vapour pressure (pv ): pressure at which a liquid boils and is in
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Cavitation on propeller