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MeasuringAttitudesinScience:WhatExactly
areweMeasuringandWhy?
JaneJohnston
DepartmentofPrimaryEducation
TheNottinghamTrentUniversity
PaperpresentedatB.E.R.A.1997.
ABSTRACT:
Thispaperanalysestraditionaltoolsusedtomeasurescientificattitudesinsecondaryschoolchildren
andconsiderstheirusewithyoungerchildrenandadults.Itthendescribesthedevelopmentof
alternativetoolstoelicitandmeasureattitudes,focusingonfiveaffectivedimensionslookingat
individuals'beliefsabout,
theiradoptionofscientificattitudes,
theirattitudetoscientificinquiry,
thesocialimplicationofscience,
therelevanceofscience
thenatureofscienceandscientists.
Oncerigorouslycomparedwithmoretraditionalmeasuresandtheirvaliditythusconsidered,possible
futuredevelopmentscanbediscussedinanswertothequestion'Whyarewemeasuringattitudes?'.
Introduction
Studyofthecomplexandnebulousareaofattitudesandsciencehasbeenontheincreaseinrecent
years,althoughhinderedbyimportantresearchquestionssuchas'Whatisanattitude?'and'Howcan
wemeasureattitude?'.
Attitudescanbedescribedasposturesorpositionsadoptedorexpressionsofviewsorthoughtsthat
haveaneffectonbehaviour,ideasoremotions.Thishasledtoatripartiteviewofattitude,arisingout
ofHovland'sLearningTheoryModel(Hovland,Irving&Kelly,1963)whichseparatesaffective,
cognitiveandbehaviouralaspectsofattitude.Thisdivisionhasbeenbothusefulandconfusingand
theredoesappeartobeasmuchoverlapasdivision,withinteractionoccuringbetweenthewayan
individualfeelsandthewaytheythinkandact.Indeed,wecanarguethataffectiveattitudesarethe
rootofbothcognitiveandbehaviouralattitudes,sothathowwebehaveisaresultofhowwethink
andaninterrelationofhowwefeelandthink.

Inscienceandscienceeducation,themajordivisionhasbeenintermsofscientificattitudes,thatis
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cognitiveandbehaviouralattitudesnecessarytoundertakescientificinquiry,tobescientific,and
attitudestowardsscienceoraffectiveattitudes(Gardner1975,Johnston1996).
Educationhasgenerallyfocusedonchangingscientificattitudeswhicharerootedinbehaviourand
cognition(e.g.Harlen,1977a&b).Research,ontheotherhand,hasconcentratedonidentifying
aspectsofaffectiveattitudes(Fraser1978)andtheeffectsofaffectiveattitudesonbehaviourand
cognition(Fraser1982,Shrigley1990),oftenbasedonAjzen&Fishbein's(1980)theoryofreasoned
action.
Theimportanceofaffectiveattitudesisgenerallyaccepted.Theyarethoughttoinfluencepersonal
andsocialdecisionmaking(Millar,1997)aswellasaffectperformanceinschoolscience(NCC1989,
Johnston,1996,Harlen1996)andespeciallyuptakeofscienceathigherlevels(Sears1992,Havard
1996).IntheUK,therecentinterestindevelopingthepublicunderstandingofscience,throughthe
workoftheRoyalSocietyandtheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceandmost
particularlytheNationalWeekofScience,EngineeringandTechnology,hasbeencriticizedfor
focusingon'flagwaving'(Thomas,1997)addressingsuperficialaffectiveattitudesratherthanthe
rootcausesofattitude.
Botheducationandresearchhashighlightedthecontinuedneedforthedevelopmentofaffective
attitudestoscience,notonlyinchildrenbutteachersandinitialteachertrainingstudents(Johnston,
Ahtee&Hayes1996,Watters&Ginns,1994),aswellasparents(ASE,1992Johnston,1995).Some
projectse.g.parentalinteractiveworkshops,describedbyElandetal.(1995)andSEARCH(Science
EducationandResearchforCHildren)describedbyBruceetal(1997),advocatecollaborative
methodsofattitudechange.Thisisinrecognitionthatdevelopmentofattitudewilloccurthrough
earlyinteractionswithfamily,teachersandpeers,beinginfluencedbyunconsciousprejudices,
interestsandideas.
MeasuringAttitudes.
Measurementofaffectiveattitudeshasbeenproblematicastherearequestionsaboutwhatattitudes
arebeingmeasuredandhowtheyaremeasuredbutquestionsaboutthequestioningcontextandthe
validityoftheresponse.
Anumberofresearchershaveaddressedtheproblemofmeasuringattitudestosciencebydevising
semanticdifferentialtests(e.g.Ahtee&Rikkinen1995)orsubjectpreferencestudies(e.g.Havard
1996).Whilstthesetestsareeasytoadministerproblemsofanalysisandinterpretationcanoccur,as
theyareoftendecontextualizedanddonotmeasureattitudechange.Morecommonmeasurements
involvetheuseofLikerttypescales(1932),whichmeasureattitudewithinidentifieddimensions(e.g.
NBEET1993).Thesetoo,areoftendecontexualized,butevenifsetwithinaspecificcontexttheycan
posedifficultiesbecausegeneralizationscannotbemade(Driveret.al1996).Suchscalescanalso
poseanalyticaldifficultiesbecausetheyarenotnecessarilyunidimensionalandinternallyconsistent
(Gardner1995),buteventhosestatisticalsoundscaleshavebeenfoundtobeoflimiteduse,
particularlywithgroupsotherthansecondaryschoolchildren.Likerttypescaleswithalargenumber
ofstatementsmaynotbecarefullyconsideredbyadultswhowillveertowardsthemiddlegroundin
responding,orindicateespousedviews,thusgivinglittleindicationoftheirimplicitviewsorhow
theseviewsaffectdecisionsoractions.Theattitudesyoungchildrenholdtowardsscienceand
scientistsareoftengaugedusinga'drawascientist'test(Chambers1983).Morerecentstudies
(A.S.E.1997)havefocusedontheespousedviewsofyoungchildreninanswertosetquestions,
althoughthefocusremainsprimarilyonviewsofscienceandscientists.
Thereseemstobeaneedforformativemeasures,ofusewithawideagerangeofindividualsfrom
childthroughtoadultwhichexplainattitudesandalsoindicateexperienceswhicharesignificantin
thedevelopmentofsciencerelatedattitudes.Theuseofthedrawascientisttestandpicture
interactionhasbeenofuseinraisingawarenessofviewsofscientistsandrelevanceofscience
(Johnston,1995)inadultsandconsiderationofindividualsciencebiographies(Gray1996)hasbeen
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ofuseinexplainingheldattitudesasaresultofsciencerelatedincidents.
TheDevelopmentofNewTools.
Thisstudyinvolvesthemodificationanduseoftechniquesandstrategies,previouslysuccessfulin
raisingawarenessofandexplainingsciencerelatedattitudes,suchaspictureinteractionandcritical
incidentanalysis.Itfocusesonfivedimensionsreflectingtheinterrelationshipbetweenaffective,
behaviouralandcognitiveattitudestoscience.ThesedimensionsaretakenfromFraser'sTestof
ScienceRelatedAttitudes(1981)whichhasbeensubstantiallyusedandvalidated(Schibeci&
McGraw1981).Theywerechosenasthemostappropriatedimensionsforusewithawiderangeof
individuals.
StatementsfromTOSRAwhichrelatedtothesefivedimensionswereusedtocreateaLikerttype
questionnaire.Statementswerechosenbecauseoftheirsuitabilityforusewithourchosentarget
group,adultsattendingprimaryscienceworkshops.
ViewsofScienceandScientists
Scientistsaremorecommittedtosciencethantheirfamilies
Scientistsarelessfriendlythanotherpeople
Scientistshavediversehobbiesandinterests
Youcanalwaystellascientistbytheirappearance
Scientistsareconcernedabouttheirworkingenvironment
AttitudetoScientificInquiry,
Iwouldprefertofindoutwhysomethinghappensbydoinganexperimentthanbybeing
told
Iliketoquestionscientificideasbecausesciencedoesnotknoweverything
IcanwatchthetelevisiontofindoutallIneedaboutscience
IammorelikelytounderstandscienceifIexperienceitmyselfratherthanbeingtold
Iwouldprefertoreadaboutsciencethandoit
AdoptionofScientificAttitude
Iamcuriousabouttheworldinwhichwelive
Wedon'tneedtorepeatexperimentstocheckthatwe'vegotthecorrectresults
Ienjoyreadingaboutthingswhichdisagreewithmypreviousideas
InscienceexperimentsIliketousenewmethodswhichIhavenotusedbefore
Iamunwillingtochangemyideas
RelevanceofScience
Sciencelessonsareawasteoftime
Scienceisimportantsothereshouldbemoresciencelessons
Acareerinsciencewouldbeboring
Igetboredwatchingscienceprogrammesonthetelevision
Iusemyscienceknowledgeinsomeofmyleisureactivities
SocialImplicationsofScience
Scientificdiscoveriesaredoingmoreharmthangood
Toomuchmoneyisbeingspentonsciencewhichcouldbeputtoabetteruse
Moneyspentonscienceiswellworthspending
Sciencehelpstomakelifebetter
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Moremoneyshouldbespentonscientificresearch
Scoringonthisquestionnairewasincommonwithotherlikerttypescales,withstrongagreementto
negativestatementsscoring1markandtopositivestatements5marks.
Negativeresponses
Strongagreement=1,Agreement=2,Notsure=3,Disagree=4,Strongdisagreement=5
Positiveresponses
Strongagreement=5,Agreement=4,Notsure=3,Disagree=2,Strongdisagreement=1
Thusahighscore(<25)woulddenoteapositiveattitudeandalowscore(5>)anegativeattitude.
Theaimwastodevelopalternativetoolstomeasureattitudewhichwouldcomparesignificantlywith
thequestionnaire,butalsobeoffutureusewithyoungerchildren.Additionally,bybeinginteractive,
itcouldraisepossibleexplanationsforthoseattitudesmeasured.Initiallythedevisedtoolswereused
aspartofatwohourinteractiveprimaryscienceworkshopwithadultsandtheresultingscores
comparedwiththequestionnaireresponsesbythesamepeople.
A'DrawandDescribe'ascientistposteraimedtocollectdataonviewsofscienceandscientists.These
hadpreviouslybeenusedsuccessfullywithadultsandchildrenandwereadaptedtoenablescoring
andcomparisonwiththescoresonlikertquestionnaireitems.Marksweredeductedfromaninitial
scoreof13foreverynegativeandstereotypicalattributeandaddedforeverynonstereotypical
attribute.
Attitudetoscientificinquiry,adoptionofscientificattitudesandrelevanceofsciencewereassessed
usingapictureinteractionsheet.Toascertainattitudetoscientificinquirytherespondentwasaskedto
identifystatementstheyagreedwith,suchas'Idon'tneedtofindoutnewthings'and'Iusescience
ideas'.Markswereagaindeductedforeachnegativestatementidentifiedandaddedforeachpositive
statementahighscorethusindicatingsomeonewhohadapositiveattitudetoscientificinquiry.To
ascertaintheadoptionofscientificattitudesrespondentswereaskedtoidentifyfromagivenbankof
wordsoneswhichdescribedthemselvesasindividuals.Wordsincludedprecise,logical,openminded,
objective.Eachcircledwordwasgiven2marks,sothehigherscoreindicatedanindividualwithmore
positiveviewsoftheirscientificqualities.Relevanceofsciencewasdeterminedbycirclingpicturesof
peoplewhowereusingscientificknowledgeorskillsinanactivitytheywereundertaking(e.g.a
snookerplayer,priest,aweatherforecasterandapoliceman).Marksweregivenforeachpicture
circled.Havingcompletedthissheetrespondentswereencouragedtodiscusstheirviewswithothers,
raisingawarenessoftheirownideasanddifferencesbetweentheirideasandtheideasofothers.
Participantsattheworkshopswereaskedtoconsiderstatementsrelatedtothesocialimplicationsof
scienceandtoindicatewhichstatement,ifany,theyagreedwith.Againtheycoulddiscussthese
statementswithothers,whichwouldaidthesettingoftheviewswithinasocialcontext.
Inadditiontousingthesetools,someworkshopparticipantswereinterviewedwithparticular
referencetothefivedimensionsandwithanadditionalintentionofilluminatingtheexperiences
whichhadbeensignificantinthedevelopmentoftheirattitudestoscience.Inall,responsestothe
questionnaireandpictureinteractionswerecollectedfromover100workshopparticipantsin3
workshops.
PreliminaryFindings.
Itwasobviousatafairlyearlystageofresearchandanalysisthatwehadsomeproblemswiththe
toolsandthatwewerenotnecessarilymeasuringthesamedimensions.Theinteractionsand
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interviewsdidhoweverilluminateaspectsofattitudeandprovideindicationsofhowwecould
improvethetools.
Fromthedataitcouldbeclearlyseenthatrespondentswithahighscoreonthequestionnaireandthus
amorepositiveattitudetowardssciencealsoscorehighonthepictureinteractiontests.However,the
rangeofscoresforthequestionnaireweresignificantlygreaterthanthoseforthepictureinteraction
andmoreimportantlytherewerenosignificantdifferencesbetweentheindividualitems.Itappeared
thatresponsestothepictureinteractionrequiredagreatdealmorethoughtthanresponsestothe
questionnaire,whichcanbecompletedwithlittleconsiderationorwiththeintentionofidentifying
espousedviews.Asaresult,whenrespondingtothepictureinteractionssomeparticipants
experiencedsomeconfusionorconflictbetweentheirespousedviewsandimplicitviewsinmany
casessciencewasnotseenasclearlyasithadbeenpreviously.Itmaybethatinraisingawarenessof
otherviews,theinteractionsexposedthefragilityofindividualviewsandbegantofacilitateachange
ofideas.Thiswouldcorrespondtosimilarfindingsontheuseofpictureinteractionsinchanging
attitudestoscience(Elandet.al1995)andillustratethepossiblepowerofinteractioninattitudeshift.
The'Drawanddescribeascientist'testalmostalwaysresultsinastereotypicalwhite,European,male
scientist,unlessthereisaconsciousdecisionmadebytherespondenttoespouseanalternativeview.
Insuchinstanceswhereanonstereotypicalimageisdrawnthecorrelationbetweentheresultsonthe
questionnaireandthepictureinteractionarestronger.Adultrespondents,unanimouslyassignthe
causeofstereotypicalimagestothemediaandwhilstthemediahasanapparentlyprofoundinfluence
onviewsofscienceandscientists,Jarvis'(1994)responsesfromchildrenindicatestheinfluenceof
schoolexperiences.Sheprovidesevidencethatchildrenaremorelikelytoindicatetheirimplicit
viewsofscienceandscientists,drawingpicturesrepresentingtheirexperiencesofschoolscience
themselvesasscientists,theirteacherasascientistortheconnectionbetweenscienceandart,as
scienceisalwaysrecordedbydrawingapicture.
Thequestionnaireandpictureinteractionresponseswithinthedimensions,adoptionofscientific
attitudesandattitudetoscientificinquiry,considerindividualviews(affectiveattitudes)of
behaviouralandcognitiveattitudes.Inaddition,thepracticalworkshopsallowfortheactual
behaviouralandcognitiveattitudesofsomeindividualstobeascertainedandthedifferencesbetween
espousedviewsandactualbehaviourtobeconsidered.Usingthethreemethodsofcollectingdata,
illustratedtheimportanceofcontextinattitudestudy.Responseswithinthepictureinteractionforthe
adoptionofscientificattitudesweredecontextualized,beingwordsdescribingscientificattitudes,
whilstthequestionnaireresponsesandespeciallytheworkshopactivitieswerecontextualizedandas
suchproducedresponseswhichindicatedactualbehaviouralattitudes.Responsestoattitudeto
scientificinquiryweresignificantlysimilarinboththequestionnaireandthepictureinteractionsas
bothinvolvedresponsetostatementsandwereverysimilarinnature.
Theuseofpicturesinconsideringviewsoftherelevanceofsciencehasbeenuseful(Johnston1995),
asnotonlydoesitfirmlysettheviewwithinacontext,butisalsoformativeinillustratingdifferent
viewsonthenatureofscienceandscientificattitude.Debatehasoccurredbetweenrespondents,as
withinthescientificcommunity,astowhetherinformalscienceknowledgeconstitutesactual
knowledgeandsubsequentlywhethertherecanbescientificallyilliterateindividualsinsociety.A
recentarticleinScienceandPublicAffairs(Richards1996)hasaphotographoftwoyoungboys
fishingwiththecaption'Aretheseboysapplyingscienceorsimplecommonsensetotheirfishing?'
whichcapturestheessenceofthisargument,althoughpuristswillargue,asWolpert(1992&1997)
does,that'commonsensescience'isnotrealscience.Mostadultrespondentsarenotpuristsandare
ablethroughinteractiontoidentifythescienceknowledgeandskillsnecessarytoundertakeseemingly
irrelevantactivities.Lackofrelevanceofschoolsciencewasstronglyidentifiedthroughinteractions
andinterviewandindeedschoolsciencewasacontinualfocusforparticipants.
Thereisnocorrelationbetweenresponsesinthequestionnaireandresponsesinthepictureinteraction
foreitherrelevanceofscienceorsocialimplicationsofscience,indicatingthatwearenotmeasuring
thesamedimensions.Insomewaysthisissurprisingforthedimensiondealingwiththesocial
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implicationsofscience,becausebothtoolsrequiresimilarcognitiveresponsestostatementsandboth
providesomecontradictoryresponses.Withinthequestionnaire,respondentsarelikelytoagreethat
'toomuchmoneyisspentonsciencewhichcouldbeputtobetterause'andthat'moneyspenton
scienceiswellworthspending'.Thepictureinteractionsheetforsocialimplicationprovidessome
contextthroughthechosenpicturesbuteachstatementcanbeinterpretedinanumberofdifferent
ways.Respondentshaveindicatedthattheybothagreeanddisagreewiththestatements,depending
uponthedifferentcontextsthattheyapplytothem,forexample,somescientificdiscoveriesdomore
harmthangoodwhilstothersareregardedasbeneficial.
Discussion
Whilstthisstudyisinitsearlystagesandweare,atpresent,nonearertheprovisionoftoolsofusein
diagnosticandformativemeasurementofsciencerelatedattitudes,therearesomedeeperinsightsinto
attitudedevelopmentoccurringfromthisstudy.
Theimportanceofinteractioninattitudedevelopmentandchangewasanimportantaspectofthis
studyfromtheoutset,astheformativenatureofinteractionwasrecognized(Elandet.al.1995).
Wherecognitiveinnatureinteractionmyhavearoleinattitudedevelopmentthroughidentificationof
differencesbetweenimplicitandespousedviewsand,wheninconjunctionwithpracticalengagement,
byidentifyingconflictbetweenespousedviewsandbehaviour.
Thecontextualizationofsituationswasparticularlypowerfulinlookingatsocialimplicationof
scienceandwasusefulinraisingawarenessoftherelevanceofscientificideasindecisionmaking,for
asDriveret.al(1996:1345)saythe'abilitytomakesenseofscientificcontroversiesanddisputes'can
beseenas'animportantfacetofpublicunderstandingofscience'.Thishasimplicationsforaschool
sciencedevoidofrelevantcontextoropportunitiesformoralandethicaldebate(Johnston1995b),
althoughevenmorecompellingistheevidenceoftheprofoundinfluenceofschoolscienceon
developingattitudes.Responsestointeractionsandinterviewsprovidedanecdotalstoriesaboutschool
sciencebeingirrelevantanddecontextualized,backingupresearchotherstudieswhichhave
illustratedtheproblemsofschoolscience(Haladynaet.al.1982andWoolnough1994).More
importantlyistheevidencethatpositiveexperiencesorcriticalincidents(LaLumia&Baglan1981,
Gray1996)aidthedevelopmentofpositivesciencerelatedattitudes
Althoughitismostlikelythatwearemeasuringdifferentdimensionsandthereisaneedtolinkthe
twomaintoolsusedinthisstudymoreclosely,thereisalsoaneedtolinktheinterviewmethod,
whichdescribesandexplainsattitudetomorequantitativemeasurements.Itissuchstudies,strivingto
understandandexplainaswellasdeveloporchangeattitude,whichprovidetheanswerstothe
question'Whyarewemeasuringattitudes?'.Thereisaneedtoensurethatbothchildrenandthose
whoinfluencethem,mainlytheirparentsandtheirteachers,supportthepositivedevelopmentof
sciencerelatedattitudesthroughpositiveexperiencesinscience.Abetterunderstandingofthe
influencesonsciencerelatedattitudewillhopefullyaddressthisimportantneedinschool.
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