Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CONSOLATION OR CONFRONTATION?
ISAIAH 40-55 AND TFIE DELAY
OF THE NEW EXODUS
Rikki E. Watts
I. Introduction
For most of this century Isaianic scholarship has largely
concerned itself with form-critical analyses of either 'first',
'second' or 'third' Isaiah. In the last decade or so, however,
and while not necessarily repudiating the fruits of earlier
scholarship, there has been an increasing interest in the
compilational motives that gave rise to the present form of the
book as a whole.1 This paper proceeds from an attempt to
synthesize the findings of both of these endeavours.
While chapters 1-39 pronounce judgement upon the
nation they are not without a future hope for a purified
remnant. However, although the opening verses of 40:1ff imply
the imminent fulfilment of this hope, chapters 56-66 make it
clear that the reality of the return left much to be desired.
How is this to be explained? I would suggest that this 'contradiction' is to be understood in terms of the content and distribution of the forms of speech used throughout chapters 40-55. On
this basis chapters 40-48 explain how servant Jacob-Israel's2
persistent 'blindness and deafness' led her to reject Yahweh's
announcement of deliverance, primarily because of his choice of
Cyrus. Chapters 49-55 then describe how Yahweh's New
Exodus plan, although postponed as suggested by the speech
forms, will be realized through the agency of a new, faithful
and suffering servant 'Israel' who will deliver Jacob-Israel and
execute Yahweh's plan for the nations. Chapters 56-66 then
_________________________
1
32
Sweeney, Isaiah, 88, summarizes the arguments for including chapter 55 with
56-66 although he acknowledges that it was first written as a conclusion to 4054. At most he establishes that 55 serves as a bridge to 56-66. There are however literary-thematic structures that are best understood on the basis of the
division 55/56: the structural role of the disputations within 40-55 (see below)
and the otherwise neat chiastic pattern in 56-66 as noted by several commentators: E. Charpentier, Jeunesse du Vieux Testament (Paris: Fayard, 1963) 79-80;
N. Gottwald, The Hebrew Bible: A Socio-Literary Introduction (Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1985), 308; G. J. Polan, In the Ways of Justice Toward Salvation AUS 13
(Series VII) (New York, et al: Peter Lang, 1986), 14-5. E. Hessler, Gott der
Schpfer. Ein Beitrag zur Komposition und Theologie Deuterojesajas Diss.
Greifswald, 1961, 98, 102, 253ff, sees 40:1-11 and 55:1-13, as prologue and epilogue reflecting the structure of 40-55.
4
R. F. Melugin, The Formation of Isaiah 40-55 BZAW 141 (Berlin and New
York: de Gruyter, 1976) and C.Westermann, 'Sprache und Struk tur der
Prophetie Deuterojesajas', in Forshung am A.T. ThB 24 (Munich: Kaiser, 1964)
92-170; Isaiah 40-66 OTL (London: SCM, 1969). P.-E. Bonnard, Le Second Isae,
son disciple et leurs diteurs SB. (Paris: J. Gabalda, 1972), R. Lack, La
Symbolique du Livre d'Isae AB 59 (Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1973) and H.
C. Spykerboer, The Structure and Composition of Deutero-Isaiah Diss. Univ. of
Groningen, 1976, argue for a careful structure while A. Schoors, I am God Your
Saviour, SuppVT 24 (Leiden: Brill, 1973) 296ff, and K. Elliger, Deuterojesaja
40:1-45:7 BKAT XI, 1 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1978) who deny an
overall structure, nevertheless recognize a coherence to the prophet's thought.
5
E.J. Young, The Book of Isaiah III NICOT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965-72)
17.
6
To which it is linked by the motif of promise and fulfilment, R. Clements, 'The
Unity of the Book of Isaiah', Interp 36 (1982) 121ff; 125; Childs, Introduction,
328. On the exodus motif, especially B. W. Anderson, 'Exodus Typology in
33
34
Given that 'shepherd' was another name for 'king' in the ancient near-east,
this passage should probably be included with those that speak of Yahweh as
king; Stuhlmueller, Creation, 81. On Yahweh as king, T. N. D. Mettinger, 'In
Search of the Hidden Structure: YHWH as King in Isaiah 40-55,' SE 51-2
(1986-7) 148-57.
11
Anderson, 'Typology', is probably incorrect in citing 41:17-20 in that this
refers to the new-creational restoration of the desolate land.
12
Stuhlmueller, Creative, 81ff, 94ff, perhaps here under the influence of Sinai
traditions (Ex. 16:7; cf. Is. 49:26; Ex. 9:16; 14:16ff, Anderson, 'Typology', 183.
Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 20ff, details this concern with
and its relevance to
the nations. Eichrodt, Theology II, 13, sees here the influence of Is. 6:3.
13
Just as the deliverance of Israel reaches its climax at Sinai (Ex. 3:12, cf. J. I.
Durham, Exodus WBC Vol.3 (Waco, Texas: Word, 1987), xxiff), so too here,
when Sinai has been subsumed in mount Zion, the new exodus reaches its culmination in the arrival of Yahweh in Jerusalem. 'The prophet thinks of this salvation as a new enthronement of Yahwe at Zion', (52:7; 41:21; 43:15; 44:6; 52:7;
cf. Ex 15:18) Schoors, Saviour, 243; cf. Ezek 20:33 where Yahweh will reign as
King in the new Exodus. Also Spykerboer, Structure, 183, R. Rendtorff, 'Zur
Komposition des Buches Jesaja', VT 34 (1984) 306f, and W. J. Dumbrell, 'The
Purpose of the Book of Isaiah,' Tyn B 36 (1985) 111-128.
14
R. Clements 'Beyond Tradition-History: Deutero-Isaianic Development of
First Isaiah's Themes', JSOT 31 (1985), 108.
15
T. J. M. Roberts, 'Isaiah in Old Testament Theology,' Int 36 (1982), 140.
35
decisive word which can overcome all obstacles to the performance of his will, making wonders in the desert, overthrowing
rulers, raising up Cyrus as his instrument, frustrating all the
devices of mankind and coming to the aid of his helpless
people.16 Given that these words are addressed to a
disheartened and weary people sunk in despair (51:17-23;
54:11; 40:27; 49:14; 51:17-23; 54:11), it can be seen why there is
some justification for calling chapters 40-55 the Book of
Consolation. This however is not the whole story.
III. Confrontation: Polemical Forms in 40-55
J. W. Miller has noted the polemical language which betrays
an increasing opposition between the prophet and his audience.17 At the outset, Jacob-Israel's discouragement, 'Why do
you say, O Jacob, and speak, O Israel, 'My way is hid from the
Lord, and my right is disregarded by my God'?' (40:27), reveals
a potentially cynical mentality. Then in 42:18ff Yahweh's own
frustration emerges: 'Hear, you deaf; and look, you blind, that
you may see! Who is blind but my servant, or deaf as my messenger whom I send?'. Later, in a surprising outburst given the
general perception of these chapters, 45:9ff declares, 'Woe to
him who strives with his Maker, ... Woe to him who says to
his father, 'What are you begetting?". Even more is to come
however: 'Remember this and consider, ... you rebels (RSV:
transgressors) ... Hearken to me, you stubborn of heart, you who
are far from deliverance' (46:8, 12), an astonishing assertion in
view of 40:1ff! Finally 48:1 declares, 'Hear this O house of
Jacob called by the name of Israel, and who came forth from the
loins of Judah, who swear by the name of the Lord, and confess
the God of Israel, but not in truth or right'. Jacob-Israel is declared to be Israel in name only in a statement which seems tantamount to divesting Jacob-Israel of her servant office.18
________________________
16
36
___________________________
19
37
proceeds from ignorance of his wise but inscrutable purposes (vv. 27ff). Third, traces of anti-wisdom polemics appear
in vv. 13f (cf. vv. 28c) where the prophet declares that no counsellor instructed Yahweh either in knowledge or justice.25 As
we shall see this opening disputation serves to introduce JacobIsrael's three criticisms as addressed in the trials and
disputations: Yahweh is unable to help her, Yahweh is
__________________________
23
38
39
, Yahweh announces that he does not grow weary.
34
One particularly noteworthy theme concerning Yahweh's commitment to
Israel is that of the redeemer, see espec. Stuhlmueller, Creative, 99-123,
and K. Krupp, Das Verhltnis Jahwe-Israel im Sinne eines Ehebundes (diss.,
Freiburg, 1972) who sees the role of the marriage bond as the central point of
reference in 40-55.
40
41
42
It is difficult to imagine who else 46:11 and 48:14 could refer to when 'the
action of the release of the peoples held in exile by the Babylonians is par
excellence the work of Cyrus', R. N. Whybray, Isaiah 40-66 NCB (London:
Oliphants, 1975) 76.
45
Westerrnann, 'Sprache', 139, sees all of the trials against the nations materials as dealing with Cyrus, the oracle concerning whom constitutes 'the pivot
on which all that is said in the book turns', Isaiah, 10.
46
Cf. Schoors, Saviour, 263, 266 and the scholars noted there; J. Muilenburg, 'The
Book of Isaiah', IB 5 (New York/Nashville: Abingdon, 1956) 526; Westermann,
Isaiah, 154ff, 165ff; Melugin, Formation, 125; Watts, Isaiah, II, 156ff.
47
'Main', 57.
43
(45:13) and 'the man of my purpose ..' (46:11). In the disputations attention is drawn time and again to the fact that this
is Yahweh's doing (e.g. 44:26ff; 45:11-13; 46:10f; 48:5-16). R.
O'Connell has argued that the oft-recognized lack of a
'vindication' section in the law-suit of chapter one is an intentional departure from the rib-pattern designed to heighten
an expectation for this 'missing' element that is finally provided in chapters 40-55.48 Whether or not such is the case
O'Connell has drawn attention to the fact that one of the
functions of chapters 40-55 is to vindicate Yahweh in that his
purposes for Jerusalem as expressed in 2:1-5 still stand, being
established through Cyrus (44:28; 45:13; 46:13).
The second and perhaps more serious matter underlying
the references to Cyrus is a refusal to accept Yahweh's wisdom
or plan (it may be that Cyrus functions primarily as the
catalyst in bringing this conflict into the open). First, this is
suggested by the scattered anti-wisdom polemics which also
become focussed on Yahweh's action through Cyrus. In the prologue the immutability of Yahweh's word is established (40:7,
cf. 45:23) and this is immediately followed in the first disputation by a challenge to those who think they are more knowledgeable than Yahweh (40:12ff), though his understanding is
in fact inscrutable (v. 28).49 In 44:25ff the creative word of
Yahweh, which causes the wise to draw back and turns their
knowledge into foolishness, is epitomized in his word concerning Cyrus.50 Directly following the Cyrus oracle, Yahweh
pronounces woe upon those who dare to criticize his skill and
wisdom (45:9ff), concluding with an affirmation of Cyrus as
Yahweh's agent. The final disputations of the first half,
which, as we have seen, confirm both Yahweh's choice of Cyrus
and his instigation of Cyrus' success, are followed by Yahweh's
self-designation as the one 'who teaches you', who 'leads you in
_________________________
48
44
the way',51 coupled with a lament over Jacob-Israel's disobedience (48:17ff). Similarly the epilogue warns Jacob-Israel
to 'Seek the Lord while he may be found ... for my thoughts are
not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways' (55:6-9ff).
Second, the anti-idol materials also reflect this
debate. The idols are no counsellors ( , 41:28f) and those
who trust in them are deceived (44:18-20). 45:9-17 exemplifies
the conjunction of the inscrutable wisdom of Yahweh (vv. 90,
expressed in the astounding election of a pagan as Jacob-Israel's
deliverer (vv. 12f), and the futility of trusting in idols (vv.
16ff, cf. the nations' vain response to Cyrus in 41:5f0. The
mockery of great Babylon's helpless idols (46:1-2, 5-7)
concludes with a rebuke to stubborn Israel (46:8-11, 12ff) before
launching into a taunt directed primarily against Babylon's
wise ones (47:9-15). Indeed in 48:3-8 it is because of JacobIsrael's idolatrous bent that Yahweh has acted in this
unexpected way (v. 7). Up to this point, then, it appears that
the anti-wisdom polemics, the anti-idol polemics and the
disputations become progressively centred on defending the
wisdom of Yahweh's choice of Cyrus.
The reason for this 'wisdom' debate, as a further examination of the confrontational materials will reveal, is that
Jacob-Israel is still bound by the idolatrous categories of wisdom which led to the exile in the first place. First, however, it
is necessary to examine some of the language associated with
the judgement of Jacob-Israel's idolatrous wisdom in chapters 139.
V. Blindness and Deafness
a) Judgement on Idolatrous Wisdom in Chapters 1-39
What gives added significance to the blindness and deafness
language of chapters 40-55 is that in chapters 1-39 it is directly
related to Judah's idolatrous stance. R. E. Clements' comment on
passages that he sees as later glosses (e.g. 2:18-19, 20-21; 6:12-3
and 17:7-9) is that the 'most striking feature ... is their emphasis ... upon ... faithlessness and idolatry' and particularly 'upon
________________________
51
45
The Prophecies of Isaiah and the Fall of Jerusalem in 587 B.C., VT 30 (1980)
425-8.
53
On idolatry: 1:29f; 2:6, 8, d.18, 20; 10:10f; cf. 17:8; 27:9b; 30:22; 31:7; and
witchcraft: 33b; 8:19; 17:8, 10; cf. 2:6.
54
I am indebted to Dr. G. Beale for this observation (Gordon-Conwell
Theological Seminary lectures 'OT in the NT', Fall 1985).
55
Cf. Botterweck TWAT III, Spl. 487, 491f.
56
G. Beale, 'Isaiah vi 9-13: A Retributive Taunt Against Idolatry', forthcoming
in VT.
57
On wisdom in chapters 1-39: J. Fichtner, lesaja unter den Weisen,' TL 74 (1949)
75-80; ET: 'Isaiah Among the Wise' in Studies in Ancient Israelite Wisdom ed.
J. L. Crenshaw (New York: KTAV, 1976) 429-38; J. Lindblom, 'Wisdom in the
Old Testament Prophets' in Wisdom in Israel and the Ancient Near East FS H.
H. Rowley, SVT3 (1955) 192-204; Martin-Achard, R., 'Sagesse de dieu et sagesse
humaine chez saie' in Hommage a Wilhelm Vischer (Montpellier: Causse
Graille Castelnau, 1960) 137-44; O. Blanchette, 'The Wisdom of God in Isaia,'
AER 145 (1961) 413-23; W. McKane, Prophets and Wise Men SBT 1/44 (London:
SCM, 1965) passim; Wildberger, Jesaja I, 188f; and especially both J. W.
Whedbee, Isaiah and Wisdom (New York and Nashville: Abingdon, 1971), and
J. Jensen, The Use of tr by Isaiah CBC Mono. 3 (Arlington, Va.: Information
Products and Services Corp., 1973).
46
( 1:10; 5:24b; 30:9),58 scoff at the prophet's warnings (28:914; cf. 5:19) and reject Yahweh's word (30:9-12). Preferring to
trust their own ( 29:15; 30:1) they rely on the nations and
their idols.59 But, Yahweh's plan (: 5:19; 19:17; 25:1; cf. :
14:24, 26f; 19:12; 23:9) will come to pass (e.g. 10:12-19; 19:3-11)
and the leaders' rejection of this truth brings their doom upon
them (7:12-20; 10:5ff; 14:24ff; 30:1ff; 31:1ff):60 they are
condemned to be incompetent, i.e. blind and deaf etc. (29:9-21 cf.
28:9-14) and hence to pursue policies that will result in the
devastation of the land and exile (1:3; 5:13a; ch.'s 7-8; 29:15ff;
30:1-5, 12-17; 31:1-3).
Nowhere is this judicial blinding clearer than in the
account of Isaiah's commissioning in chapter 6 where he is both
to tell this people (vv. 9f): 'Listen but do not perceive, look but
do not understand' and to 'make the heart of this people fat,
their ears heavy and their eyes dim, lest they see with their
eyes, hear with their ears',61 and its apparent fulfilment in
29:9f: 'Be delayed and wait, blind yourselves and be blind ... for
the Lord has poured over you a spirit of deep sleep. He has
shut your eyes, the prophets; and he has covered your heads,
the seers'.
J. Jensen makes two particularly pertinent obser )is
vations.62 First, he notes that rebel terminology (
used in 30:1 to describe those who reject Yahweh's . Second,
he observes that 'the idea emerges even more strongly in
29:15f., where the leaders of Judah are accused of attempting to
__________________________
58
Jensen, Use, 135, sees train as referring generally to the wisdom of Yahweh (cf.
parallel with ( 2:3) and ( 2:5)).
59
2:22; 7:9-13; 28:15; 30:1-5 (60; 31:1-3; 0. Kaiser, 'Die Verktindingung des
Propheten Jesaja im Jahre 701,' ZAW 81 (1969) 304-15, sees consultation with
foreign powers and their deities as a refuge of falsehoods, cf. 28:14-18.
60
On the nature and limits of the concept of Yahweh's plan see B. Albrektson,
History and the Gods CB 1 (Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1967) 68-89 (90-97) particularly in view of J. Fichtner, 'Jahves Plan in der Botschaft des Jesaja,' ZAW 63
(1951) 16-33. Albrektson however does not really do justice to some aspects of
Isaiah's view of history.
61
L. J. Liebreich, 'The Position of Chapter Six in the Book of Isaiah,' HUCA 25
(1954) 37-40, sees this implemented in the account of Ahaz' blind self reliance
in response to the word of Yahweh and his consequent judgement which follows
immediately after Isaiah's mission narrative. cf. J. Schreiner, 'Das Buch
jesajanischer Schule' in Wort und Botschaft ed. J. Schreiner (Wrzburg: Echter,
1967) 148 and Jensen, Use, 57.
62
Use, 57.
47
Seen by Cements, 'Unity,' 125, as conscious allusions to the prophetic commission in 6:9f.
64
Watts, Isaiah, I, liii, also notes the prominence of the terms 'know, understand, hear, see, and turn' throughout 40-55.
65
For a discussion of this wisdom terminology in 1:2f and 6:9f see Jensen, Use.
48
49
For this reason, I disagree with Westermann on 40:6b-8. They are not a
reflection of Israel's lament but instead part of the speaker's message. Vv. 3c-4
describe the removal of obstacles, which Westermann sees as a major theme,
and vv. 6b-8 focus the issue in their portrayal of the futility of men's activities
in the face of God's spirit and, word. It is not the speaker's objection that is
dealt with here but the fundamental problem underlying Jacob-Israel's despair:
an over-estimation of the capabilities, of the wisdom, of men.
72
Melugin, Formation, 80, quotes Westermann as classifying 49:14-26 as a
disputation, but in his commentary W. appears ultimately to regard it as a
proclamation of salvation, cf. Schoors, Saviour, 106.
73
On this contrast, particularly T. Mettinger, A Farewell to the Servant Songs
(Lund: (INK Gleerup, 1983) 26; Hessler, Gott, 82ff; Melugin, Formation, 85, who
50
51
52
53
This is congenial to the views of Begrich, Studien, 63ff, who first offered the
insight that this is a thanksgiving Psalm, and of Whybray, Thanksgiving,
who recently argued that it reflects deliverance, and more importantly, that
the obdurate rejection of the by the speakers has ceased.
88
Sawyer, Moses, 117.
89
On the integrity of this text, N. Lohfink, "Israel' in Jes 49, 3' in Wort, Lied
und Gottesspruch, FS J. Ziegler (Stuttgart: Katholisches Biblewerk, 1972) 21729; Wilcox and Paton-Williams, 'Servant', 90ff; but cf. also Orlinsky's (SoCalled ) unnecessarily polemical treatment for arguments against this view.
90
Mettinger, Farewell, 31ff, among others argues largely on this basis for their
identity.
91
O. Orlinsky's discussion, So-Called, 21, 23ff.
92
J. M. Ward, 'The Servant's Knowledge in Isaiah 40-50' in Israelite Wisdom FS
S. Terrien ed. J. G. Gammie et al (New York: Scholars Press, 1978) 121-36.
93
While there is little question that the Servant suffers, there is no clear
indication as to who inflicts it. However as i. the focus of these chapters concerns Jacob-Israel, not the nations, ii. similarly it is Jacob-Israel, not the
nations, who are being castigated for rejection of Yahweh's word, iii. characteristically it is Israel not the nations who rejects Yahweh's prophets, and, in the
face of any clear evidence to the contrary, I hold the source of this rejection to
be, at least, the unfaithful in Israel. Cf. Miller, 'Prophetic', 79ff, Begrich,
Studien, 153; W. A. M. Beuken MIPT The First Servant Song and its
Context,' VT 22 (1972) 1-30; Orlinsky, So-Called, 53f.
54
55
I will not recite the standard evidence here, cf. North, Suffering, 205ff, also
Clines analysis (I, He). If I am correct in seeing the as the counterpart and
replacement of Cyrus then this may also suggest an individual.
101
North, Suffering, 216.
102
Cf. in 53:11.
103
Orlinksy, So-Called, who sees the servant as the prophet also maintains,
'Israel will dazzle the nations with her God-given triumph and restoration;
the whole world will behold this single beacon ..' 117.
104
Cf. North, Suffering, 180f, 206ff. Whybray's (Thanksgiving) historical reconstruction lacks any evidence whatsoever, and this is particularly
noteworthy when, given the oft-quoted similarities between the materials in
Jeremiah and chapters 40-55 (cf. Bonnard, Second, 75: Plus encore que Isae,
c'est Jrmie qui a t la matre de notre prophte' ), there is no counterpart to
the narratives of Jeremiah's imprisonment. See further the prudent
observations of Westermann, Isaiah; Childs, Introduction, 335.
56
105
57
great bulk of the salvation words after the end of the climactic
disputations of 48:1-11 and 12-15 (16) are Proclamations.107
Chapters 40-48
Text
Oracle Proclamation
41:8-13
*
14-16
*
17-20
*
42:14-17
*
43:1-4
*
5-7
*
16-21
*
44:1-5
*
46:12-13
*
Chapters 49-55
Text
Oracle
49:7-12(13)
14-26
51:1-8
9-16
54:4-6108
*
7-10
11-17
55:1-5
56:12-13
Proclamation
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Oracle
41:11-12, 15-16
43:3
43:2
43:5-7
44:3-5
Proclamation
42:15-16; 49:25-26; 51:8, 22-23
49:25-26; 51:14
41:18-19; 42:15-16; 43:19-20; 49:8-11
49:12, 22-23
49:17-20
49:8-11, 17-20; 51:3; 54:11-17
54:9-10; 55:4-5
It may be argued that this could not be the case because the return is seen as imminent. Such a view however fails to take into
account the impact of Jacob-Israel's rejection of Cyrus with the
attendant shift of emphasis to a bondage exemplified by JacobIsrael's obduracy.
The scenario appears to be as follows: the prophet
announces the deliverance of Jacob-Israel with Cyrus as agent.
Jacob-Israel's response however makes it clear that she is still
rebellious and obdurate and therefore incapable of fulfilling
the servant role. Although Cyrus carries out the word of
Yahweh and the return from Babylon takes place, the glorious
hope of the return as expressed in 1-39 and 40-55 is not fulfilled
as chapters 56-66 make abundantly clear. The new servant who
__________________________
107
Cf. Melugin, Formation, 85, who sees this prefigured in the shift in tenses
between 40:1-8 and 9-11.
108
Albeit considerably modified, Melugin, Formation, 85.
109
Schoors, Saviour, 170.
58
59
In chapters 49-55, responding to this failure of JacobIsrael to fulfil its role, the New Exodus in its fullness is postponed (cf. 56-66)110 and the prophet looks to the future when
the as-yet-unkown but faithful servant will both deliver JacobIsrael from its blindness and deafness and implement Yahweh's
___________________________
110
For the idea of the delay of the new exodus, see P. Churgin's assessment of
the absence of any festival in the Bible to celebrate the Return in L. Smolar and
M. Auerbach, Studies in Targum Jonathan to the Prophets LBS (New York:
KTAV, 1983), xxv.
111
The author would like to thank Drs. H. G. M. Williamson, G. Davies, D. J. A.
Clines, and his compatriots at Tyndale House for their helpful criticisms and
suggestions.