1.

Knowledge

Teachers must be knowledgeable about the subject they are teaching.

They must understand the concepts thoroughly and be able to explain and
articulate them in detail. They must have the knowledge to engage students
and to judge where and how to be of assistance. They also ideally have
practical, hands-on experience with the subject matter.
Enthusiasm

The best teachers care about their students and are passionate about the
material. If a teacher is bored with the material, then the students will also be
bored and less likely to learn. Passion and enthusiasm draw students in to
learning. It excites their minds, creates curiosity and inspires them to raise
their energy levels in class.
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Fairness

Humans have an innate sense of what is just and what is not. Favoritism
and unfair treatment can scar students for a lifetime. The best teachers do
everything they can to ensure their classroom is fair and just. Students can
only grow and learn in an environment they feel is safe and honest.
Preparedness

Students quickly disrespect teachers who are unprepared. Being

unprepared shows your lack of care about the students and the material. It
makes you appear incompetent. Be prepared for every class in order to win and
maintain your students' respect.
Creativity

Creativity lets teachers think outside the box and work around problems.
Creativity helps teachers reach students in enjoyable, memorable ways. It cures
boredom and raises moral and enthusiasm in the classroom.
Sense of Humor

Students learn best in a positive atmosphere. Humor is the best way to

break the ice and dispel awkward or negative situations. Teachers who are
comfortable enough to laugh at their own mistake are strong examples of

confident, witty individuals. Humor is also an effective way to teach students

difficult and dry concepts.
Respect

Respect others to gain respect in return. Teachers who respect their

students are respected themselves. Teachers who respect their students'
privacy, who speak to students individually after class and who are sensitive to
their students' needs and feelings tend to be the most respected.
Leadership

Being in a position of authority, teachers must know how to take the

lead. There is no room for shyness and timidity. Leaders must have a vision, a
goal toward which they are directing the students. They must inspire and
encourage students to implement action. The best leaders are the best
listeners.
1.
Read more: What Personal & Professional Characteristics Are Necessary
for Effective Teaching? |
eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/info_7870344_personalcharacteristics-necessary-effective-teaching.html#ixzz2NBEmodIg
This list will let you know what qualities employers look for in a teacher
candidate. Practice developing these skills / qualities, and remember to portray
them in your interview.
Positive - Thinks positively and enthusiastically about people and what they are
capable of becoming. Sees the good in any situation and can move forward to
make the most of difficult situations when confronted with obstacles.
Encourages others to also be positive.
Communicative - Shares with others in a manner that encourages effective
two-way communication. Communicates personal thoughts and feelings on a
wide spectrum of issues and can listen to students in an empathetic manner,
assuring each that conversations will be held in confidence.
Dependable - Honest and authentic in working with others. Consistently lives
up to commitments to students and others. Works with them in an open,
honest, and forthright manner.

Personable - Establishes and maintains positive mutual working relationships.

Likes to be with others. Has many ways of getting to know students as persons
while building trust and appreciation through personal interaction and
involvement.
Organized - Makes efficient use of time and moves in a planned and systematic
direction. Knows where he or she is heading and is able to help students in
their own organization and planning. Can think in terms of how organization
can be beneficial to those served.
Committed - Demonstrates commitment to students and the profession and is
self-confident, poised and personally in control of situations. Has a healthy
self-image. Encourages students to look at themselves in a positive manner,
careful to honor the self-respect of the students, while encouraging them to
develop a positive self-concept.
Motivational - Enthusiastic with standards and expectations for students and
self. Understands the intrinsic motivations of individuals, and knows what it is
that motivates students. Takes action in constructive ways.
Compassionate - Caring, empathetic and able to respond to people at a feeling
level. Open with personal thoughts and feelings, encouraging others to do
likewise. Knows and understands the feelings of students.
Flexible - Willing to alter plans and directions in a manner which assists people
in moving toward their goals. Seeks to reason out situations with students and
staff in a manner that allows all people to move forward in a positive direction.
Individually Perceptive - Sees each student as a unique and valuable
individual. Looks for the differences among students. Quickly diagnoses
student difficulties and assists in the management of individual situations.
Value Based - Focuses upon the worth and dignity of human beings. Is
sensitive to community values. Strives to work in an environment consistent
with his or her belief system. Recognizes the importance and power of modeling
constructive behavior.
Knowledgeable - Is in a constant quest for knowledge. Keeps up in his or her
specialty areas, and has the insight to integrate new knowledge. Takes

knowledge and translates it to students in a way which is comprehensible to

them, yet retains its originality.
Creative - Versatile, innovative, and open to new ideas. Strives to incorporate
techniques and activities that enable students to have unique and meaningful
new growth experiences.
Patient - Is deliberate in coming to conclusions. Strives to look at all aspects of
the situation and remains highly fair and objective under most difficult
circumstances. Believes that problems can be resolved if enough input and
attention is given by people who are affected.
Sense of Humor - Knows how to take the tension out of tight situations. Uses
humor, spontaneously, in a tasteful manner. Builds togetherness in the
classroom, through the use of humor.
Source(s):
https://www.uwec.edu/Career/students/job
Qualities of a good teacher
Teaching is a career that provides challenges, excitement, personal reward and
a chance to encourage and support others to achieve their goals.
There are many personal qualities and skills that make someone a good
teacher.
These include:

being good at explaining things;

being a people person and enjoy working with a wide range of people;

enthusiasm;

having a strong knowledge in particular subject areas;

being a good time manager;

ability to work in a team as well as using your own initiative;

keeping your cool under pressure;

having patience and a good sense of humour;

being fair-minded;

coping well with change; and

enjoying a challenge.

Good teachers know that by listening to and working with colleagues, parents,
other professionals and community members that they can inspire students
and improve their learning.
^
A teacher requires a number of personal as well as professional qualities. To
become an effective teacher the teacher has to gain some personal qualities.
If a teacher is lazy and lacks enthusiasm and lie will to do hard work, he
cannot be expected to inculcate these values in pupils. Pupils arc keen
observer. They are intelligent enough to observe discrepancies between what a
teacher preaches and how he actually behaves. If a teacher is smoker, he has
no right to advise his pupils to avoid smoking. If the teacher dishonest and
avoids his/her duty, he/she has no right to advise his/ her pupils to be honest
and sincere.
Values like honesty, truthfulness, loyalty, punctuality, cleanliness, dedication,
affection etc. are imbibed, through observations of other's behaviors rather
than taught. A teacher has to stand as a model for his/her pupil so as to
provide a lasting and inspiring example of ever they arc to have in them these
qualities of personality and character. Some of the important personal qualities
of a teacher are the following:
(i) Affection:
It is the basic traits that a teacher needs to have. Every one of us expects a
certain amount of affection in every teacher. There is no human being on the
earth who does not crave affection from those around, especially from parents
and teachers. A teacher should show love and concern for his pupils. Without
affection a teacher cannot feel for his pupil wanted and accepted.
(ii) Empathy:
Empathy enables us to feel concerned with our pupils' problems and the efforts
we make to cope with them. This quality enables us to understand our pupils
better both emotionally as well as intellectually. On the child's eye view we need

a lot of emotional, flexibility. Empathy enables us to be judicious, impartial and

objective.
It will engender us the requisite understanding to avoid stereotyping and
prejudices and treat all pupils with equanimity irrespective of the background
from which they come. Empathy creates in us a better awareness of the
functioning of a child's mind which in term would permit us to avoid the use of
words that insult and actions that hurt. As a teacher we must has empathy as
a personal quality.
(iii) Concern and Commitment:
In a teacher there must be two more qualities viz. genuine concern and
commitment to the tasks. As dedicated and concerned about the development
of our pupils as their parents generally arc and then try to do all within our
ability to see that they are given an opportunity for their growth and
development.
As a teacher, we must remember that the improvement seldom occurs
spontaneously. It is attained through deliberate effort. To reach a child's mind,
we must reach and capture his/her heart. Only when a child feels right,
he/she can think right.
If we want to improve our relations with children, we need to unlearn our
habitual language of rejection and a new language of acceptance. If we are
genuinely interested in the well being of our pupils, we need to be authentic,
genuine and sincere. We do not have to demonstrate hypocrisy by acting nice,
when we feel nasty.
(iv) Humour:
The sense of humour is a good trait in a teacher. Whenever we combine
elements in a way that is different, unexpected and incongruous, we wind up
with humour. As a teacher, we should develop the ability to play spontaneously
with ideas, concepts and relationships.
We should have the ability to juggle elements into impossible juxtaposition and
express the ridiculous. All of these can bring in an atmosphere of humour in
the classroom. It can arouse laughter or a smile on their lips, which would
make their mind lighter. Humour can turn out to be a good tool in the hands of
an enlightened teacher.
(v) Other Characteristics:

Personal values like cleanliness, punctuality and honesty are the ornaments of
a teacher. The presence of these personal values enable him transmit then to
the pupil like a lamp which lights another lamp into equal brightness. A pupil
can be inspired with a teacher to be honest, punctual, and truthful. Mercy can
be taught only mercifully. The other characteristics arc smartness with the
work, alertness and quality in the views etc.

6. each content in a multitude of ways; reteach it until it is learned.

communicate regularly with parents via e-mail, phone, in-person
conferences, and newsletters.
assess papers and tests to inform next instructional steps.
balance the demands of schedule changes and conflicts.
regularly provide and receive feedback to colleagues who work with the
same students.
provide data of various forms at various intervals to administrators.
read professional literature.
attend conferences and professional development.
write and direct plays and other performances.
lead charitable endeavors, including reaching out to the community and
managing donations.
scout and book field trips.
collect appropriate materials from a variety of sources, such as stores
and the library.
collect money for trips, book orders, and more.
work with colleagues to better their pedagogy or understanding.
hold meetings with a variety of professionals in the school who can assist
in various roles (ie. psychologist, administrators, parent coordinators, etc.)
participate in union activities.
remain calm and make decisions in the event of a medical or other
emergency.
coordinate with guidance counselors to address various issues in
students lives.

here are many duties and responsibilities a teacher has. The following is a
general overview.
prepare lessons, making them as interesting as possible
prepare homework, assignments and assessment

research information to ensure the knowledge they impart is current

mark homework and pieces of assessment
identify the needs of individual students in their classes, and work to
help each child develop his or her own potential
prepare resources for the classroom
confer with students over their work
assist children to learn, not judge their inability to learn
identify emotional, intellectual, physical, etc issues which may be
hindering the student from learning to his/her best potential, and research and
recommend courses of action
conduct parent-teacher interviews
provide a sounding board (for both students and teachers) and allow for
open discussion
attend professional development sessions to improve his/her own
teaching methods and curriculum
present a professional but caring persona at all times
Treat students with respect, and teach them to treat others with respect
2. Pre-service Teacher Education is the education and training provided
to student teachers before they have undertaken any teaching.
3. Before entering into any pre-service education most students will have
obtained a previous degree, either a general or honours, in a subject of
their choice, (e.g. English, Math, Science, Religion). In the US, students
are often required to take a test prior to acceptance into an accredited
program, and/or upon graduation in order to earn certification.
Commonly, the PRAXIS I or PRAXIS II are required for this purpose.
Common topics include classroom management, lesson plans, and
professional development. A major focus during such education
programs are the practicum where the pre-service teacher is placed
within a school setting (either elementary, or senior) and shadows an
experienced teacher. The pre-service teacher will be given opportunities
to develop skills through lesson plans, teaching lessons and classroom
management.
4. Not all pre-service programs are designed the same and a certificate
obtained in one country may not be recognized within another. Within
the US, state-to-state reciprocity is limited.
5.

Lear

Inborn Tendencies-The Basis of Teaching and Learning

(by Reden R. de Jesus 7/16/2012)
The initial point of teaching and learning is the biological equipment of the
learner. The child's original nature, or what he inherits is the capital with
which education must work. His intelligence, attitudes, interests, and desires
underlie the educative process.. His acquisition of knowledge, his formation of
habits and skills, and his development of abilities and attitudes are
conditioned and limited by his biological equipment. The innate tendencies
become available as a drive to teaching or stimulus to learning. It is the
function of the school to provide the necessary conditions and opportunities
by which these innate tendencies or biological equipment can be developed
and applied. In other words, the school sets the teaching-learning situations
which will be favourable to the child's growth and development.
The teacher may know many things and be ready to touch them, but he will
have little success unless he has knowledge of the mind of his students and of
what goes on there, which knowledge he can only learn by patient
observation. The teacher becomes a learner, for he has to study the minds of
the young, their ways of looking at things, their habits, their difficulties, likes
and dislikes. He learns how these things are stimulated to exertion, how they
are discouraged, and how one mood succeeds another. The primary concern
of his innate tendencies, not the knowledge of child's specialty, but knowledge
of the laws and principles of child growth and development.
There are many facts concerning the psychology of these inborn tendencies
that are important and interesting from a purely theoretical point of view, but
only those of primary importance to teaching and to learning will be
considered. Some of the innate tendencies are intelligence, emotions,
curiosity, interest and attention.
Intelligence and ability to learn are very important. Teaching and learning
processes are conditioned by intelligence. Both activities must meet certain
conditions if they are to take place successfully. Learning is impossible
without intelligence. In other words, intelligence is the basis of learning. The
effectiveness of learning is conditioned by the degree of intelligence. It is an

accepted fact that students with high intelligence are easier to teach or to
direct and guide than students with low intelligence.
The importance of emotions in teaching and in learning cannot be ignored.
Teaching depends upon emotions for the motivation of learning. In teaching,
the emotions of fear, anger, and love can be used as drives to greater activity
on the part of the learner. They can also be used as checks on the students'
behaviour, in or outside the classroom.
Curiosity is a valuable agent in education when it is rigidly valued and
employed. Curiosity is highly important because it is a starting point of
interest. Attention can be held only by arousing the interest of the students.
Curiosity enlarges also the circle of interest. When rightly valued and utilized,
curiosity and attention can be made valuable agents in education.
The problem of interest and attention, from the point of view of teaching, is
not simply to arouse curiosity and to secure attention, but rather to have the
attention fixed upon these activities which are desirable from the standpoint
of teaching and learning; to give attention and to engage in mental activity or
reflective thinking. We seek, in our work as teachers, not only to secure a
maximum of attention to the field of work in which the students are engaged,
but also to arouse interest and enthusiasm which will last after school days
are over.
9. Seven Principles of
Facilitative Instruction:
Guiding Students to Learning
Higher education is going through a transformation from being teachercentered to being learner-centered. The emphasis is on what students learn,
not on what faculty teach. (Students, unfortunately, don't learn everything we
teach.) Research suggests that students who are actively engaged in their
courses learn more, and teachers facilitating this "active learning" mode are
"guides on the side" rather than "sages on the stage." Their role is to facilitate
learning, rather than transmit information.
"'Guiding' Students to Learning," an article in the October 2000 issue of The
Teaching Professor (p. 5-6), summarizes seven principles for facilitating
learning. As in most endeavors, balance is important. It is not that learner-

centered teachers act entirely differently than teacher-centered teachers, but

their approach changes the balance of what they and their students do when
they interact.
Seven Principles of Facilitative Instruction
1. "Teachers do fewer learning tasks." Learner-centered teachers are
less likely to provide closing summaries and preliminary reviews, ask
questions, offer examples, solve problems, make graphs, etc. They
encourage students to learn by doing these tasks, not by watching their
teachers perform them.
2. "Teachers do less telling." Learner-centered teachers spend less
time telling the students everything. They encourage students to figure
out how to do things and to discover what things mean.
3. "Teachers do more design work." Learner-centered teachers
carefully design assignments and class activities to help students learn.
These assignments and activities are appropriately motivating,
challenging, and focused so students become engaged, are proud of
their progress, and master learning objectives.
4. "Faculty do more modeling." Learner-centered teachers are masters
of their discipline, and student "apprentices" learn by observing how
disciplinary experts attack the problems they encounter.
5. "Get students working with each other." Learner-centered teachers
understand group dynamics and carefully structure activities that
generate the synergy of cooperative and collaborative learning.
6. "Faculty work to create climates for learning." Learner-centered
teachers recognize that classroom climate can stifle or foster learning.
They provide a climate which encourages students to look forward to
class and to take responsibility for their own learning.
7. "Faculty focus less on grading and do more with
feedback." Learner-centered teachers, like all faculty, are responsible
for assigning valid grades, but they are more likely to use graded course

components and other course activities to provide formative feedback to

foster student learning.

10. Twelve Principles of Effective Teaching and Learning

(Source: Tiberius & Tipping, 'Twelve Principles of Effective Teaching and
Learning For Which There Is Substantial Empirical Support,
University of Toronto, 1990 )
(As with the "Faculty Inventory", you can use these twelve principles to help
identify your areas of strength and areas for improvement.)
These twelve principles are intended as guidelines to faculty and
administrators interested in the improvement of teaching and learning. The list
is derived, in part, from a study co-sponsored by the American Association for
Higher Education and the Education Commission of the States (AAHE Bulletin,
March 1987). That study reported seven principles of good practice and six
powerful forces in higher education which has been extracted from fifty years of
research on teaching and learning in higher education. The study was
conducted by a team of prominent educators, including Alexander W. Astin,
Howard Bowen, Carol H Boyer, K Patricia Cross, Kenneth Eble, Russel
Edgerton, Jerry Gaff, Joseph Katz, C. Robert Pace, Marvin W. Peterson, and
Richard C. Richardson Jr.
We have added five principles, based on our review of the literature (including
review articles such as T.M. Shermin et.al. "The quest for excellence in
university teaching" in the Journal of Higher Education, Vol 58, No 1, 1987,
pp.66-84; and John Centra et. Al. "A guide to evaluating teaching for promotion
and tenure", 1987, a publication of Syracuse University).
1. Teachers' knowledge of the subject matter is essential to the implementation
of important teaching tasks
Teachers who know their subject matter thoroughly can be more effective and
efficient at organizing the subject matter, connecting the subject with the
students' previous knowledge, finding useful analogies and examples,

presenting current thinking on the subject, and establishing appropriate

emphases.
2. Active involvement of the learner enhances learning
Learning is an active process which requires that the learner work with and
apply new material to past knowledge and to everyday life. Some of the
methods that encourage active learning in the classroom are: discussion,
practice sessions, structured exercises, team projects, and research projects. In
the words of William James:
Teaching without an accompanying experience is like filling a lamp with water.
Something has been poured in, but the result is not illuminating.
3. Interaction between teachers and students is the most important factor in
student motivation and involvement
Interaction between students and faculty, particularly informal interaction, is
one of the most important factors in student motivation for learning. The
opportunity to know a few faculty well often enhances students' intellectual
commitment and provides valuable rolemodeling.
4. Students benefit from taking responsibility for their learning
Students are more motivated when they take control of their own learning. This
is the belief which has stimulated active interest in self-directed learning.
5. There are many roads to learning
Students learn in different ways and vary in their abilities to perform certain
tasks. Understanding that each student has unique strengths and weaknesses
related to the ways in which they approach learning is an important component
of effective education. Providing a variety of learning activities for a class
enables individual students to choose the activity which is the most effective for
them at the moment.
6. Expect more and you will achieve more
Simply stated, if an educator conveys to students that he or she believes in
their ability to succeed learning is enhanced.

7. Learning is enhanced in an atmosphere of cooperation

Learning is enhanced when it is perceived as a collaborative and cooperative
effort between students. The opportunity to share ideas without threat of
ridicule and the freedom to respond to the ideas of others increases complexity
of thinking and deepens understanding.
8. Material must be meaningful
If new material is presented in a pattern or framework that the learner can
perceive, it is more readily learned and retained. New material will be more
easily learned if the learner is helped to see its relationship to what s/he
already knows. Material which is seen by the learner as relevant to his or her
own problems and experiences will be more readily learned.
9. Both teaching and learning are enhanced by descriptive feedback
Without feedback neither learner nor teacher can improve because they will not
know what they need to know or to what extent they are fulfilling their goals.
The learners' behavior will more quickly reach the objectives if they are
informed (or given feedback) frequently about the correctness of their
responses. Correct responses should be immediately reinforced to increase the
"permanence" of learning. A positive reinforcer is anything that will increase
the probability that the desired behavior will be repeated. A smile or comment
to let the learner know he or she has successfully completed the task is
especially good because awareness of successful completion is, in itself, the
most effective of all reinforces.
Feedback about progress is helpful because learning is facilitated when the
learner is aware that he or she is progressing towards the goals.
10. Critical feedback is only useful if the learner has alternatives to pursue
There is no use giving teachers or students feedback about their performances
unless they can do something about it, that is, unless they have some
alternative course of action or behaviour.
11. Time plus energy equals learning
Lectures or seminars that are canceled will not help the learner. Conversely,
teachers who arrive at their lecture or small group setting a little before the

scheduled time and stay around for a few minutes afterward provide
opportunities for valuable interaction between students and teachers. Office
hours also help students to arrange time to talk with teachers. Students must
learn how to organize their time so that they can find time to study. And the
curriculum must be organized to allow students time to study.
12. Experience usually improves teaching
Experience is associated with increasing teacher effectiveness for some
teachers, probably for those teachers who obtain feedback about their teaching
and who are flexible enough to modify their methods in response to the
feedback.

11.1 he theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a
function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an
individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A
response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or
solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is
reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive
characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism
(e.g.,connectionism, drive reduction) is that the organism can emit responses
instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is
anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a
good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory
also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased
frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (different from adversive stimuli
-- punishment -- which result in reduced responses). A great deal of attention
was given to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their
effects on establishing and maintaining behavior.
One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it attempted to provide
behavioral explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena. For
example, Skinner explained drive (motivation) in terms of deprivation and
reinforcement schedules. Skinner (1957) tried to account for verbal learning
and language within the operant conditioning paradigm, although this effort

was strongly rejected by linguists and psycholinguists. Skinner (1971) deals

with the issue of free will and social control.
Application
Operant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior
modification) as well as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and
instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction). Parenthetically, it
should be noted that Skinner rejected the idea of theories of learning (see
Skinner, 1950).
Example
By way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement theory as
applied to the development of programmed instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner,
1968)
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response)
frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps
2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive
immediate feedback
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always
correct and hence a positive reinforcement
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary
reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.
Principles
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent
reinforcement is particularly effective
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can
be reinforced ("shaping")
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus
generalization") producing secondary conditioning

11.2

HORNDIKE'S LAWS OF LEARNING

The basis of Edward Thorndike's approach to problems of behavior lay in his
belief that human behavior could be analyzed and studied in terms of S-R
units. The essence of behavior was to be found in the initiation of an even and
an individual's reaction
To them. As a behaviorist, Thorndike views learning in terms of establishing
connection or bond between stimulus and responses. Humans only differ from
other animal their greater capacity to make associations.
EDWARD THORNDIKE'S EXPERIMENTS
Thorndike investigated learning in animals by using cats. A hungry cat was
confined in a puzzle box with food visible on the outside. He presented it a
problem, which required the cat to manipulate some devices, which would open
the gate of the puzzle box.
Bits of food were placed outside the box as an incentive for the cat to open the
gate. From such experiments, Thorndike made the following observations.
The cat first behaved aimlessly as if doing things by trial and error.
It then responded correctly by accident (chance success) and finally, repeated
the successful operation
Consuming the food (satisfier) rewarded it.
Getting the reward strengthens the connection between the stimuli and the
response made just before the reward (satisfier) was given.
From the above observations. Thorndike formulated three major laws, namely:
law of effect, law of readiness and law of exercise
LAW OF EFFECT
The law of effect states that the association between a stimulus and a response
will strengthen or weakened depending on whether a satisfier or an annoyer
follows the response (Gibson, 1980). An act, which is followed by satisfaction in
a given situation, will generally
Become associated with that situation; so that when it recurs the act will also
be likely to recur (Curzon, 1981). On the other, an act, which results in
discomfort, tends to be disassociated from the situation, so that when the
situation recurs, the act will be less likely to recur.
The greater the satisfaction or discomfort experienced, the greater the degree to
which the S-R bond will be strengthened or loosened.
After research studies have showed that this explanation was inadequate,
Thorndike propounded another law, the truncated law of effect. This law added
the idea that while satisfiers always strengthens the bond between a stimulus

and a response, the effect of annoyers

Is much less predictable; sometime they weaken the bond, but sometimes they
do not.
LAW OF EXERCISE
The law of exercise states that response to a situation may be strongly
connected with the situation depending on the number of times it has been so
connected and to the average strength and duration of the connection. The
exercise here refers to practice. Practice they say makes
Perfect. In a later revision of the law, Thorndike asserts that practice in itself
did not make perfect, but practice in circumstances that allowed the learner to
be informed or given comments about his progress could be valuable in
strengthening the S-R links
LAW OF READINESS
The law of readiness states that a learner's satisfaction determined by the
extent of his preparatory set, that is, his readiness for action. This law was
summarized into two:
When someone is ready to perform an act to do so is satisfying.
When someone is ready to perform some act, not do so is annoying. An
interference with goal-directed behavior causes frustration and making
someone to do something he does not want to do is frustrating
SUBSIDIARY LAWS
Thorndike also outlines other subsidiary law (Curzon, 1981). They include the
following:
Law of Multiple Responses. A response, which fails to produce satisfaction, will
trigger off another until success results and learning becomes possible
Law of Set. The individual's total attitude or disposition affects learning.
Law of Response Analogy. A Person's response to a novel situation is
determined by innate tendencies to respond and by elements in similar
situations to which he has acquired responses in the past.
Law of Selectivity of Response. As an animal learns, it becomes capable of
ignoring some aspects of a problem and responding to others.
Law of Associative Shifting. A learner first responds to a given stimulus, then
transfers the responses, but association, to another stimulus.

Law of Spread Effect. If an act had pleasurable consequences, the pleasure

tended top become associated with not only the act and the eliciting stimulus,
but also with other actions, which occurred approximately, the same point in
time.
IMPLICATION OF THORNDIKE'S THEORY TO THE CLASSROOM
Reward is important in learning. It strengthens the occurrence of behavior a
follows.
Practice and repetition is vital in the learning process. However, practice efforts
should accompanied by feedback
The law of readiness stresses the importance of preparation for learning. The
teacher must wait until learner is ready to learn and should give those
experiences which help to enhance readiness. Preparatory experience that will
hasten the development
Of readiness can be provided in elementary classes.
OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNING
B.F. Skinner propounded the operant conditioning theory of learning. Operant
conditioning describes learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened
or weakened, depending on its positive or negative consequences (Feldman,
1996). The procedure is based
On the principle of reinforcement whereby the consequences of a response
determine whether that response will persist. The law of operant conditioning
states that if the occurrence of an operant is followed by the presentation of a
reinforcing stimulus, the strength/
Probability is increased. An operant is a set of acts, which constitutes an
organism's voluntary behavior. Examples of operant acts include an animal
raising it head, pressing a lever, lifting of leg, etc, and the approach is operant
conditioning because an organism operates
On the environment in order to cause certain consequences. It is also called
instrumental conditioning because certain responses or instruments are
essential in leading or reward.
Skinner classified behavior into respondent and operant. The respondent
behavior is the summation of those responses, which can be identified with
specific eliciting stimuli. The operant refers to that behavior which is
consistently elicited by particular stimuli.
Rather the organism operates or acts on the environment to generate specific
consequences. In operant conditioning, the important stimulus is that which
immediately follow the response

B . F. Skinner used an apparatus, the Skinner box, to demonstrate operant

conditioning in animals. A hungry ( unconditioned) rat is allowed explored the
box, when the rate spontaneously presses a small lever, the experimenter drops
a pellet of food from an aperture
Into a try for the animal to eat. Repeatedly the animally acquires the habit of
pressing the lever presentation of food.
SKINNER AND LEARNING PROCESS
Learning according to Skinner is the creation of conditioned connection
between the learner's operant behavior and its reinforcement. An organism
learns by production changes in it environment. The changes are followed by a
particular consequence. The consequence
(Pleasant or unpleasant) determines whether that operant behavior will be
repeated. The strength of a learned response is generally determined by the
amount of reinforcement that it receives
PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT
The basic principle of operant conditioning is that response that are reinforce
are more likely to be repeated that those that are not reinforced. All behaviors
are accompanied by certain consequences, and these consequences strongly
influence whether or not these behaviors
Are repeated and at what level of intensity. The consequences follow behavior is
either positive or negative. When consequences strengthened a preceding
behavior, the term reinforcement is used. There are positive and negative forms
of reinforcement. When the consequences
Weaken a preceding behavior, the terms punishment and extinction is used.
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
This is the termination or withdrawal of an aversive stimulus (negative
reinforce) contingent upon the performance of a desired behavior. A negative
reinforce is a stimulus which, when taken away from a situation, increases the
probability of a response occurring. The negative reinforce refers
To those things the organism dislikes such as electric shock, pinching,
scolding, nagging, etc. The effect of negative reinforces depends on their
termination (Silverman, 1978)
The Cessation of negative reinforces increases the frequency of a response that
leads to escape from the negative reinforces. Negative reinforces are effective
only when there is a change to escape them. That chance according to Gibson
(1980) is obvious to the individual. For example,

When a bell is sounded, a shock is applied to a dog's leg. The dog can stop the
shock by lifting its leg. With time, the dog learns to quickly lift its leg whenever
the bell sounds. The dog is negatively reinforced if it lifts its leg in order to
cancel the electric shock.
PUNISHMENT
To punish is to present unpleasant or painful stimuli in order to decrease the
probability that a preceding behavior will occur. Punishment is a consequence
that decreases the future occurrence of the behavior that produces it.
Punishment can be administered in two forms (Smith, Sarandon, and Sara
son, 1986).
The first, aversive punishment, is carried out by applying aversive (unpleasant)
stimuli, such as painful slaps , shaming, scolding, verbal reprimands, etc. The
second is done by taking awaking positive reinforces, such as privileges, social
interactions, or possessions. This Second form of punishment is known as
Response cost.
Punishment and negative reinforcement both involve the use of aversive
stimuli. While negative reinforcement requires the termination aversive stimuli,
punishment is a presentation of aversive stimuli. Negative reinforcement
strengthens a response while punishment weakens or suppresses it.
GENERAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS AND NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS IS
TRANSITION FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADULTHOOD
The period of adolescence is termed "the Crisis period" with its attendant stress
and conflicts which are exhibited in different forms of worries and concern.
Some of these concerns according to Havighurst (1972) are as listed below.
Achieving new and more mature relation with age mates of both sexes
Achieving masculine and feminine social roles
Accepting one physique and using the body effectively
Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults
Achieving assurance of economic independence
Selecting and preparation for an occupation
Preparing for marriage and family life
Development skills and concepts necessary for epic competence

Desiring and achieving social responsible behavior

Acquiring a set of values and ethical system as a guide to behavior i.e.
development an ideology. Apart from the above enumerated concerns there are
some basic and fundamental problems that confront adolescent which include
IDENTITY FORMATION: This is the first crucial concern of Adolescents. The
search for self is unending and at the same time frustrating. The self is the
sum total of a person's idea and attitude about whom and what he is. His
problem is compounded
When sometimes he behaves like adult and he is accepted and at mother time
he is told that he is not matured for such yet.
EFFECT OF PEER ON ADOLESCENCE
Adolescent have lesser dependent on parents but draws comfort from members
of his age group and they provide support and security for him The influence of
peers may be negative or positive especially when the needs of adolescents are
not met. Teachers and parents
Are advised to watch the peer group which the children belong to. Efforts
should be made to disband peer where there are bad elements.
ABNORMAL USE OF ALCOHOL AND DRUGS
This is a behavior some adolescents learn from their peers or influence by
significant others. Once this habit starts it becomes difficult to stop and it may
lead to drop addiction and it s attendant problem like mental disorder may
follow.
FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING READINESS
1. Maturation. A child who has not reached a sufficient stage of mental and
physical development when he tries to
Perform school tasks characteristic of that stage and that, which entails a
higher level of development. However
With proper readiness building procedure, normal development difficulties can
be over come.
2. Experience. Previous experience determines a child's readiness for learning
prior exposure to basic skills is necessary
Before complex tasks are tackled.
3. Relevance of materials and methods of instruction. Research has shown that
children are more ready to learn materials that

Meets their needs and fits their already established interests. Children are
more ready to learn skills of spelling, reading and
Writing when they are having fun doing
4. Emotional attitude and personal adjustment. Emotional stress blocks
readiness for learning especially those resulting from
Unmet needs, overprotection, rejection in the home, previous experience of
school failure, and other home difficulties.
Building Learning Readiness
This process begins before the child even enters school. The parents should
provide books, drawing, reading, and writing materials at
Home. The children should have knowledge about books, pictures, and
rudiments of writing. From childhood through school, children should
Be exposed to skills both for their immediate usefulness and for their
preparation for new learning. Building learning readiness necessitates
The following steps:
1. Analyze the skills, understanding and knowledge required in studying a
given material.
2. Use diagnostic pre-tests and other devices to determine the level each
prospective learner possesses the requisite skills, understanding
And knowledge as well as the specific areas of strengths and weaknesses
3. Design the instructional programmed to match the individual needs and
abilities of each learner
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNING
This theory was propounded by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849 1936). He was primarily interested in the circulation of the blood and the
Processes of the gastrointestinal system. He showed little interest in psychology
until his later years. For him, the so called "mental events" were no more
Than reflex units of behavior. The study of the nervous systems of animals led
him to methods of investigation from which he discovered the techniques of the
CondiToning of behavior.
Classical conditioning can be defined as learning resulting from the pairing any
artificial stimulus over a number of trials until the artificial stimulus begins to
Produce responses similar to the response, which follows the natural stimulus.
Classical conditioning depends on the association of a response an individual

makes
Automatically (unconditioned responses) with a previously neutral stimulus
(conditioned stimulus). This association is accomplished through pairing the
conditioned stimulus
With an unconditioned stimulus that automatically elicits the unconditioned
response. After enough pairings, the individual will make the conditioned
response when the
When the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. Classical conditioning is
also called respondent conditioning because the individual does not respond
until after the stimulus
Has been presented ( Gibson, 1980).
Pavlov discovered the technique of conditioning by accident as he was
experimenting with dogs to learn about their digestive and salivary functions
(Silverman, 1978). He wanted
To determine the connection between the presences of food in a dog's mouth
and the dogs salivary flow. Pavlov inverted the parotid gland of the dog so that
its secretions could be accumulated
In a calibrated glass and measured externally. The dog was placed in a
harness. Initially the dog salivated at the sight of food. Pavlov discovered that
the dog salivated not only at the sight of food
But at also when it heard the sound of a bell before it received food. After some
trials, the sound of the bell alone elicited the salivating response. Thus, the dog
had learnt that sound of the bell
Would soon lead to it being given something to eat.
Variables in Classical Conditioning Experiment
1. Conditioned stimulus (CS). This is neutral stimulus, which evokes a
particular response after conditioning. In Pavlov's experiment, the CS (bell)
originally did not produce salivation.
2. Unconditioned Stimulus (US). The unconditioned stimulus (US) on
presentation produces a reflexive unconditioned response (UR). In Pavlov's
experiment, food (US) evokes salivation
(UR) in dogs
3. Unconditioned Response (UR). Before conditioning, the dogs salivate when
food (US) is presented.
4. Conditioned Response (CR). Salivation became a conditioned response when
it has been associated to a neutral stimulus (CS) that did not originally elicit it.
According to Pavlov, if the conditioned

Stimulus and unconditioned stimulus (CS + US) were presented repeatedly, the
connection between the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response is
strengthened. The more the CS - US pairings,
The stronger.
Pavlov and Learning Process
Pavlov believes that humans learn as a result of conditioning. Learning is an
association of paired stimuli and response. Association is therefore very vital to
learning. Learning has taken place when a person
Is conditioned to associate a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Learning occurs when the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus
occur together in time, and a response is made
Concepts in Pavlov's Theory
Extinction. The process by which an established conditioned response is
weakened. Extinction occurs when the CS is presented frequently without
being paired with the US.
Spontaneous Recovery. The reappearance of a previously extinguished
response after a period of time during which the conditioned stimuli has been
absent. Usually, however, responses that returns through
Spontaneous recovery is weaker than they were initially and can be
extinguished more readily.
Stimulus generalization. This takes place when a conditioned response follows
a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus. The greater the
similarity between two stimuli, the greater likelihood
Of stimulus generalization. Once a US is learned, a CS that is similar to the
original CS will also elicit the CR. For example, Pavlov found that a dog that
was conditioned to salivate at the tone of tuning fork would
Also response to ringing of a bell, buzzing bees, etc
Stimulus Discrimination. This is the process by which an organism learns to
differentiate among stimuli, and restricts its response to one particular
stimulus. The ability to make discrimination is the essential factor in human
Learning.
Pavlov and the Teacher
1. Learning tasks should be presented in a form that is interesting or pleasant
to the learner and meet his interests.

2. The teacher should try to start from known to unknown, that is, establish an
association between what the learner already knows and the new topic to be
taught for meaningful learning to take place.
3. The feelings anxiety associated with failure in school may create an aversion
to problem solving situations outside of school. The principles of classical
conditioning can be used to develop favorable and unfavorable attitudes
towards
Learning.
THORNDIKE'S LAWS OF LEARNING
The basis of Edward Thorndike's approach to problems of behavior lay in his
belief that human behavior could be analyzed and studied in terms of S-R
units. The essence of behavior was to be found in the initiation of an even and
an individual's reaction
To them. As a behaviorist, Thorndike views learning in terms of establishing
connection or bond between stimulus and responses. Humans only differ from
other animal their greater capacity to make associations.
EDWARD THORNDIKE'S EXPERIMENTS
Thorndike investigated learning in animals by using cats. A hungry cat was
confined in a puzzle box with food visible on the outside. He presented it a
problem, which required the cat to manipulate some devices, which would open
the gate of the puzzle box.
Bits of food were placed outside the box as an incentive for the cat to open the
gate. From such experiments, Thorndike made the following observations.
The cat first behaved aimlessly as if doing things by trial and error.
It then responded correctly by accident (chance success) and finally, repeated
the successful operation
Consuming the food (satisfier) rewarded it.
Getting the reward strengthens the connection between the stimuli and the
response made just before the reward (satisfier) was given.
From the above observations. Thorndike formulated three major laws, namely:
law of effect, law of readiness and law of exercise
LAW OF EFFECT
The law of effect states that the association between a stimulus and a response
will strengthen or weakened depending on whether a satisfier or an annoyer
follows the response (Gibson, 1980). An act, which is followed by satisfaction in

a given situation, will generally

Become associated with that situation; so that when it recurs the act will also
be likely to recur (Curzon, 1981). On the other, an act, which results in
discomfort, tends to be disassociated from the situation, so that when the
situation recurs, the act will be less likely to recur.
The greater the satisfaction or discomfort experienced, the greater the degree to
which the S-R bond will be strengthened or loosened.
After research studies have showed that this explanation was inadequate,
Thorndike propounded another law, the truncated law of effect. This law added
the idea that while satisfiers always strengthens the bond between a stimulus
and a response, the effect of annoyers
Is much less predictable; sometime they weaken the bond, but sometimes they
do not.
LAW OF EXERCISE
The law of exercise states that response to a situation may be strongly
connected with the situation depending on the number of times it has been so
connected and to the average strength and duration of the connection. The
exercise here refers to practice. Practice they say makes
Perfect. In a later revision of the law, Thorndike asserts that practice in itself
did not make perfect, but practice in circumstances that allowed the learner to
be informed or given comments about his progress could be valuable in
strengthening the S-R links
LAW OF READINESS
The law of readiness states that a learner's satisfaction determined by the
extent of his preparatory set, that is, his readiness for action. This law was
summarized into two:
When someone is ready to perform an act to do so is satisfying.
When someone is ready to perform some act, not do so is annoying. An
interference with goal-directed behavior causes frustration and making
someone to do something he does not want to do is frustrating
SUBSIDIARY LAWS
Thorndike also outlines other subsidiary law (Curzon, 1981). They include the
following:
Law of Multiple Responses. A response, which fails to produce satisfaction, will
trigger off another until success results and learning becomes possible

Law of Set. The individual's total attitude or disposition affects learning.

Law of Response Analogy. A Person's response to a novel situation is
determined by innate tendencies to respond and by elements in similar
situations to which he has acquired responses in the past.
Law of Selectivity of Response. As an animal learns, it becomes capable of
ignoring some aspects of a problem and responding to others.
Law of Associative Shifting. A learner first responds to a given stimulus, then
transfers the responses, but association, to another stimulus.
Law of Spread Effect. If an act had pleasurable consequences, the pleasure
tended top become associated with not only the act and the eliciting stimulus,
but also with other actions, which occurred approximately, the same point in
time.
IMPLICATION OF THORNDIKE'S THEORY TO THE CLASSROOM
Reward is important in learning. It strengthens the occurrence of behavior a
follows.
Practice and repetition is vital in the learning process. However, practice efforts
should accompanied by feedback
The law of readiness stresses the importance of preparation for learning. The
teacher must wait until learner is ready to learn and should give those
experiences which help to enhance readiness. Preparatory experience that will
hasten the development
Of readiness can be provided in elementary classes.
OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNING
B.F. Skinner propounded the operant conditioning theory of learning. Operant
conditioning describes learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened
or weakened, depending on its positive or negative consequences (Feldman,
1996). The procedure is based
On the principle of reinforcement whereby the consequences of a response
determine whether that response will persist. The law of operant conditioning
states that if the occurrence of an operant is followed by the presentation of a
reinforcing stimulus, the strength/
Probability is increased. An operant is a set of acts, which constitutes an
organism's voluntary behavior. Examples of operant acts include an animal
raising it head, pressing a lever, lifting of leg, etc, and the approach is operant

conditioning because an organism operates

On the environment in order to cause certain consequences. It is also called
instrumental conditioning because certain responses or instruments are
essential in leading or reward.
Skinner classified behavior into respondent and operant. The respondent
behavior is the summation of those responses, which can be identified with
specific eliciting stimuli. The operant refers to that behavior which is
consistently elicited by particular stimuli.
Rather the organism operates or acts on the environment to generate specific
consequences. In operant conditioning, the important stimulus is that which
immediately follow the response
B . F. Skinner used an apparatus, the Skinner box, to demonstrate operant
conditioning in animals. A hungry ( unconditioned) rat is allowed explored the
box, when the rate spontaneously presses a small lever, the experimenter drops
a pellet of food from an aperture
Into a try for the animal to eat. Repeatedly the animally acquires the habit of
pressing the lever presentation of food.
SKINNER AND LEARNING PROCESS
Learning according to Skinner is the creation of conditioned connection
between the learner's operant behavior and its reinforcement. An organism
learns by production changes in it environment. The changes are followed by a
particular consequence. The consequence
(Pleasant or unpleasant) determines whether that operant behavior will be
repeated. The strength of a learned response is generally determined by the
amount of reinforcement that it receives
PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT
The basic principle of operant conditioning is that response that are reinforce
are more likely to be repeated that those that are not reinforced. All behaviors
are accompanied by certain consequences, and these consequences strongly
influence whether or not these behaviors
Are repeated and at what level of intensity. The consequences follow behavior is
either positive or negative. When consequences strengthened a preceding
behavior, the term reinforcement is used. There are positive and negative forms
of reinforcement. When the consequences
Weaken a preceding behavior, the terms punishment and extinction is used.
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

This is the termination or withdrawal of an aversive stimulus (negative

reinforce) contingent upon the performance of a desired behavior. A negative
reinforce is a stimulus which, when taken away from a situation, increases the
probability of a response occurring. The negative reinforce refers
To those things the organism dislikes such as electric shock, pinching,
scolding, nagging, etc. The effect of negative reinforces depends on their
termination (Silverman, 1978)
The Cessation of negative reinforces increases the frequency of a response that
leads to escape from the negative reinforces. Negative reinforces are effective
only when there is a change to escape them. That chance according to Gibson
(1980) is obvious to the individual. For example,
When a bell is sounded, a shock is applied to a dog's leg. The dog can stop the
shock by lifting its leg. With time, the dog learns to quickly lift its leg whenever
the bell sounds. The dog is negatively reinforced if it lifts its leg in order to
cancel the electric shock.
PUNISHMENT
To punish is to present unpleasant or painful stimuli in order to decrease the
probability that a preceding behavior will occur. Punishment is a consequence
that decreases the future occurrence of the behavior that produces it.
Punishment can be administered in two forms (Smith, Sarandon, and Sara
son, 1986).
The first, aversive punishment, is carried out by applying aversive (unpleasant)
stimuli, such as painful slaps , shaming, scolding, verbal reprimands, etc. The
second is done by taking awaking positive reinforces, such as privileges, social
interactions, or possessions. This Second form of punishment is known as
Response cost.
Punishment and negative reinforcement both involve the use of aversive
stimuli. While negative reinforcement requires the termination aversive stimuli,
punishment is a presentation of aversive stimuli. Negative reinforcement
strengthens a response while punishment weakens or suppresses it.
GENERAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS AND NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS IS
TRANSITION FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADULTHOOD
The period of adolescence is termed "the Crisis period" with its attendant stress
and conflicts which are exhibited in different forms of worries and concern.
Some of these concerns according to Havighurst (1972) are as listed below.
Achieving new and more mature relation with age mates of both sexes

Achieving masculine and feminine social roles

Accepting one physique and using the body effectively
Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults
Achieving assurance of economic independence
Selecting and preparation for an occupation
Preparing for marriage and family life
Development skills and concepts necessary for epic competence
Desiring and achieving social responsible behavior
Acquiring a set of values and ethical system as a guide to behavior i.e.
development an ideology. Apart from the above enumerated concerns there are
some basic and fundamental problems that confront adolescent which include
IDENTITY FORMATION: This is the first crucial concern of Adolescents. The
search for self is unending and at the same time frustrating. The self is the
sum total of a person's idea and attitude about whom and what he is. His
problem is compounded
When sometimes he behaves like adult and he is accepted and at mother time
he is told that he is not matured for such yet.
EFFECT OF PEER ON ADOLESCENCE
Adolescent have lesser dependent on parents but draws comfort from members
of his age group and they provide support and security for him The influence of
peers may be negative or positive especially when the needs of adolescents are
not met. Teachers and parents
Are advised to watch the peer group which the children belong to. Efforts
should be made to disband peer where there are bad elements.
ABNORMAL USE OF ALCOHOL AND DRUGS
This is a behavior some adolescents learn from their peers or influence by
significant others. Once this habit starts it becomes difficult to stop and it may
lead to drop addiction and it s attendant problem like mental disorder may
follow.
11.3

Social learning theory is a perspective that states that people learn within a
social context. It is facilitated through concepts such as modeling and
observational learning.[1] People, especially children, learn from the
environment and seek acceptance from society by learning through influential
models. Social learning theory is a perspective that states that social behavior
(any type of behavior that we display socially) is learned primarily by observing
and imitating the actions of others. The social behavior is also influenced by
being rewarded and/or punished for these actions. Social learning theory was
derived in an attempt by Robert Sears and other scholars to merge
psychoanalytic and stimulus-response learning theory into an inclusive
explanation of human behavior. Sears and the others draw their conclusions
off of the clinical richness of the former and the rigor of the latter. Albert
Bandura, conversely, abandoned the psychoanalytic and drive features of the
approach. His approach emphasized on cognitive and information-processing
capabilities that facilitate social behavior. Both theories proposed were
envisioned as a general context for the understanding of human behavior, but
Banduras theory provided a stronger theoretical beginning. [2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Theory
2 Human development
3 Criminology
4 Serial murder and social learning
theory
5 Applications
6 References
7 External links
[edit]Theory
According to Social Learning theory, models are an important source for
learning new behaviors and for achieving behavioral change in institutionalized
settings.[3] Social learning theory is derived from the work of Albert

Bandura which proposed that observational learning can occur in relation to

three models:[4]
Live model

in which an actual person is demonstrating the desired behaviour

Verbal instruction
in which an individual describes the desired behaviour in detail, and
instructs the participant in how to engage in the behavior

Symbolic

in which modeling occurs by means of the media, including movies,

television, Internet, literature, and radio. This type of modeling involves a
real or fictional character demonstrating the behaviour.
An important factor of Banduras social learning theory is the
emphasis on reciprocal determinism. This notion states that an
individuals behaviour is influenced by the environment and
characteristics of the person. In other words, a persons behaviour,
environment, and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each
other.[4]
Bandura proposed that the modeling process involves several steps: [4]
1. Attention: In order for an individual to learn something, they
must pay attention to the features of the modeled behaviour.
2. Retention: Humans need to be able to remember details of the
behaviour in order to learn and later reproduce the behaviour.
3. Reproduction: In reproducing a behavior, an individual must
organize his or her responses in accordance with the model
behavior. This ability can improve with practice.
4. Motivation: There must be an incentive or motivation driving
the individuals reproduction of the behaviour. Even if all of the
above factors are present, the person will not engage in the
behaviour without motivation.

Bandura is known for his 1961-1963 experiments utilizing an

inflatable clown known as a Bobo doll in order to test modeling
behaviours in children. Children were divided into three groups one
of which was exposed to an aggressive adult model, one which was
exposed to a passive adult model, and a control group, which was not
exposed to an adult model. Adults in the aggressive group were asked
to verbally and physically attack the doll, while those in the passive
group were asked to play peacefully. Once the children were given the
opportunity to play, results showed that those exposed to the
aggressive model were more likely to imitate what they had seen, and
to behave aggressively toward the doll. It was found that boys were
four times more likely than girls to display physical aggression, but
levels of verbal aggression were about the same. The results of
Banduras studies provided support for the influence of modeling on
learning. Further, a later study in 1965 showed that witnessing the
model being punished for the aggressive behavior decreased the
likelihood that children would imitate the behaviour.[5]
Julian Rotter moved away from theories based
on psychosis and behaviourism, and developed a learning theory.
In Social Learning and Clinical Psychology (1954), Rotter suggests that
the effect of behaviour has an impact on the motivation of people to
engage in that specific behaviour. People wish to avoid negative
consequences, while desiring positive results or effects. If one expects
a positive outcome from a behaviour, or thinks there is a high
probability of a positive outcome, then they will be more likely to
engage in that behaviour. The behavior is reinforced, with positive
outcomes, leading a person to repeat the behaviour. This social
learning theory suggests that behaviour is influenced by these
environmental factors or stimuli, and not psychological factors alone.
[6]

Albert Bandura[7] expanded on Rotter's idea, as well as earlier work by

Miller & Dollard,[8] and is related to social learning theories
of Vygotsky and Lave. This theory incorporates aspects of behavioral
and cognitive learning. Behavioural learning assumes that people's
environment (surroundings) cause people to behave in certain ways.
Cognitive learning presumes that psychological factors are important
for influencing how one behaves. Social learning suggests that a
combination of environmental (social) and psychological factors
influence behaviour. Social learning theory outlines three

requirements for people to learn and model behaviour

including attention: retention (remembering what one observed),
reproduction (ability to reproduce the behaviour),
and motivation(good reason) to want to adopt the behaviour.
According to Bandura and Walterss 1963 review on Social Learning
Theory, human learning takes place as individuals abstract
information from observing behavior of others. The factors of social
learning are using symbols and engaging with intentional actions.
This is proven by the models Bandura used to help build his theory
of social learning of attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation. Bandura uses these complex behaviors of reciprocal
determinism to help illustrate the interactive effect of various factors
such as the environment, behavior, and internal events that influence
perspectives.[9]
[edit]Human development
In human development there are many other factors that go into
understanding how social learning theory affects the growth of a
child. For instance, children will look up to those of the same gender
and imitate their behavior. The role models could be anyone from
their parents to their teachers at school, or perhaps, a character on
television. By imitating the behavior of this role model the child will
learn what is deemed appropriate for society. When the child learns
what is approved by his or her peers, the child is likely to adhere to
that standard.
Children also learn through positive and negative reinforcement.
When a child acts a certain way he/she is searching for approval and
acceptance of that behavior. If the reinforcement is positive, it is
filling a role or desire that the child might have which will lead the
child to continue that action. If the child does not receive the
approval that he/she is searching for there is change in behavior.
Mutual acceptance is necessary for the behavior to be reoccurring.
Also the unconditional love from a parent is necessary for the child to
learn and develop properly. The parent can't simply withhold love
from the child because they didn't behave a certain way. Positive and
negative reinforcement is important for child development but the
parent cannot withhold love simply because the child did something
wrong. Social learning theory plays such a large role in reinforcement

because that is the baseline of every action of a child seeking

approval from their peers, parents and teachers alike.
This theory was further tested by Akers in 1998. He found that drug
usage had a direct correlation with peer association, but only if peer
interactions were to occur. Concluding that social learning theory
affects human development in the way that we interact with our
peers and what we do to be socially accepted.[10]
11.4 KNOWLEDGE OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING[edit]
David Ausubel (1978) proposed a theory of meaningful reception learning. In
his view, learners have to relate the potentially meaningful learning materials to
their prior knowledge. Meaningful learning theory suggests that to make
learning meaningful, we need to internalize the information we initially learned,
and later used in practice. There are three essential conditions to meaningful
learning (Driscoll, 2002):

Learner must employ a meaningful learning set to any learning task.

The material to be learned must be potentially meaningful.

What learners already know and how that knowledge relates to what
they are asked to learn.

Therefore, knowledge cannot be transmitted from the teachers; rather,

learners construct their knowledge when trying to make sense of their
experiences based on existing knowledge. In addition, learning materials
should be authentic and can be found in real-world situation. However,
Ausubel believed that meaningful reception learning occurs when teachers
employ expository teaching, transmitting the Anchoring ideas which help
the learners build the required cognitive structure for assimilating new
information that is potentially meaningful. In this way, learners do not need
to organize new information or figure out the relationship between the new
and existing experiences, which takes place in discovery learning.
Process of Meaningful Learning
Based on Ausubels process of meaningful learning, there are three ways for
new information to be incorporated into the existing cognitive structure:
new information can be subordinate to, superordinate to, or coordinate with
an existing idea (Driscoll, 1994, p.118).
1.Derivative and Correlative Subsumption. (lower in the structure)

To have learning occur, we need to have new information work with or be

subsumed by (Driscoll, 2000) our previous ideas already in memory.
Subsumption can occur in two ways, derivative and correlative. Derivative
subsumption refers to the learning of new examples or cases that are
illustrative of an established concept or previously learned proposition
(Driscoll, 2000). Correlative subsumption refers to the elaboration,
extension, or modification of the previously learned concept or propositions
by the subsumptions of the incoming idea (Driscoll, 2000).
Example:
Learners during the derivative subsumption process might have a general
concept about mammal in mind. Then new information such as elephant,
rabbit, and whales are all mammals can be added into our previous idea.
Learners during correlative subsumption, instead of learning merely learn
that elephants are one kind of mammal, they learn the characteristic or
feature about the information and add it into their existing idea.
2.Superordinate and Combinatorial Learning. (higher in the structure)
Learning processes can be of many types; they can be coordinate, or lateral
to the situation. Consequently, Driscoll categorizes them into two parts. One
is Superordinate learning, that is, a new, inclusive proposition or concept is
learned under which already established ideas can be subsumed (Driscoll,
2000).
Example:
Learners during the superordinate learning process may already contain
some existing idea, such as the implementation of motivation in ones career
field, in learning theory, or in advertisements. Perhaps, at some point, they
will come up with a new idea, such as using motivation theory or
motivational techniques in a different situation where it has a highly
influential effect. For instance, motivational theory and principles might be
used to get dogs to run fast, aliens not to destroy planet Earth, or politicians
to pass a bill that reduces greenhouse gases. That is combinatorial learning.
As another example, designers before learning how to design couture, they
may need to learn the characteristics of different fabrics. Designing couture
and knowing fabrics may seem irrelevant, but if a designer lacks precious
knowledge of fabric, it may be difficult to produce the final products they

want; for example, they must know when should they use silk, cotton, lace,
and so on.
Quotations about meaningful learning
Meaningful learning underlies the constructive integration of thinking,
feeling, and acting leading to empowerment for commitment and
responsibility. (Joseph D. Novak, 1999)
11.5 Metacognition is a process by which an individual is aware of his or her
own brain processes that occur during learning. In other words, metacognition
is thinking about thinking. It can also be described as knowing about knowing.
The goal of using metacognitive strategies is to make a persons thinking visible
to themselves and others, as well as to achieve learning outcomes.
The theory of metacognition is usually attributed to J.H. Flavell, who first
coined the term in 1979. In recent years, the strategies of metacognition have
been increasingly applied in theclassroom environment. Through the use of
visible thinking, metacognition can assist students and teachers in tackling
projects, approaching reading, and completing assignments across the
curriculum.
The basic tenet of metacognition is that by understanding what the mind is
thinking duringlearning, an individual will be able to focus his strengths and
improve upon his weaknesses when tackling a project, assignment, or
text. Cognition can be described as an awareness of knowledge, while
metacognition is a farther-reaching subject that involves using that knowledge,
as well as applying strategies, when cognitive processes fail to serve the learner
in completing a task.
Many good students use metacognitive strategies naturally; for others, this is a
process which must be learned. Students who use metacognitive strategies,
such as awareness, self-regulation, and refocusing, outperform those who
dont.
11.6

12. Few things are more important in educating a child than motivation.
Teachers must be motivated to teach well. Students must be motivated to learn.
In the early years of education, motivation comes easy. Children are naturally
inclined to be curious and enthusiastic about learning new things. As
childhood turns into adolescence, however motivation wanes. At this point
parents and teachers must find ways to keep students engaged in the learning
process.
While some students keep their natural enthusiasm for learning, and are often
labeled geeks and ridiculed, most students' interests shift to socializing and
status. Many parents and educators panic when faced with the task of
motivating students. Panic leads to less than wise tactics. I have seen money
being offered for grades, by schools and parents. I have seen cell phones and
other privileges given for good grades. While this may work in the short term, it
is my concern that until students understand what a privilege education is,
they will never truly be motivated. Motivation needs to come from the heart.
While there is no real formula for getting students motivated, there are some
approaches that work (for different children of course).
Interest in subject matter: If a child is interested in the subject matter, he will
learn. I remember when my younger brother was doing miserably in history in
the second grade. That was until they got to the topic of the Titanic. He not
only aced that unit, but also obsessed about it and made sure the rest of the
family was well versed in Titanic history. This not only raised his history grade,
but also gave him the self-confidence to do better in history for the rest of the
year.
Usefulness: How many times have you heard a child say, "What purpose does
this have in my life?" Subjects need to be applied for a student to open their
minds to learning them. Geometry for example is important to architecture,
carpentry, decorating, robotics, art, assembly, computer aided design, video
game programming, building models, technology, biology, astronomy,
telecommunication, and more. Students need to find something they are
interested in to help them learn a subject they are not excited about.
Self Esteem: A child with a good amount of self-esteem will be less inclined to
look at his peers for approval and so will be less likely to be distracted from
learning by outside influences.

Persistence: Sometimes you just have to stay on a child to get keep them
motivated. I am not talking about begging or cajoling. Parents and teachers
however need to continuously observe and encourage a student through a
subject until they can find a something about that subject that will allow them
to be self-motivated.
Instructors have a great deal of power in the motivation of students. They
can also unmotivated an otherwise motivated student if they are not careful. In
order to motivate their students, they themselves must be motivated to teach
beyond the monetary reward.
Enthusiasm: Kids know when a teacher is motivated to teach and when they
are doing it as a job. I think my least motivated teacher was my typing teacher.
She made a subject that one would think students would enjoy, pure hell. It
was clear that she did not want to be there, and so none of us wanted to be
there either. She spent more time ridiculing students for reasons that had
nothing to do with typing than encouraging them.
Relevant material: Teachers need to be up with the times in their subject
matter. They need to know the modern teen culture and be able to pull things
that kids can relate to into the curriculum.
Appropriate difficulty levels: While asking hard questions make students
think, teachers must be careful to lower the bar when appropriate so that
students can feel accomplished and then slowly, but surely raise that bar.
Student Involvement: When a student feels ownership they become more
enthusiastic. This is why science labs are such an important part of teaching
science. Teachers should find ways to help children apply what they learned in
a way that is meaningful to them. This may mean presenting the material back
in the form of a song, poem, or even a website.
Rapport: Personality is everything. How many times have you heard a parent
complain, my child just does not get along with the teacher as the reason the
child is not doing well. Once a certain amount of animosity is built up between
a student and teacher, the student will begin to mentally shut the teacher out.
At this point, they will cease to learn even the simplest concept. While teachers
should not be pushovers, and everyone's best friend, they must try to be fun,
fair, and approachable.
There are various types of motivations that can influence a person. These
include the following:

Primary or Basic Motivation

This mainly pertains to motives involved with our need for self-preservation.
This includes needs such as hunger and thirst, warmth, sex, avoidance of pain
and other primary motives which influence a persons behaviour at a very basic
level.
Secondary Motivation
More known in psychology as learned motivation, this type of drives differ
from one person to another. In many ways they involve a persons own sense of
values and priorities in life.
Many of the behaviour derived from secondary motivation are conscious ones.
That is, a person consciously desires a particular goal or result, and behaves in
a way that brings them closer to that particular goal. What drives them to do
something or to act in a particular way is the longing for something which they
currently do not have or possess.
This kind of motivation generally falls into two basic types: intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation is likely to involve the concept of rewarded behavior. Thus,
by engaging in a particular type of activity or behaving in a particular manner,
you are rewarded by a desired end result.
For instance, you are motivated to save money for a vacation. Hence, you resist
the urge to make impulsive purchases and in general become more
discriminating in how you spend your money. After a time you find that you
have a steadily growing amount of savings which you set aside. When you find
that you have saved enough for that trip, you utilize your savings for the
intended purpose and go on vacation. The external motivation is the vacation,

which is also the reward for your act of saving for it.
Internal Motivation
On the other hand, there are other less-visible types of motivation.
It would be a mistake to say that such behaviour does not come without its
own rewards. To be more precise, the end goal is not a visible or external thing,
but more internal and psychological. The achievement of these goals by itself
also correctly seen as a reward is in general not visible to other persons.
Thus, for instance, a student is motivated to get good grades (external
motivation) or simply, he desires to know more about a particular subject
(intrinsic motivation). Getting good grades is the reward visible to others. For
the student, the fact that he has become an expert in a particular subject or
lesson is also a psychological reward for his intrinsic desire to learn.
Successful Motivated Behaviour
Good and effective actions or behaviour usually involves the harmonizing of
these two types of motivation. If one is driven by both intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations, then inner conflict is reduced and a person is more likely to devote
uninterrupted and harmonious actions towards a particular task.
The inner and external rewards too, are good reinforcing mechanisms. For
many people, this is really the means towards success. By choosing goals that
you desire both in its intrinsic and extrinsic rewards you can harmonize
your own actions and devote your energies to your goals. In such instances, the
chances of achievement increases greatly.

13.
Laws of Learning
INTRODUCTION:

Anyone who intends to guide and direct the learning activities of others requires
a detailed understanding of the nature and processes of learning. Instructors
are masters of many skills. What they teach demands a high degree of
competence in presenting subject matter. Nevertheless, HOW they teach
depends largely on their understanding of the learning process and the ability
to apply this understanding.

DEFINITION OF LEARNING
What is "learning?" Learning takes place when there is a change in a student's
behavior. It may not be directly observable. Learning is based on observation of
behavior changes that result from a person's interaction with their
environment. An individual's learning may involve changes in any of three
areas:
1. Manner of perceiving and thinking.
2. Physical behavior (motor skills).
3. Emotional reactions or attitudes.
Learning refers to any of these changes when they occur as a result of an
experience. Thus, learning cannot be literally described but the conditions
under which it occurs can be identified. The instructor should understand
these conditions and apply them when teaching.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

Purposeful Process. Most people have definite ideas about what they
want to achieve. They have goals or clear objectives. Effective instructors
seek ways to create new learning situations to meet the trainees' goals.
Motivation, the force that impels a person toward a goal, is the
instructor's most effective tool to encourage learning. This can be either
weak or strong motivation depending on the situation.

Internal Experience. The instructor cannot learn for the trainee, nor can
he or she pour predigested learning into the trainee's head. The trainee

can learn only from his or her own experiences. A person's knowledge is a
result of their experiences and manner of perceiving them and reacting to
them. No two people have exactly the same experiences. All learning
stems from experience. For example, by repeated drill, a trainee can learn
to repeat a list of words or to recite the principles of leadership. However,
trainees can make the list an actual part of their lives only if they
understand them well enough to apply the ideas that they represent
correctly in real situations.

Active Process. Since learning comes only through experience, the

trainee must be actively involved in the experience. This activity can take
many forms. Learning is more than simply exposing a trainee to an idea
or a skill. Likewise, one cannot safely assume that trainees can apply
what they know just because they correctly quote a paragraph from a
textbook. The trainee must become actively involved in the learning
situation, but just any kind of involving activity will not suffice. The
trainee must engage in the appropriate activity. Obviously, learning a
physical skill requires experience in performing that skill. The instructor
should understand, however, that mental habits are always learned
through practice. Even attitudes are developed or modified as an
individual reacts emotionally to a stimulus.

Multidimensional. Learning is multidimensional. Multidimensional

develops new concept. In other words, it is possible to learn other things
while concentrating on or practicing the main subject. While practicing
drill, the trainees learn teamwork and cooperation. While learning
dormitory arrangement, they learn attention to details and following
explicit instructions.

Individual Process. All trainees do not learn at the same rate. New
instructors are likely to be discouraged when they discover that a wellplanned lesson does not enable them to teach all the trainees with equal
effectiveness. They soon recognize this as a natural and predictable
problem because trainees seldom learn at the same rate. Differences in
rates of learning are based on differences in intelligence, background,
experience, interests, desire to learn, and countless other psychological,
emotional and physical factors. Instructors must recognize these
differences in determining the amount of subject matter to teach, the rate
of which they will cover the material, and the appropriate time to teach it.
Once the slower trainees are identified, it is up to the instructor to bring

them up to the level of the rest of the flight. You must identify their weak
areas, bring the areas to their attention, and show them how to correct
them. You may be fortunate and have some trainees who excel. These
trainees may be used to help others during their practice. This serves a
twofold purpose. The fast learning trainees are relieved from boredom and
the slow learning trainees receive the benefit of the peers' expertise.

Laws of Learning
Edward L. Thorndike in the early 1900's postulated several "Laws of Learning,"
that seemed generally applicable to the learning process. Since that time, other
educational psychologists have found that the learning process is indeed more
complex than the "laws" identified. However, the "laws" do provide the instructor
with insight into the learning process that will assist in providing a rewarding
experience to the trainee.
The laws that follow are not necessarily stated as Professor Thorndike first
stated them. Over the years, they have been restated and supplemented, but, in
essence, they may be attributed to him. The first three are the basic laws: the
law of readiness, the law of exercise, and the most famous and still generally
accepted, the law of effect. The other three laws were added later as a result of
experimental studies: the law of primacy, the law of intensity, and the law of
recency.
As with anything else relative to the instruction and learning process, nothing
that we do is a singular item; a combination of activities occurs at the same
time to make the experience complete.

Law of Readiness
The Law of Readiness means a person can learn when physically and
mentally adjusted (ready) to receive stimuli. Individuals learn best when
they are ready to learn, and they will not learn much if they see no reason
for learning. If trainees have a strong purpose, a clear objective and a
sound reason for learning, they usually make more progress than
trainees who lack motivation. When trainees are ready to learn, they are
more willing to participate in the learning process, and this simplifies the
instructor's job. If outside responsibilities or worries weigh heavily on

trainees' minds or if their personal problems seem unsolvable, they may

have little interest in learning.

Law of Exercise
The Law of Exercise stresses the idea that repetition is basic to the
development of adequate responses; things most often repeated are
easiest remembered. The mind can rarely recall new concepts or
practices after a single exposure, but every time it is practiced,
learning continues and is enforced. The instructor must provide
opportunities for trainees to practice or repeat the task. Repetition
consists of many types of activities, including recall, review,
restatement, manual drill and physical application. Remember that
practice makes permanent, not perfect unless the task is taught
correctly.

Law of Effect
This law involves the emotional reaction of the learner. Learning will
always be much more effective when a feeling of satisfaction,
pleasantness, or reward accompanies or is a result of the learning
process. Learning is strengthened when it is accompanied by a
pleasant or satisfying feeling and that it is weakened when it is
associated with an unpleasant experience. An experience that
produces feelings of defeat, frustration, anger or confusion in a
trainee is unpleasant. Instructors should be cautious about using
negative motivation. Usually it is better to show trainees that a
problem is not impossible, but is within their capability to
understand and solve.

Law of Primacy
This law states that the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost
unshakeable impression. For the instructor, this means that what they
teach the first time must be correct. If a subject is incorrectly taught, it
must be corrected. It is more difficult to un-teach a subject than to teach
it correctly the first time. For the trainees' first learning experience

should be positive and functionally related to training.

Law of Intensity
The principle of intensity states that if the stimulus (experience) is real,
the more likely there is to be a change in behavior (learning). A vivid,
dramatic or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or
boring experience. A trainee will learn more from the real thing than from
a substitute. Demonstrations, skits, and models do much to intensify the
learning experiences of trainees.

Law of Recency
Things most recently learned are best remembered, while the things
learned some time ago are remembered with more difficulty. It is
sometimes easy, for example, to recall a telephone number dialed a few
minutes ago, but it is usually impossible to recall a telephone number
dialed a week ago. Review, warm-ups, and similar activities are all based
on the principle that the more recent the exercise, the more effective the
performance. Practicing a skill or new concept just before using it will
ensure a more effective performance. Instructors recognize the law of
recency when they plan a lesson summary or a conclusion of the lecture.
Repeat, restate, or reemphasize important matters at the end of a lesson
to make sure that trainees remember them instead of inconsequential
details.

14.
15. What is the difference between strategy, technique, method and
approach in terms of teaching
Strategy
Strategy usually requires some sort of planning. You'd probably use strategy
when faced with a new situation, ie. the strategy to win a game.
A plan of action designed to achieve an overall aim.
Strategy means a method. Such as when playing a football game, "That was a
great strategy! It always works!" or when playing a video "Ok, our strategy is to

go around the enemy".

Your example, "Whats your strategy for setting goals?", is ok to say but some
people might not know what you mean. Strategy is almost like the word 'tactic'.
Example :
A) What tactics do you use?
B) My teams tactics are going around.

Technique
Technique is a procedure or skill for completing a specific task. I'd imagine this
would be used for predictable events, ie. solving a long division equation.
Teaching Techniques: These are the little sneaky tricks we all know and use to
get the job done in the classroom. Teachers all over have systems of
rewards/punishments for students who comply and exceed or defy and lag
behind. If a classroom is becoming distracted a teacher may use the technique
of silent reading or shared reading to try to rope them in again. Another may
choose to use a quick physical activity to distract their distraction and get them
all to do the same thing at the same time - then quickly direct them back to
work. This is really where someone with loads of experience can help another
teacher improve her abilities. These are the tricks that can be taught to another
teacher. Sort of "I find this really helps during math class" type of suggestions.
Also a lot of the in-services and workshops all teachers attend offer little tidbits
of games, activites, and actions that teachers can use to achieve certain goals
in the classroom. Everything from sending a note home to mom and a trip to
the principal's office to giving out 'points' forgood behaviour are examples of
techniques teachers can use to keep ahead of the pack.
Method
Method is a way something is done. Perhaps used for routine tasks.
Teaching Method: Refers to how you apply your answers from the questions
stated in Teaching Approaches to your day to day instruction in front of your
students. Do you follow the textbooks and curricula to the letter with
everything? Are you more of a Socratic teacher and prompt discussion by
asking questions to lead students to understanding? Do you advocate learning
by doing? Are your students expected to simply listen attentively and take notes
(not that any student really does that) with the hopes that they can memorize
the facts for assessment? This is not really a question of 'what works for you'

but what actual practices and procedures of teaching do you prefer and come
most naturally to you?
Approach
An approach is treating something in a certain way. Experiments must be
approached the same way to repeat.
Teaching Approaches: I would say that this is the your own personal
philosophy of teaching. What is the nature of education? What is the role of the
teacher, the student, the administration, the parents? To be an effective
teacher, does one need to strive to be authoritarian, to be autocratic, or is the
best way to engender a sense of trust and familiarity, to be a 'educating/leading
friend' to your students. To understand one's personal teaching approaches,
one must first look to answer these types of questions. And of course, your
opinion will change as time goes on - and it may vary depending on the
students you're teaching.

16.2 This supervised study lesson is one whose primary objective is to teach
learners how to study a given subject effectively under the direction and
guidance of the teacher. It is interesting to note that under the supervised study
scheme, the learners are taught the techniques of learning while the teacher acts
as a guide in the various steps and procedure in the classroom.

Image Credit

This supervised study lesson is one whose primary objective is to teach

learners how to study a given subject effectively under the direction and
guidance of the teacher. The teacher gives the defined direction in relation to
steps, methods and strategies and supervises the learning process. It is
interesting to note that under the supervised study scheme, the learners are
taught the techniques of learning while the teacher acts as a guide in the
various steps and procedure in the classroom.
Importance of Supervised Study
The importances of supervised studies in college level are:

The observation that a number of failures and dropouts in school are due
to poor study habits. Some students just memorize facts and information
without understanding them. Others just waste time because of lack of
concentration on the learning tasks.
Many hours especially in the rural and slum areas do not have adequate
lighting. The learning condition is not conducive to learning. The learners
should be guided on their school activities every day.
Slow learners need motivation, guidance and supervised study.

Types of Supervised Study Lessons

As already mentioned, the primary purpose of supervised study is to teach the
learners how to study their lesson effectively. There are different types of
supervised study lessons that are found to be effective.
Group Study
At the outset, the group is first supervised by the teacher on their learning
tasks. When they have learned and developed the study habits, they can study
at their own. Under the group study, the teacher should be alert and observant
to identify the bright learners from the slow ones and provide some provisions.
Study with Printed Materials
Examples: books, manuals and other printed materials and people. Studying is
always associated with book learning and printed educational materials. Study
can also be derived with people instead of books as resource persons.

Programmed Instruction
This is a method of independent study where it makes use of programmed
lessons, textbooks and machines.
Science Laboratories
Laboratory learning tasks are always supervised by the teacher. The teacher
should always be on guard while the learners are busy working in the
laboratory.
The Library-Study Plan
This supervised study has two phases - a semi-library study-hall, all learners
from all classes study here and make use of reference materials; while the
department study, learners get assistance from the department concern. A
student who is weak in Math may go to Math department and seek help there.
The Study Period
This type of supervised study takes place in a regular classroom, a special
study room, in the audio-visual room or in a small portion of the library under
the supervision of the teacher. The learners are kept busy doing their assigned
learning activities. The teacher should be ready to give assistance at any time
when needed.
The success of the supervised study depends to a large extent on the abilities
of the teacher who will train and guide the learners on how to study effectively.
There are few guidelines that should be observed. The physical setting should
be free from any form of distractions. All the necessary teaching aids and
materials should be readily available. The purpose of the learning activity
should be clear and understood by the learners. The time for supervised study
should be used profitably. The teacher should supervise the children while they
are working.
16.3An appreciation lesson is designed to instruct the class to understand,
appreciate and enjoy something. In order to appreciate something, one must
understand to enjoy. Appreciation is a combination of understanding and
enjoyment.

Image Credit
An appreciation lesson is designed to instruct the class to understand,
appreciate and enjoy something. In order to appreciate something, one must
understand to enjoy. Appreciation is a combination of understanding and
enjoyment. A learner who understands and finds easy solving arithmetic
problems, may be actually enjoying it, and therefore, he appreciates it.
An appreciation lesson should focus on developing desirable values. A good
appreciation lesson should help learners to evaluate values and guide them
make proper choices. Values that are experienced in individual conduct are
characterized by goodness and uprightness. These desirable values inevitably
make the learner's existence more meaningful and worth living.
The primary objective of the teacher in appreciation lesson is to plan
interesting lessons that will stimulate and induce learners to appreciate what is
beautiful and worthwhile.
These can be found in literature, music, arts, religion and culture. These
various areas of knowledge will certainly provide stimulation and enjoyment
when the learners understand and appreciate them.
The sources of appreciation lessons are:
Literature

Literature refers to the artistic writings worthy of being remembered. It is a

body of literacy writings of a country or period that are characterized by beauty
of expressions and form and by universality of intellectual and emotional
appeal. There are several textbooks in the elementary and secondary schools
that are abundant of beautiful stories and poems that provide models of ideals,
good taste and good living. The teacher's role is to motivate and make the
learners understand, appreciate and derive enjoyment from the literary piece
they read.
Music
Basically, music deals with sound. It is the art of combining and regulating
sound by varying pitch to produce compositions expressive of various ideas and
emotions. Children can learn to appreciate classical music if the teacher trains
them to enjoy listening by playing recorded music or motivate them to attend
concerts. The teacher should also give the learners the opportunity to sing
beautiful songs in class.
Arts
The arts are also part of man's experiences, his values, his sentiments, his
ideals and his goals. They are the expressions of his thoughts and feelings.
Visits to museums, art and industrial exhibits and parks will provide the
learners to see, appreciate and enjoy the arts. The learners may gain insight
and understanding in rhythm, balance, emphasis and proportion as they view
some magnificent buildings and churches. Later, they may apply what they
have seen and learned in their homes or they may be motivated to take up fine
arts and architecture.
Nature
Nature constitutes the material world especially that part unaffected by man
consisting plants, animals, geographical features or places where these exist
largely free from human influence. Nature abounds in beauty. The various
colors and fragrances of flowers, the song of the birds, the cascading and
babbling sound of the brook, the splendor of the sunset, the versatile scenery
of romantic spots, the majesty of a towering mountain, the star-studded sky,
the luxuriant vegetation which nature in its gayest moments lavishes its
precious and delicate caresses.

All the teacher needs to do is to encourage and induce the children to look
around, observe, investigate, record and appreciate the magnetic charm in the
beauty and grandeur of nature.
Religion
Religion is a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and the purpose of the
universe, especially when considered as the creation of a superhuman agency,
usually involving devotional and ritual observances and behavior, often having
a code for conduct of human affairs. Religion is a human phenomenon in social
which is part of the cultural system.
Culture
Culture as a "complex" whole, includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, mores,
folkways, and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The teacher
should critically analyze the culture of society and see the relationship between
mores/folkways and behavior and develop appreciation for those that should be
preserved. The fundamental objective of appreciation lesson is enjoyment of
what is learned that is worthwhile. The appreciation lesson should inculcate
the development of right attitude, ideals and standards to inspire the learners
and enjoy the beauty of literature, music, arts and nature. Appreciation of art,
literature and music can be developed through direct experience of the
learners.
16.4t is best to review often throughout the course to keep material fresh in
students mind and especially before major exams which cover a lot of topics.
Reviewing will help students feel more comfortable with old material and give
you the opportunity to combine topics which may have been studied separately.
If there is a particular warm up activity that you always use to start your
lessons, you can do that but there is generally so much material to cover
during a review lesson that a warm up activity is not necessary.
For
certain
classes
a
study
guide
may
be
appropriate.
In this case, provide students with a study guide which summarizes what they
have learned and what will be covered in the exams. Include the target
structures and key vocabulary from each chapter and any diagrams or maps
that they should be familiar with. This does a lot to build student confidence
because they have a hard copy of what they should review and what sections of
the course you feel are most important. The study guide should include every
type of question students will encounter on the exam, all directions such as

Circle the correct answer, and any additional material you would like them to
review but may not necessarily be on the exam. Sometimes simply the format
of the exam confuses and frustrates students so this guide will help them with
that and they will be better equipped to perform well. When using a study
guide as the basis for your review lesson, ensure that it is interactive. Have
students translate the vocabulary words on the sheet, leave blanks in target
structures for students to fill in, and list only the questions of a model dialogue
so students have to write down their answers. This way, the study guide can
serve the purpose of helping students with their individual review as well as
structuring the review lesson. Have students speak as often as possible
throughout the lesson as the exam will most likely be a test of their writing,
listening, and reading skills.

Some classes may be very confident with the material on an exam or perhaps
you have set aside two class periods for review activities so, if there is time, you
can conduct a Quiz Game as a fun review activity which will take an entire
thirty to forty-five minute period. To conduct this activity, prepare five
categories with five to six questions each. The categories, for example, may be
Vocabulary, Translation, Classroom English, Answers, Questions where
students have to translate words or phrases for the first two categories, explain
or act out classroom English phrases for the third, answer questions for the
fourth, and provide the question for the answer that was provided for the fifth.
For scoring you may choose to award only one point for correct answers for the
first category but five for correct answers for the fifth category. To play have
students form groups of three to five, explain the categories and scoring,
choose the first category, and the first group to correctly answer the question
gets the points and is allowed to choose the next category. The game ends when
all the questions have been answered or the class ends and the group with the
most points wins. As an incentive the winners might receive a couple extra
credit points on the exam or something similar.

Conducting a review lesson or two before every exam will give students a
better idea of what to expect on the test and make them more confident
with that material. Reviewing topics frequently throughout the course will put
less pressure on you and students in these major review lessons.
Larger writing activities allow students to draw upon all their English

education to complete the exercise, games such as the Quiz Game described
above can give students a break from learning new material halfway through
the term to review what has already been covered, and short quizzes on older
material can highlight what points need special attention during a big review
lesson. If students enjoyed playing a particular game or doing a specific activity
for a topic when it was introduced, conducting the same game or activity as a
review later on would be appropriate too.

There are so many methods of conducting both long and short review activities
and using a variety of them will go a long way towards assisting all your
students with their English acquisition.
How do you teach review lessons? Tell us!
16.5 The drill lesson is intended for automatization of certain facts, information,
habits, attitudes and skills to fix association for permanency or to perfect a
certain degree a particular skill. Drills are necessary for mastery of historical
facts and information and development of skills.

Image Credit
The drill lesson is intended for automatization of certain facts, information,
habits, attitudes and skills to fix association for permanency or to perfect a
certain degree a particular skill. Drills are necessary for mastery of historical
facts and information and development of skills in some subject, example:
typewriting, shorthand and mechanical activities in a vocational education

laboratory. Drills are also needed for training verbal skills as pronunciation of
foreign words.
Characteristics of a Good Drill
Mere repetition will not bring mastery of certain facts and information. For
repetition to be effective, it must be within the interest and comprehension of
the learners. There are certain guidelines to be observed and followed.
Motivation
Motivation arises from the learners' interest and expressed purposes. It is
necessary to arouse the learners' sustained efforRept in the learning activity.
Focalization
A drill lesson requires concentration and therefore, the learners' attention
should be specifically focused on the desired habits and skills to be developed.
If the teacher drills the class on correct pronunciation, he must see to it that
he pronounced the words correctly.
Repetition and Attention
The introduction of new ideas and the utilization of mechanical games are very
effective in getting attention, repetition, enjoyment and sustained interest.
Games provide thrill and enjoyment and the learners will be induced to
participate.
Teaching aids and devices can also provide the much needed interest to break
the monotony of repetition. The drill should not be very long.
Application
To test whether the learners profited from the drill lesson, they must be able to
apply what they have learned in meaningful experiences.
Principles in Drill Activity
Drill activity can be effective by observing certain principles to be followed.
Utilization of the Principles of Learning

The learners should be properly motivated. They should be ready for the drill of
new learning tasks with zeal and active involvement. Reward and praise may be
used to enhance performance.
Way of Conducting the Drill
In conducting a drill the teacher should organize the subject matter to be
covered and develop a system that is fast, precise and uninterrupted by any
form of discussion. He should demonstrate an aura of enthusiasm and
dynamism. Paying attention to trivial and irrelevant matters should be avoided.
Standards
Attainable standards such as speed, precision, quality and accuracy are to be
considered.
Drill lesson results in establishing correct habits, skills, attitudes and fixed
associations. Habits are automatic responses; an acquired behavior pattern
regularly followed until it has become almost involuntary. The teacher must
develop a habit into a skill.
Drill also results in greater acquisition of knowledge, better retention of facts
and information, and improved habits of work.
16.6he application lesson is a type of learning instruction that gives the learners
the opportunity to relate, express and apply what they have learned. After
arriving at the generalization, it is important to apply for further analysis and
verification.

Image Credit

The application lesson is a type of learning instruction that gives the learners
the opportunity to relate, express and apply what they have learned. After
arriving at the generalization, it is important to apply for further analysis and
verification. When a learner learns a rule in science, it has to be applied in the
solution of problems. The ability to apply a rule correctly in solving problems is
the real test of what the learner has learned.
In an application lesson, certain conditions or situations are created that will
lead learners to express their thoughts through construction or illustration of
the concept, or language what they think or feel.
The application lesson is very valuable to the teacher and the learners. One
can easily see if the learners have learned based on their ability to apply
principles and rules in the solution of problems. It is also easier to determine
what has been learned because results are tangible. The teacher is also
stimulated and challenged to be more creative because he has to plan and
organize different forms of expression and consequently, his ability to direct the
teaching-learning process is put to a test.
The application on various expression lessons may take a variety of forms. The
different ideas, facts, principles and rules that have been taught to the learners
can find outlets or manifested in any of the following activity.
Story telling: Children enjoy listening to a story especially when the subject is
about fantasy. Story telling as teaching strategy is usually used in reading,
language, history, geography, science and other subjects. After listening to the
story, they learn to speak in correct sentences and to interact with classmates.
Oral reading: Silent reading is thought learning, while oral reading is thoughtsharing. Oral reading gives the learners an opportunity to express their
thoughts to other listeners.
Dramatization: This is a teaching strategy characterized by acting out a story.
It utilizes language, facial expressions, gestures and action. It can tell and
dramatize a story more vividly than the printed page can portray. Learners
enjoy dramatization, because it can serve as training opportunity in training
language expression, physical grace, poise and skill. Pantomimes, operettas,
pageants, puppet shows and plays are various forms of dramatic activities.

Written composition: Writing themes not only give the learners the
opportunity to express their thoughts, sentiments and feelings, but it is also a
training in grammar, correct usage and written communication.
Construction and illustration: Construction and illustration of various forms
and shapes and other visual compositions are the embodiment of thoughts. An
idea or a concept may be concretized in drawing or construction works. It also
develops manual skill.
Singing: Most learners love to sing whether individually or in groups. Singing
is therapeutic because it provides emotional release. It is one way of learning
language.
Creative work or composition: Any creative work done by the learner, is in
effect, an example of application. Sketching a landscape, molding a piece of
plastic clay, writing a poem, or simply making a school project are forms of
creation. A class in art education may be assigned to draw any subject of
interest to the learner is an application lesson that will reveal the creative
abilities of the learners.
Test: The test is in reality an application of what has been learned. The test is
a manifestation of what the learners have acquired in terms of facts and
information and how effective the teaching has been.
There are certain points to be considered to have a good application lesson.
These are motivation, statement of the learning task and the necessity of
information.
16.7 and 16.8Students have different intellectual capacities and learning styles
that favour or hinder knowledge accumulation. As a result, teachers are
interested in ways to effectively cause students to understand better and learn.
Teachers want to bring about better understanding of the material he/she
wants to communicate. It is the responsibility of the educational institutions
and teachers to seek more effective ways of teaching in order to meet
individual's and society's expectations from education. Improving teaching
methods may help an institution meet its goal of achieving improved learning
outcomes.
RELATED ARTICLES
A Mixed Method Design

Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

The Raven Paradox - How Hempel's Treatise Led to Questioning of the Inductive
Reasoning Process
The scientific method
Teaching methods can either be inductive or deductive or some combination of
the two.
The inductive teaching method or process goes from the specific to the general
and may be based on specific experiments or experimental learning
exercises. Deductive teaching method progresses from general concept to the
specific use or application.
These methods are used particularly in reasoning i.e. logic and problem
solving.
To reason is to draw inferences appropriate to the situation.
Inferences are classified as either deductive or inductive.
For example, "Ram must be in either the museum or in the cafeteria." He is not
in the cafeteria; therefore he is must be in the museum. This
is deductive reasoning.
As an example of inductive reasoning, we have, "Previous accidents of this sort
were caused by instrument failure, and therefore, this accident was caused by
instrument failure.
The most significant difference between these forms of reasoning is that in
the deductive case the truth ofthe premises (conditions) guarantees the truth
of the conclusion, whereas in the inductive case, the truth ofthe
premises lends support to the conclusion without giving absolute
assurance. Inductive arguments intend to support their conclusions only to
some degree; the premises do not necessitate the conclusion.
Inductive reasoning is common in science, where data is collected and tentative
models are developed to describe and predict future behaviour, until the
appearance of the anomalous data forces the model to be revised.
Deductive reasoning is common in mathematics and logic, where elaborate
structures of irrefutable theorems are built up from a small set of basic axioms

and rules. However examples exist where teaching by inductive method bears
fruit.
EXAMPLES: (INDUCTIVE METHOD):
1)

MATHEMATICS:

A) Ask students to draw a few sets of parallel lines with two lines in each set.
Let them construct and measure the corresponding and alternate angles in
each case. They will find them equal in all cases. This conclusion in a good
number of cases will enable them to generalise that "corresponding angles are
equal; alternate angles are equal." This is a case where equality of
corresponding and alternate angles in a certain sets of parallel lines (specific)
helps us to generalise the conclusion. Thus this is an example
ofinductive method.
B) Ask students to construct a few triangles. Let them measure and sum up
the interior angles in each case. The sum will be same (= 180) in each case.
Thus they can conclude that "the sum of the interior angles of a triangle =
180). This is a case where equality of sum of interior angles of a triangle
(=180) in certain number of triangles leads us to generalise the conclusion.
Thus this is an example of inductivemethod.
C) Let the mathematical statement be, S (n): 1 + 2 + + n =. It can be
proved that if the result holds for n = 1, and it is assumed to be true for n = k,
then it is true for n = k +1 and thus for all natural numbers n. Here, the given
result is true for a specific value of n = 1 and we prove it to be true for a general
value of n which leads to the generalization of the conclusion. Thus it is an
example of inductive method.
2)

LANGUAGES:

A) Development of a story from a given outline is an example

of inductive method because the student may develop any story from the given
outline (specific) based on his/her imagination.
B)
Writing a letter to his father describing a particular event of his life, is an
example of inductive method because, the event and the language (use of
words) differs from student to student (general) while the format of the letter is
always specific as it always starts with "Respected Father", then is the body of
the letter and finally the closure is done by "your (loving) son/daughter"
followed by name.

C)
Writing an essay on "the book I like most", is an example
of inductive method because while the format of essay i.e., introduction
followed by body and finally, the conclusion, always remains the same (specific)
but the book and the reasons for liking it and the words used differ from
individual to individual (general).
3)

CHEMISTRY:

Elements in the periodic table are divided into several groups which have
similar properties and electronic configurations etc. Thus if the properties of
individual elements in a group like chemical reactivity, melting point, boiling
point, ionization energy etc. are known the properties of the elements of the
entire group can be predicted with very few exceptions. Thus it proceeds from
specific to general and so is an example ofinductive method.
4)

PHYSICS:

By noting the amount of work done in lifting a body from the ground to a
height h, we can derive the relation between the potential energy of the body
(P.E.) with the height attained by it from the ground, which is P.E. = m g h,
where, g = 9.8 m/sec2, the acceleration due to gravity acting vertically
downwards. The height being specific, it proceeds from specific to general and
so is an example of inductive method.
5)

BIOLOGY:

a)
Morphological and anatomical characteristics can be studied in particular
plants with prominent characteristics, such as Lemna (Duckweed), Eichhornia
(water hyacinth) hydrilla, Opuntia, Accacia, Calotropis (AK); for understanding
the ecological adaptations of plants into three groups on the basis of plant
water relationships as Aquatic (Hydrophytes), Terrestrial (Xerophytes,
Mesophytes) and Halophytes. As it proceeds from particular to general,
therefore it is an example of inductive method.
b) The children are explained the consequences of depletion of resources like
coal, petroleum and then let them reason the need for conservation of
resources and methods for it. As it proceeds from particular to general,
therefore it is an example of inductive method.
6)

ECONOMICS:

By studying the factors affecting inflation which are specific, like the supply
and demand of goods in an economy etc, we can predict as to whether the rate
of inflation will rise or fall during a given period of time (general) which
ultimately gives an estimate of the cost of living in an economy and calculating
the cost of living index number, the govt. is able to decide regarding the extent
of increase in the dearness allowance (DA).
EXAMPLES: (DEDUCTIVE METHOD):
1)

MATHEMATICS:

A) We have an axiom that "two distinct lines in a plane are either parallel or
intersecting" (general). Based on this axiom, the corresponding theorem is:
"Two distinct lines in a plane cannot have more than one point in common."
(Specific). Thus this is an example of deductive method.
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B)
We have a formula for the solution of the linear simultaneous equations
as and(general). The students find the solutions of some problems like based
on this formula (specific). Thus this is an example of deductivemethod.
2)

LANGUAGES:

A) Writing a summary of a passage known as prcis writing is an example

of deductive method because for the given passage (general) we always have
certain key points which are included in the summary (specific).
B) Explaining a poem in prose with reference to context is an example
of deductive method because the poem being given (general), we always try to

pen the specific idea or thought of the poet in prose. Hence it is an example
of deductive method.
3)

CHEMISTRY:

The experiment of salt analysis is an example of deductive method because

here, we firstly perform the preliminary test also known as dry test (general) to
ascertain as to which group it may probably belong. The group being
ascertained, we proceed to perform specific confirmatory test to identify the
particular salt. Thus it proceeds from general to specific.
4)

PHYSICS:

By using the properties of semi-conductors (general), we make several

instruments like diodes and transistors which have (specific) uses like the light
emitting diode (LED) is used in remote control instruments; the photo diode is
used for counting the exact number of people present in a stadium at a
particular interval of time. As it proceeds from general to specific thus this is
an example of deductive method.
5)

BIOLOGY:

a)
This method can best be made use of in the study and understanding of
diseases where the symptoms and precautionary measures of various diseases
caused by bacteria, virus and other organisms can be explained and children
are asked to identify the same on the basis of their understanding.
b)
Classification of animals into chordate and Non-Chordate on the basis of
their differences. Since, the differences are general in nature, and the
classification as mentioned above is particular in nature, it proceeds from
general to particular. Thus this is an example of deductive method.
The examples cited above are not exhaustive. Many more examples can be given
and from variety of subjects as well.
Logic and Problem solving are two more areas where these methods find
extensive usage.
The major task of logic is to establish a systematic way of deducing the logical
consequences of a set of sentences. In order to accomplish this, it is necessary
first to identify or characterize the logical consequences of a set of sentences.
The procedures for deriving conclusions from a set of sentences then need be

examined to verify that all logical consequences and only these are deducible
from that set.
From its very beginning, the field of logic has been occupied with arguments, in
which certain statements, the premises, are asserted in order to support some
other statement, the conclusion. If the premises are intended to provide
conclusive support for conclusion, the argument is a deductive one. If the
premises are intended to support the conclusion, only to a lesser degree, the
argument is called inductive.
A logically correct argument is termed "valid", while an acceptable inductive
argument is called cogent. The notion of support is further elucidated by the
observation that the truth of the premises of a valid deductive argument
necessitates the truth of the conclusion. It is impossible for the premises to be
true and the conclusion false. On the other hand, the truth of the premises of
a cogent argument confers only a probability of truth on its conclusion: it is
possible for the premises to be true but the conclusion is false. For example let
the premise is: "All teachers are scholars" and the conclusion be: "There are
some scholars who are not teachers". Let the premise be true then obviously,
the conclusion is false. Hence it is a cogent. Again let the premise is "no
policeman is a thief" and the conclusion be "no thief is a policeman". Let the
premise be true then the conclusion is also seen to be true. Thus it is a valid
(deductive) argument.
Problem solving is another area where inductive and deductive processes may
be used.
In inductive thinking, one considers a number of particular or specific items of
information to develop more inclusive or general conceptions. After aspirin was
synthesized, for example, some people who swallowed the substance reported
that it relieved their particular headaches. Through induction the reports of
these specific individuals were the basis for developing a more inclusive notion:
"aspirin may be helpful in relieving headaches in general".
"Deduction" is reasoning from general propositions or hypotheses-to more
specific instances or statements. Thus, after the general hypothesis about the
effectiveness of aspirin had been put forward, physicians began to apply it to
specific, newly encountered headache cases. The deduction was that, if aspirin
is generally useful in managing pains in the head, it might also be helpful in
easing pains elsewhere in the body.

Although a person may deliberately choose to use induction or deduction,

people typically shift from one to the other depending on the exigencies of the
reasoning process.
Finally let me compare these two methods.
Steps in the inductive method:
1) The first step is clear recognition of the problem. It should be clearly
understood
and defined by the pupils.
2) Once the problem has been defined, the child should start searching for data
fromall possible sources like books, magazines, journals, making visits to
certain places etc.
3) Under the guidance of the teacher, the pupils organize the data which they
havecollected from various sources. They select relevant data and discard
irrelevantmaterial.
4) By studying particular instances, the pupils frame possible solutions.
5) These solutions are discussed, argued and judged. Thus tentative solutions
are
eliminated and only the probable solutions remain.
6) The solutions are applied to the situation and results are verified.
Merits of Inductive method
1) This method is psychological. The student feels interested in experiments,
experiences and discoveries.
2) This method fosters independence and self-confidence in the pupil which
proves
very useful in later life.
3) In this method, children discover the solution themselves. Hence it develops
and
encourages initiative and creative thinking.
4) All that is learnt using inductive method is remembered easily as it is selfacquired.5) In this method, the pupils observe and analyze particular objects of
similar anddifferent nature and try to arrive at general truth.
6) Inductive method takes into consideration all the maxims of good teaching.
The
process of induction calls for perception, reasoning, judgment and
generalization.
Steps involved in deductive method

1) Like the inductive method, the first step is the clear understanding of the
problem.
2) It may involve the study of a particular thing and phenomenon.
3) Principles and generalizations are reviewed to find the one which may be
applicable to find a solution.
4) In this step the rule, principle or generalization is applied to a problem
andinference is formulated that the problem falls under such rule, principle
orgeneralization.
5) Verification of the inference is done by applying it to a case. If it solves the
problem then it is accepted otherwise the procedure is repeated to find the
correct one.
Merits of deductive method
1) Deductive method is short and time-saving. It takes little time to solve the
problem
by predetermined formulae.
2) In the deductive method, the teachers work is very much simplified.
He/shesimply gives a rule and asks the pupils to verify it by application to
several concreteexamples. For example, students are told that the area of
rectangle = Length xBreadth. Then a few sums are solved before the students.
The students apply theseformulae to solve these problems and they memorize
it for future use.
3) This method is very useful for small children because with small children we
generally use story or telling method.
4) This method glorifies memory, as the students have to memorize a
considerable
number of formulae and definitions.
5) This method is adequate and advantageous during practice and revision
stage.
Inductive Method Deductive Method-A Comparison
1. It proceeds from particular to general;
concrete to abstract.
2. It takes care of the needs of the pupils.It is a developmental process and
takesthem through easy to difficult phase.
3. It encourages discovery and
stimulates thinking.
4. The generalization or rule isformulated by the child; therefore heremembers
it with ease.
5. The how and why of the process is
made clear through reasoning.

6. It starts from observation and directexperience and ends in developing a

rulein abstract form.
7. It encourages child participation and
group work.
1. It proceeds from general to particular;
abstract to concrete.
2. In this method facts are thrust upon thepupils. The principle of growth is
notconsidered.
3. The authority decides or gives the
formula and encourages memorization.
4. The rule is given to the child. He doesnot appreciate its nature and is likely
toforget it easily.
5. The process is taken for granted and
accepted without reasoning.
6. Does not encourage learning but itstarts with a rule and provides for
practiceand applications.
7. It demands individual learning and
treats the child as a passive recipient.
So it can be concluded that in inductive method we proceed from particular
instancesto general laws or formulae. Through this method, children discover
many new thingsthemselves and learning becomes very easy. It provides selfreliance and confidencein the students. Inductive method is slow and safe as
the general law is reached step-by-step. Students climb up the stairs of thought
leading to definitions, principles or rules.
In deductive method, we start with general law or formulae and then solve
particularproblems by applying this law or formulae. It is a method of
verification andexplanation and provides instruction. Deduction can give us the
formal validitybecause the rule is taken for granted. The aim of this method is
to fit the pupilgenerally for the battle of life.

16.9Definition

A project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social

environment W. H. Kilpatrick.
A problem is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural
selection R. L. Stevenson.
Project is a voluntarily undertaking which involves constructive effort or
thought and eventuates into objective results Thomas and Lang.

Types
According to Kilpatrick there are four types of projects. They are:
1. Constructive project:
Practical or physical tasks such as construction of article, making a model,
digging the well and playing drama are done in this type of projects.
2. Aesthetic project:
Appreciation powers of the students are developed in this type of project
through the musical programmes, beautification of something, appreciation of
poems and so on.
3. Problematic project:
In this type of project develops the problem solving capacity of the students
through their experiences. It is based on the cognitive domain.
4. Drill project:
It is for the mastery of the skill and knowledge of the students. It increases the
work efficacy and capacity of the students.
Other types
Individual and Social (Group) projects:
In individual project every students solve the problem in their own according to
their interest, capacity, attitude and needs. It develops the problem solving
qualities individually and not the social qualities. In the other hand Group
projects the problem is solved by the group of pupil in the class. Here the
social, citizenship qualities and synergism are develops.
Simple and Complex project:
In the simple projects the students are completing only one work at a time.
They are also focus the work in the one subject or one area only. It gives the
deep information about the project in a one angle. The students get deeper
knowledge about the problem deeper and broader.

In the complex project the students are carried out more than one work at a
time. They are focuses on the work in various subject and angles. Here the
students get the knowledge about the work in various activities and
dimensions.
Principles
1. Principle of Purposefulness
The project should be purposeful, and that should have some main
objective. The objective should give the enthusiasm and work to the students,
otherwise that will be a wastage of time and energy.
2. Principle of Utility
The project should be useful to the students and the society. It will give
some value to the students. From the good project the students as well as the
society get the benefit a lot.
3. Principle of Freedom
The students are free to select the topic and execute the work
according to their well and wish, interest, attitude and capacity. The teacher
just a guide and give a guidelines to execute that.
4. Principle of Activity
Project means the purposeful activity, at the end of the project the
students gain knowledge through their activity. It is based on the principle of
learning by doing.
5. Principle of Reality
Project should be real and related to the life situation of the students
and the society. Only then they would be able to complete the project naturally
and really. Imaginary problems are not taken up in the project.
6. Principle of Social Development

A good project focuses society needs, social development, and

usefulness to the society. A single project solves the problem of the thousands
of the people or the society.
7. Principle of Planning
The student develops prior planning in advance about the project. They
find solutions for - How? When? What? Where? Why? So, good project develops
the problem solving capacity and prior planning for the execution.
Steps
Project method has the following steps:
1. Creating Situation
In the first step teacher creates the proper situation to the students in
the class. He puts up the knowledge about the project method procedure,
steps, and uses to the students. After that he should give the proper motivation
through conversation about the day to day life problems to the students.
2. Selection of the problem
Then the teacher helps the students to select the problem and guide
them. Here the students are having freedom to choose the topic or problem
based on their interest and ability. Before choosing the topic the principles
should be taken in to an account.
3. Planning
The teacher discuss with the students about the problem in various
angles and points. He should create the situation to the discussion with the
students and they are allowed to talk freely and openly. After the free
expression of the students opinion about the problem, the teacher writes down
the whole programme of action stepwise on the blackboard. The grouping is
made by the teacher based on the interest and ability of the students.
4. Execution
The students are stating their work in this step. They are collecting the
relevant information/data and materials at first. The teacher should give the

time and right to the students according to their own speed, interest and
ability. If need arises, he will provide the necessary help and guidelines to the
students. He demands the groups to complete the project in the particular
time.
5. Evaluation
Here the students evaluating their task. They determine whether the
objects are achieved or not. After that they criticize and express their feeling
about the task freely. They report the planning, selecting the task, execution
and the entire thing are discussed in the class. The entire things are
collectively reported to the teacher.
6. Reporting and Recording
It is the last step of the project method in which each and every step of
the work are reported. The reported things are recorded in a certain order in a
book form. The record is useful for the further use and future reference about
the project. It reveals many ideas about the concern project. The book
formatted report is submitted to the teacher at the end.
Advantages

It is students centered, activity based method.

Students involves whole-heartedly in the learning process according to
their needs, attitude, interest and ability.

This method is related to the life situation of the students.

This method develops the problem solving ability to the students.

It makes the students as independent.

It gives the real work experience to the students.

It develops the social qualities and synergism in the students heart.

It develops the responsibility realization of the students.

By this the students organizes the planning things in an order.

Limitations

It is a time consuming method.

It is difficult to complete the prescribed syllabus in a particular time.

It is a very costly method.

It is not applicable for the lower classes.

All topics are not able to teach through this method.

It is not applicable for the all schools.

It needs so many materials for the execution.

Read more: http://www.bukisa.com/articles/396445_project-method-ofteaching#ixzz2NBhmNEvn

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16.15Purpose
The purpose of Teaching Metacognitive Strategies is to provide students explicit
teacher instruction for a specific metacognitive (learning) strategy.
What are they?

First, a metacognitive strategy is a memorable "plan of action" that

provides students an easy to follow procedure for solving a particular
math problem.
Second, metacognitive strategies are taught using explicit teaching
methods.

Metacognitive strategies include the student's thinking as well as their

physical actions.

Some of the most common metacognitive strategies come in the form of

mnemonics which are meaningful words where the letters in the word
each stand for a step in a problem-solving process or for important pieces
of information about a particular topic of interest.

Metacognitive strategies are memorable and it must accurately represent

the learning task.
[ back to top ]

What are the critical elements of this strategy?

The following list includes critical elements of Teaching Metacognitive
Strategies:

Metacognitive strategies are taught using explicit teaching methods (see

Explicit Teacher Modeling).
Metacognitive strategies are accurate and efficient procedures for specific
math problem-solving situations.

Metacognitive strategies are memorable.

Metacognitive strategies incorporate both student thinking and student

actions necessary for performing target math skill.

Students need ample practice opportunities to master use of a

metacognitive strategy.

Student memory of a metacognitive strategy is enhanced when students

are provided with individual strategy cue sheets and/or when the
metacognitive strategy is posted in the classroom.

Monitor student use of strategies and reinforce their appropriate use of

strategies.
[ back to top ]

How do I implement the strategy?

1. Choose an appropriate metacognitive strategy for the math skill (For a
list of metacognitive strategies by math concept area clickVideos and
Resources on the top menu, then click Metacognitive Strategies).
2. Describe and model the strategy at least three times. Use those
instructional components emphasized in explicit teacher modeling (see
the instructional strategy Explicit Teacher Modeling.)

3. Check student understanding. Ensure they understand both the strategy

and how to use it.
4. Provide ample opportunities for students to practice using the strategy.
5. Provide timely corrective feedback and remodel use of strategy as needed.
6. Provide students with strategy cue sheets (or post the strategy in the
classroom) as students begin independently using the strategy. Fade the
use of cues as students demonstrate they have memorized the strategy
and how (as well as when) to use it. (*Some students will benefit from a
"strategy notebook" in which they keep both the strategies they have
learned and the corresponding math skill they can use each strategy for.)
7. Make a point of reinforcing students for using the strategy appropriately.
8. Implicitly model using the strategy when performing the corresponding
math skill in class.
[ back to top ]
How Does This Instructional Strategy Positively Impact Students Who
Have Learning Problems?

Provides students an efficient way to acquire, store, and express mathrelated information and skills.
Provides students who have memory problems an efficient way to retrieve
from memory information they have learned.

Facilitates independence by those learners who are typically dependent

on high levels of teacher support.

Helps students move from concrete and representational understanding

to abstract understanding.

Additional Information

[ back to top ]

Research Support for the Instructional Features of This Strategy: Allsopp

(1997); Borkowski (1992); Jitendra, Hoff, & Beck (1999); Lenz, Ellis, & Scanlon
(1996); Miller & Mercer (1993); Miller, Strawser, & Mercer (1996); Montague
(1992); Morroco (2001); Owen & Fuchs (2002); Paris & Winograd (1990);
Strichart, Mangrum, & Iannuzzi (1998); Swanson (1999).

Videos
16.17Interdisciplinary teaching is a method, or set of methods, used to teach
a unit across different curricular disciplines. For example, the seventh
grade Language Arts, Science and Social Studies teachers might work together
to form an interdisciplinary unit on rivers.
The local river system would be the unifying idea, but the English teacher
would link it to Language Arts by studying river vocabulary and teaching
students how to do a research report. The science teacher might teach children
about the life systems that exist in the river, while the Social Studies teacher
might help students research the local history and peoples who used the river
for food and transport.
Contents
[hide]
1 Types of Interdisciplinary Teaching
2 Benefits of Interdisciplinary Teaching
3 Implementation of Interdisciplinary Teaching
4 Criticisms and Shortcomings of Interdisciplinary Teaching
Methods
5 References
[edit]Types of Interdisciplinary Teaching
There are many different types, or levels, of interdisciplinary teaching. On one
end, schools might employ an interdisciplinary team approach, in which
teachers of different content areas assigned to one group of students who are
encouraged to correlate some of their teaching (Vars, 1991). The most common
method of implementing integrated, interdisciplinary instruction is
the thematic unit, in which a common theme is studied in more than one
content area (Barton & Smith, 2000).
The example given above about rivers would be considered multidisciplinary or
parallel design, which is defined as lessons or units developed across many
disciplines with a common organizing topic (Jackson & Davis, 2000).
One of the foremost scholars of interdisciplinary teaching techniques is James
Beane, who advocates for curriculum integration, which is curriculum that is

collaboratively designed around important issues. It has four major

components: the integration of experiences, social integration, the integration
of knowledge, and integration as a curriculum design. It differs from other
types of interdisciplinary teaching in that it begins with a central theme that
emerges from questions or social concerns students have, without regard to
subject delineations (Beane, 1997).
In 1989, the seminal work, Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and
Implementation, edited by Heidi Hayes Jacobs was published by ASCD
(Alexandria, Va. In this work, she presented a continuum of options for design
spanning focused disciplined work to parallel to multidisciplinary to full
integration.
[edit]Benefits of Interdisciplinary Teaching
A school district in Michigan created integration plans for thematic units,
based on the ideas of Howard Gardner about multiple intelligences, in a
yearlong pilot program. The results of the program included sustained
enthusiasm from the staff, parents, and students, increased attendance rates,
and improvement in standardized test scores, especially from students with
the poorest test results (Bolak, Bialach, & Duhnphy, 2005).
Flowers, Mertens, & Mulhall identify five important outcomes and findings of
their experiences with interdisciplinary teaching and planning: common
planning time is vital, schools that team have a more positive work climate,
parental contact is more frequent, teachers report a higher job satisfaction, and
student achievement scores in schools that team are higher than those that do
not team (1999).
Additionally, Pumerantz & Galanto find that interdisciplinary teaching allows
for students to, Proceed at a pace commensurate with their interests, skills,
and experiences (1972).
Integrated instruction helps teachers better utilize instructional time and look
deeper into subjects through a variety of content-specific lens. Another benefit
of integrated instruction is that teachers can better differentiate instruction to
individual student needs. Integrated instruction also allows for
authentic assessment (Barton & Smith, 2000). A final benefit of
interdisciplinary teaching is that students have a chance to work with multiple
sources of information, thus ensuring they are receiving a more inclusive
perspective than they would from consulting one textbook (Wood, 1997).
[edit]Implementation of Interdisciplinary Teaching

Heidi Hayes Jacobs presents a four-phase approach to curriculum integration

planning. (1989, ASCD, Alexandria, Va) First, she suggests that a school
conduct action research to learn more about how to implement curriculum
integration. This should be done six months to a year ahead of when the school
is going to attempt curriculum integration. Next, phase two calls for the
development of a proposal. Phase three consists of implementing and
monitoring the pilot unit; this should take place in the second year of the
curriculum integration plan. Phase four takes place in the third year of the
plan, and calls for staff adoption of the program based on the findings from
phase three (1991).
[edit]Criticisms and Shortcomings of Interdisciplinary Teaching Methods
Scholars that advocate for curriculum integration argue that the topics studied
should originate with students and their teachers, and not from districtimposed curriculum packages. This raises the important issue of
accountability (Stevenson, 1998). As school districts often have decisionmaking panels that consist of stakeholders such as teachers, parents, and
students, curriculum integration may take away their agency to make
curricular choices. In addition to issues of local control, truly integrated
curricula may or may not prepare students for the high-stakes tests that have
become a reality for most high schools around the world, depending on whether
they cover the same material. Finally, there is also concern that integrated
teaching discounts the value of deep subject-specific knowledge, which is
essential for specialization in areas such as medicine, law, and engineering
(Gatewood, 1998).
Thematic units can also fall short of teaching in-depth content to students.
Often a theme, such as apples, is used to link unrelated subjects, with little
deference to students prior knowledge or interests. This superficial coverage of
a topic can give students the wrong idea about school, perhaps missing the
idea of curriculum integration in the first place (Barton & Smith, 2000).
Thematic units can contain pointless busywork and activities created solely to
create a link to a theme; for example, the alphabetizing of state capitals in a
social studies unit, attempting to integrate it with language arts (Brophy &
Alleman, 1991).
16.16 Concept Teaching Instructional Strategy

Involves the learning of specific concepts, the nature of concepts, and

the development of logical reasoning & critical thinking
May be deductive (rule to example) or inductive (example to rule)

Proceeds through 4 primary phases:

1. 1.Clarify goals & conditions
2. 2.Illustrate examples & nonexamples
3. 3.Students provide examples & nonexamples to demonstrate
attainment of concept
4. 4.Guide students to think about their own thinking (examine their
decisions, consequences of choices, how concept fits in with bigger
picture)

Using Concept Teaching in the Classroom

o Select Big Idea concepts and determine the best approach:

inductive through direct presentation of the concept first,

or

Deductive (Concept Attainment) through

examples/nonexamples & guided discovery

o Clarify aims/establish a hook to draw students in

o Proceed through the selected inductive or deductive approach
using examples & nonexamples
o Get students to demonstrate their understanding
o Employ higher-level questioning & discussion strategies -- help
students analyze their own thinking processes.
16.19Team Teaching
In many higher education institutions, including CityU, the usual pattern of
teaching is still largely based on an individual lecturer bearing responsibility
for students in a course module or unit, possibly supported by part-time staff
tutors. At some levels of learning though, for example in postgraduate
seminars, this model is replaced by a team teaching approach which involves a
number of lecturers (usually between two and five) and possibly non-teaching
professional support staff as well. To carry out effective team teaching requires
a re-orientation on the part of individual staff members and departmental
administrators.

What is Team Teaching?

In team teaching a group of teachers, working together, plan, conduct, and
evaluate the learning activities for the same group of students. In practice,
team teaching has many different formats but in general it is a means of
organising staff into groups to enhance teaching. Teams generally comprise
staff members who may represent different areas of subject expertise but who
share the same group of students and a common planning period to prepare for
the teaching. To facilitate this process a common teaching space is desirable.
However, to be effective team teaching requires much more than just a common
meeting time and space.
(i)

Why Should I Use Team Teaching?

In view of the additional complexity which team teaching initiatives introduce

into departmental organisation and in view of the time needed for staff to adapt
to the new structures, it is relevant to ask what benefits accrue from team
teaching. How, for instance, does team teaching benefit lecturers, part-time
tutors, students, and departments as a whole?

For Lecturers, who so often work alone, team teaching provides a

supportive environment that overcomes the isolation of working in selfcontained or departmentalized class-rooms. Being exposed to the subject
expertise of colleagues, to open critique, to different styles of planning
and organisation, as well as methods of class presentation, teachers can
develop their approaches to teaching and acquire a greater depth of
understanding of the subject matter of the unit or module.
Part-time staff can be drawn more closely into the department as
members of teams than is usually the case, with a resulting increase in
integration of course objectives and approaches to teaching.
Team teaching can lead to better student performance in terms of
greater independence and assuming responsibility for learning. Exposure
to views and skills of more than one teacher can develop a more mature
understanding of knowledge often being problematic rather than right or
wrong. Learning can become more active and involved. Students could
eventually make an input into team planning.
Team teaching aids the professional and interpersonal dynamics of
departments leading to closer integration of staff.

In the following extract, the authors describe the instructional advantages of

working in teams.
"Team Teaching: An Alternative to Lecture Fatigue"
Team teaching is an approach which involves true team work between two
qualified instructors who, together, make presentations to an audience. The
instructional advantages of team teaching include:
(1) Lecture-style instruction is eliminated in favour of a dynamic
interplay of two minds and personalities.
Lectures require students to act as passive receptors of
communicated information, but team teaching involves the student
in the physical and mental stimulation created by viewing two
individuals at work. . . .
(2) Teaching staff act as a role models for discussion and disagreement.
Teaching staff members demonstrate modes of behaving in a
disagreement as well as exposing students to the course content.
(3) Team teaching makes effective use of existing human resources.
Acquisition of additional expensive resources or equipment is not
required to implement this method: only reorganisation is required
to put the team into operation.
(4) Team teaching has the potential for revitalizing instructional
capabilities through a process of dialogue.
Team teaching begins with the recognition that the
instructor/student link is critical and offers an approach that has
been shown to stimulate and provoke, while expanding and
enriching student understanding.
(5) Interest in traditional courses can be stimulated as students share
the enthusiasm and intellectual discourse that the lecturers
communicate.
Team teaching is not boring. Students are drawn into the situation
from the first moment.
(6) The effective use of facilities is possible.
The impersonal nature of large lecture halls can be brought to life
by an interactive and dynamic situation.
(7) Team teaching provides opportunities for interaction with the audience.
Implementation

Implementing a team teaching approach requires administrative

encouragement, acceptance of an initial experimental quality, and willingness
to take risks. Proof that team teaching works comes not only from the
instructors self-judgment, but from students evaluations. Above all, team
teaching cannot be accomplished by administrative fiat but administrators
need to encourage it.
Adapted from: Quinn, S. and Kanter, S. (1984) "Team Teaching: An Alternative
to Lecture Fatigue", Innovation Abstracts, Volume 6, No. 34, Eric Document:
ED 251 159.
(ii)

Is There Only One Way To Team Teach?

In its fullest sense, team teaching is where a group of lecturers works together
to plan, conduct, and evaluate the learning activities of the same group of
students. However, it would be a mistake to think that team teaching is always
practised in the same way. Its format needs to be adapted to the requirements
of the teaching situation. Some possible options are where:

two or more teachers teach the same group at the same time;
team members meet to share ideas and resources but generally function
independently;
teams of teachers share a common resource centre;
a team shares a common group of students, shares planning for
instruction but team members teach different sub-groups within the
whole group;
certain instructional activities may be planned for the whole team by one
individual, for example planning and developing research seminars;
planning is shared, but teachers each teach their own specialism or their
own skills area to the whole group;
teams plan and develop teaching resource materials for a large group of
students but may or may not teach them in a classroom situation.

Planning to Implement Team Teaching

Planning, conducting and evaluating team teaching are all important activities.
Some of the most important aspects of planning which need to consider in
advance of implementing teams are the concerns of staff; the selection of team
members; and setting realistic goals for any teaching team in the first instance.

(i)

Understanding Staff Concerns

Like any other change or innovation in a department, team teaching will raise
concerns among staff members. The full range of concerns will only become
clear over time after initial worries are dealt with and team members become
comfortable with the innovation. A basic premise of team teaching is that its
adoption is not something that happens at one point in time it extends over
time. As users go through the adoption process there will be changes in their
concerns.
From a team perspective, the ultimate aim will be to have individual team
members reach a stage where they accept joint responsibility for the basic
instruction of a group of students. There will be concerns, however, the relevant
literature suggests that one way of dealing with these concerns is to recognise
that they seem to follow a time cycle. Early concerns usually appear to be
procedural e.g., determining roles, setting agendas, keeping records, setting
procedures for communicating with outside people, and scheduling teamwork,
etc. Next to appear are student-related concerns such as meeting students
needs, planning to deal with individual students, etc. These are followed by
concern among team members for their own professional growth and finally
there is concern for the collective well being of the team. This last level is
reached when teams are seen as (i) a means of professional self development,
(ii) a forum at which ideas about instruction and coordinating curriculum can
be shared, and (iii) when students are involved in decision making.
Here are some common concerns about team teaching along with suggestions
of what to do to improve the likelihood of overcoming them. The first three of
these concerns are usually expressed before the team actually begins
functioning while the last is usually expressed after it has functioned for a
time.
I do not know enough about team teaching.
Explain the concept of team organisation and the rationale for
implementing it. This should include an explanation of how it is
envisaged that team teaching will fit with the rest of the departmental
programme. Staff need to have a clear idea of the kinds of teaching teams
envisaged, what their responsibilities will be and how much of their time
will be occupied in teaching in this way.

How will I manage my teaching in the light of the proposed change?

Supplying information usually leads teachers to express personal

concerns. Take these concerns seriously. If you do not they become
potential barriers to effective implementation. Personal concerns
usually expressed about team teaching include:
not all team members will contribute equally;
teachers do not understand how to make the team work;
there will be personality conflicts to deal with in addition to the teaching
itself;
a preference for working alone;
all the work will fall on the team leader/senior subject expert;
it will be too difficult to cover all the course content;
team meetings will be a waste of time.

All in all, concerns usually revolve about inter-personal problems issues of

self doubt, team management and group processes in addition to whether the
teaching carried out by this method will be worthwhile.
How is the team going to be managed?
Management questions are concerned with who will be on the team, who
will lead it, what will be expected and in what timeframe, how meetings
will be conducted, how teaching activities and events will actually be
planned, and so on. These should be dealt with as early as possible and
not in a casual manner, so that everyone is clear about what their roles
and responsibilities will be. As well, once the team begins to function,
more routine issues will surface: staff may be bothered by the amount of
time involved, the difficulty of keeping track of students, coordinating
materials and the work of other team members.
Concern may arise and have to be dealt with while the team is actually
functioning or at the time of periodic course reviews. Rather than a single
concern, it may be more useful to see it as a category of concerns that focus
on the consequences of team actions.
It would be most unusual for the team to find that everything has proceeded as
they planned. More usually, they find that there are outcomes as a result of
team teaching which they had not anticipated. These outcomes may be to do
with student learning or with how the team is functioning. If there are

differences between what was planned and what the students are achieving
then the team will need to refocus on what is important. To do this the team
will have to monitor continually how students are reacting to the team teaching
experience. Conscious decisions will have to be taken to emphasise points that
may have been missed or correct mistaken impressions. However, concerns
may arise apart from those related to student learning. There may be a need for
the team to deal with issues of collaboration among its own members. In the
same way that the goals associated with student learning need to be monitored
and reviewed where necessary, so too do aspects of team behaviour. In both
these examples it is apparent that regular meetings of the team need to take
place where constructive, professional reflection is encouraged which is itself a
team teaching strength.
(ii)

Selecting Team Members

The composition of any teaching team is a matter which must be considered

carefully if that particular team is going to function effectively. While it is
possible that teams can be arbitrarily formed it is far more fruitful if they come
together in response to needs and interests. Thought needs to be given to
selecting team members and defining team roles and these decisions need to be
evaluated periodically. The following questions are indicative of the sorts of
issues which should be considered:

on what basis should team members be selected?

Team members should not be clones of each other. Why? Because
differences in subject expertise, interests, perspectives, back-grounds,
and qualification levels, can contribute to the collective strength of a
team and the growth of individual team members. Furthermore, the mix
of personalities and characteristics add to the experience the students
get from interacting with the team.

What is the role of the team leader?

Basically the team leader will be concerned with (i) internal functioning
setting agendas, keeping records, coordinating schedules ensuring the
team stays on task i.e. that it achieves what it sets out to achieve; and
(ii) external functioning communicating with department heads to
ensure that the team is resourced, supported, and meeting departmental
goals/expectations, etc.

What is the role of team members?

Team members need to contribute to the team in ways other than simply
turning up for classes and meetings. It is essential that all team
members contribute to formulating and achieving team goals. To do this,
each member must take responsibility for participating in team
discussions and planning session and following through on decisions
made by the team within the timeframes decided by the team. It is only
in this way that a spirit of co-operation and collaboration can be
maintained.

(iii)

Setting Realistic Team Goals

Teams need to have a sense of direction. One finding from the relevant
literature of particular interest relates to the time required to develop an
effective level of team teaching. When teams are formed from teachers with no
previous team experience, it seems to take about three years for them to
develop the team teaching process to an efficient and effective level. Hence in
setting a time line for teams to achieve realistic goals it is important to ask
what will be the aims of team teaching during the first year or semester and
what are the longer term goals? The answers to such questions are important
in determining priorities for the development of teams. It is unrealistic to
expect that all goals and expectations will be met immediately. Rather it is
better to consider what it is reasonable to undertake as teachers and to expect
from students and at what stage?
The Team in Action
(i)

Planning for Teaching

Assume that it has been decided that team teaching will go ahead in your
department and that you have agreed and been selected to be a member of a
team. Assume also that the issues surrounding teams discussed earlier have
been attended to and the team is now ready to begin work. Decisions facing
yourself and your teaching partners now will focus undoubtedly on planning
teaching/learning activities.
You may ask, for instance, in what way will the team use small and large group
contexts or independent study? Will it use a large group in an auditorium
setting to introduce a topic or convey basic information and background

material which all the students need to know? Will the team decide to use a
single teacher to make the presentation or will several teachers be used? Will
small group discussions relate to large group presentations, or demonstrate
skills, or develop a seminar discussion group etc? What of independent study?
It is not always taken into consideration but it provides a student or group of
students with the opportunity to research or explore a topic of special interest
in greater depth outside the formal teaching situation. How will the team use
independent study?
This short list of questions underlines the decisions to be made in this area.

What are the programme, unit, and lesson objectives?

What lesson content is to be presented and in what order?
Which content is to be presented by large group presentation?
Which methods and resources are to be used to present the content?
Who will make large group presentations?
What will be discussed during small group meetings?
How will small groups be organized?
Who will be assigned to each small group?
What types of independent study will be appropriate?
What blocks of time will be assigned to large-group, small group and
independent study activities?
How will students be assessed?

All of these questions are to do with ongoing interaction with students. A little
later the team will have to consider questions such as:

How can the activities be improved?

What specific problems have arisen with particular groups of students
and how can they be solved?

Irrespective of who asks these questions, they are very realistic and they need
to be answered, but the critical issue is who by and how.
(ii)

Assigning Roles and Responsibilities

Effective teams are systematic in their division of labour, not forgetting that
roles may be rotated on a regular basis. In allocating roles, strengths and
weaknesses of individual team members need to be taken into account. A brief
questionnaire gathering an idea of these strengths and weaknesses might be a
good idea before a draft list of responsibilities for the team is discussed.

(iii)

Catering for Students

While team teachers and their students are usually happy with the community
spirit that teams can provide, teamwork also has a considerable effect on
classroom management. For example, by planning together, team teachers can
clarify teaching policies and behavioural expectations that are applied to
students. Difficult management situations can be analyzed and resolved
together resulting in richer discussions and sounder solutions. Teams of
teachers can think of ways of improving student motivation, a sense of
responsibility, and overall student performance.
(iv)

Conducting Meetings

Team teaching is group work and as such teams need to develop as functioning
groups. In dealing with other team members teamwork is seldom without
conflict professional or personal points of view may clash. Blending
differences constructively is a challenge to all team members. To do this it is
important to acknowledge team members strengths, interests, personal and
professional goals both in assigning responsibilities and in the conduct of
meetings.
Running meetings
For a team to function effectively the team meetings need to run well. They
need to clarify expectations for how the team will operate, i.e. clarify
management issues and set ground rules for meetings such as:

how will items get on the agenda?

what should be recorded in the minutes?
who will do the recording?
how will decisions be reached?
how should communication with other teams and members of the
department be managed?
how will a team calendar/schedule be compiled?

Making decisions
The main problem encountered in meetings which prevents decisions from
being made effectively and efficiently is the difficulty of keeping all team
members on task. The team leader needs to ensure that:

(v)

problems are defined clearly;

there is time for brainstorming alternatives for action;
each alternative is subject to critique
a plan of action is selected, implemented and subsequently evaluated
Evaluating Progress

In a small team, a formal evaluation of progress often seems inappropriate.

However, all teams need to set aside some time to evaluate their progress in
terms of both teaching the module and with their own development as an
effective team. An outside facilitator could be called in to manage this where
appropriate. Some questions which might be asked in the context of such an
evaluation are:

(vi)

are the goals set for the teams work realistic?

have the goals been achieved? to what extent?
do all team members participate equally in team decisions?
have decisions been carried out?
are responsibilities shared among team members?
do students benefit from the teams work?
what areas need more attention?
Maintaining Continuity From Year to Year

In order to ensure the continuity of the module/course when it is presented a

second and subsequent times the team needs to maintain clear documentation
of the course including:

the course outline or syllabus;

weekly timetables;
teachers notes for each unit;
students notes;
teaching materials/written bulletins;
copies of tests and examinations;
final course evaluations;
student evaluations.

Carefully maintaining these course documents will ease the task of the course
leaders, facilitate the induction of new teachers into the team, and simplify the
task of revising the course/module in a rational manner.

Conclusion
Teams take a variety of forms in different contexts, however, successful team
teaching must go beyond sharing a group of students and scheduling a
common meeting time if it is to make positive contributions to the quality of
learning and staff development.
Effective team teaching takes time to develop to its fullest potential. Staff who
are unfamiliar with it need time to work through the basic issues and routine
matters before they can turn their attention fully to issues which affect
students and to the impact which their teaching has on the department as a
whole. This is time well spent because team teaching can be a valuable source
of personal and professional development for those who engage in it. It can also
be a source of considerable frustration if its goals are unrealistic, meetings are
not productive and decision making is not well handled by team leaders.
These pitfalls and others can be avoided or at least not encountered more than
once if adequate staff development support is available and the relative
complexity of demands which team teaching places on people is recognized
both by the individuals themselves and their departmental leaders.
Pitfalls to Avoid
1. Failing to recognize that team organization is fundamentally
different from traditional departmentalized or self-contained
arrangements.
Team teaching is much more than an alternative scheduling format. It
will lead to new, more professional relationships between teachers, their
students, and administrators. Everyone involved needs to be prepared for
changes of this kind.
2. Attempting to form a team without adequate staff development
in such things as team skills (communications, group decision
making, and organization of effective meetings) and team
practices (goal setting, record keeping, evaluation).
Sometimes it is assumed falsely that because teachers talk a great deal
in the course of their work that they do not need assistance with

communication skills when they are thrust together as teams. Skills in

working successfully with small groups are also essential.
3. Failing to understand that new teams will need time and
practice in order to develop into fully functioning teams.
Several years are needed for teams to pass through the various stages of
development even more true if team members change and new
members are acquired along the way. Teams will probably not spend a lot
of time on student concerns until the members have developed norms
and procedures to govern how they will conduct their meetings and make
decisions. A timeline for a reasonable growth plan should be constructed.
4. Failing to establish and maintain links between the team
and departmental administrators who can provide support
for the teams activities.
If there are several teams in a department they will need a co-ordinator
to whom they are accountable. The team may monitor its own internal
functioning but it also needs to be seen to be functioning in the wider
departmental context.
5. Overloading modules. Because of input from several team
members, there may be far too much material and too many
activities in a module.
This danger is considerable among teachers who are unaccustomed to
team teaching. The team members need adopt a policy of closely
monitoring the amount of course material and assessment required of
students and to set limits of what can be included in teaching the
module.
6. A tendency to under-estimate the amount of time needed to
produce high-quality teaching resource materials.
Almost certainly the team should seek the guidance of someone
who has had experience in developing teaching resources and who
can provide not only technical advice but indications of a realistic
schedule for such activities.
A Checklist of Things to do

The following represents a checklist of things to do to ensure the operation of

an efficiently functioning team. It may be that team members need to establish
the exact priority, however, each is important and needs to be catered for if the
team is to operate smoothly and achieve the goals it sets.

meet regularly
schedule students learning activities
set consistent expectations for team members
rotate roles and responsibilities of team members
develop a team teaching guidelines booklet
share major curriculum ideas with other team members
develop a process for recognising students who are doing well
develop a process for recognising students who are falling behind
schedule class tests and assessment
determine which academic and personal skills students need to develop
and make a point of addressing these in class
use community resources in teaching
develop a database of teaching resources relevant to the unit
determine which activities can be best carried out in a large group
setting, which in small group settings and implement them
decide on consistent expectations of students
discuss problematic students with the team
discuss educational philosophy with team members
conduct team meetings with students
share curriculum plans with an educational advisor
attempt better co-ordination of lessons
share ideas off other team members
develop agenda for team meetings
work on building team identity
develop teaching resources as a team
share successful teaching experiences with team members
foster staff development among team members
participate in a conference as a team
hold a team-led departmental seminar
devise a way of evaluating the teams performance
devise a programme for the induction of new staff members to team
teaching.

16.22Programmed instruction is the name of the technology invented by the

behaviorist B.F. Skinner to improve teaching. It is based on his theory of verbal
behavior as a means to accelerate and increase conventional educational
learning.
Contents
[hide]
1 Programmed instruction
2 Programmed learning
3 Personalized System of
Instruction
4 Errorless discrimination
5 Programmed instruction today
6 Notes
7 External links
[edit]Programmed instruction
It typically consists of self-teaching with the aid of a specialized textbook
or teaching machine that presents material structured in a logical and
empirically developed sequence or sequences. Programmed instruction may be
presented by a teacher as well, and it has been argued that the principles of
programmed instruction can improve classic lectures and textbooks.
[1]
Programmed instruction allows students to progress through a unit of study
at their own rate, checking their own answers and advancing only after
answering correctly. In one simplified form of PI, after each step, they are
presented with a question to test their comprehension, then are immediately
shown the correct answer or given additional information. However the
objective of the instructional programming is to present the material in very
small increments.[2] The more sophisticated forms of programmed instruction
may have the questions or tasks programmed well enough that the
presentation and test modelan extrapolation from traditional and classical
instructionis not necessarily utilized.
[edit]Programmed learning

This idea was later adapted by Robert M. Gagn, who invented programmed
learning for use in teaching in schools. The difference between programmed
instruction (PI) and programmed learning(PL) is that PI is intended to modify
behavior, whereas PL is used for teaching facts and skills.
Programmed instruction is an instructional method in which the material to be
learned is presented to the student in small chunks of information. In order to
progress through the material, the student needs to demonstrate
understanding of the previous information, thereby receiving instant
reinforcement for correct responses. This method can be instructor led or can
be self taught by the student. It also lends itself well to computer assisted
learning. The method was originally popularized by B.F. Skinner as a
behavioral approach to teaching.
Programmed instruction is a precise process. The material a student learns is
broken down into tiny chunks to avoid overwhelming the student with too
much at once. At times, a single course may consist of thousands of these
chunks, or units, of instruction. It is thought that presenting the material in
small pieces improves comprehension and retention. It's also much easier to
pinpoint exactly where learning issues occur, and which parts are not
understood, allow for immediate remediation.
Once broken down into units of instruction, the information can be presented
to the student. As the student works through the content, his or her
understanding is checked after each unit. This can be accomplished through
questioning directly after the information is presented. If the student responds
correctly, demonstrating appropriate comprehension, he or she is able to move
on; this provides immediate positive reinforcement. If the response is incorrect,
the student receives the information again to provide an opportunity to process
it before moving on to the next module.

16.24ps
1.

Identify the goal and purpose of your panel discussion. Establish what you
want to achieve by conducting the discussion, and what general questions will
be answered. Focus on 1 or 2 main topics to direct the panel discussion in an
organized way.
2.

Invite experts to become panelists.

Choose knowledgeable, well-educated experts or individuals
involved in the focus of your panel discussion. Invite local coordinators and
community partners to participate in panel discussions that involve projects
within your community. A panelist does not have to have an impressive degree
or years of experience to offer insightful discussion during the presentation.
o
Invite panelists at least 3 or 3 weeks prior to the discussion to
allow them time to prepare.
3.
3
o

Select and invite a moderator.

Choose a moderator who does not have a conflict of interest with
the subject matter of the panel discussion.
o
Pick a moderator who will keep the conversation moving, adhere to
and enforce the guidelines and rules of the panel discussion, and can act as an
emcee for the event.
4.
4
o

Determine the rules for the panel discussion.

Establish the guidelines for open discussion, if that's how you wish
the panel discussion to proceed. Open discussion panel forums usually begin
with a question and conversation ensues between panelists based on their
comments. Guidelines often include a time limit for each discussion item.
o
Create time limits for limited discussion methods. Many times each
panelist will be allowed a certain amount of time to answer each question as
asked by the moderator. Discussion between panelists does not occur in this
type of format.
o
Determine how questions from the audience will be handled. Some
formats allow questions during the panel discussion. Others provide time after
the panel discussion for audience members to ask questions of the panelists.
o
Distribute the rules of the panel discussion to the invited
panelists.
5.
5
o

Write questions for the panelists. Questions should be open-ended and

require more than "yes" or "no" answers. Create more questions than you think

you will need in case the panel discussion proceeds more quickly than
anticipated.
6.

Arrange for the panel discussion to be recorded. Recording the discussion in

a digital format will allow it to be posted to the Internet without having to
adjust its format.
7.

Present and introduce the panelists at the beginning of the panel

discussion. Introduce the moderator, and he should inform the audience of the
purpose of the discussion and provide a brief summary of the discussion
format and rules. The moderator should give a short biographical introduction
of the panelists before leading into the panel discussion.
8.

Conduct the discussion as planned, following the established rules. The

moderator should ask questions and coordinate the discussion as planned.
9.

Conclude the panel discussion with a summary and closing remarks. The
moderator should thank the audience and panelists, and give any pertinent
information for follow-up activities or events.
16.25
Debate is contention in argument; dispute, controversy; discussion; esp. the
discussion of questions of public interest in Parliament or in anyassembly.[1]
Debate is a method of interactive and representational argument. Debate is a
broader form of argument than deductive reasoning, which only examines
whether a conclusion is a consequence of premisses, and factual argument,
which only examines what is or isn't the case, orrhetoric, which is a technique
of persuasion. Though logical consistency, factual accuracy and some degree of
emotional appeal to the audience are important elements of the art of
persuasion, in debating, one side often prevails over the other side by
presenting a superior "context" and/or framework of the issue, which is far

more subtle and strategic. The outcome of a debate depends upon consensus
or some formal way of reaching a resolution, rather than the objective facts as
such. In a formal debating contest, there are rules for participants to discuss
and decide on differences, within a framework defining how they will interact.
Debating is commonly carried out in many assemblies of various types to
discuss matters and to make resolutions about action to be taken, often by a
vote. Deliberative bodies such as parliaments, legislative assemblies, and
meetings of all sorts engage in debates. In particular, in parliamentary
democracies a legislature debates and decides on new laws. Formal debates
between candidates for elected office, such as the leaders debates and the U.S.
presidential election debates, are sometimes held in democracies. Debating is
also carried out for educational and recreational purposes, usually associated
with educational establishments. The major goal of the study of debate as a
method or art is to develop the ability to debate rationally from either position
with equal ease.
Although informal debate is a common occurrence, the quality and depth of a
debate improves with knowledge and skill of its participants as debaters. The
outcome of a contest may be decided by audience vote, by judges, or by some
combination of the two.

16.29Thematic Instruction
Effective thematic instruction involves using a theme as "conceptual glue" for
learners, strengthening bonds to knowledge. This approach relies on teachers
who have a strong sense of curriculum as a learning process and can see ways
to connect learning with key concepts. The goal is to choose themes that relate
to students' lives to ensure interest and engagement in the content. Concepts
that work best depend on students' age and developmental level. Also, topics
typically found in single content areas offer rich links to other subjects, such
as communication, immigration, rhythm, speed, matter, addition, metaphor, or
waves. Framing a theme as a question ("What Makes the Difference?", "Why Are
We Moving?", or "How Do We Know?") will keep students asking (and
answering) questions that matter. Effective teachers employ strategies that
engage learners not just in ways that are exciting or fun, but that make strong
bonds between abstract ideas and understanding.
Thematic instruction has been shown to increase student achievement (Beane,
1997; Kovalik, 1994). Effective instruction presents new information by

reaching out to existing knowledge rather than presenting skills and facts in
isolation.
Key Research Findings

Use of networked technologies can enhance learning when students focus

on solving authentic problems and address issues adults face in realworld settings (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1997).

Cognitive research shows that educational programs should challenge

students to link, connect, and integrate ideas and to learn in authentic
contexts, taking into account their perception of real-world problems.
(Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; diSessa, 2000; Linn & Hsi, 2000).

Themes are a way of understanding new concepts. They provide mental

organizing schemes for students to approach new ideas (Caine & Caine,
1997; Kovalik, 1994).

Research on brain-based teaching explains that the brain learns, and

recalls learning, through nonlinear patterns that emphasize coherence
rather than fragmentation. The more teachers make connecting patterns
explicit and accessible for students, the easier the brain will integrate
new information (Hart, 1983).

Classrooms free of threat, students engaged in immersive learning

experiences, and curriculum that connects to the community and the
students' lives are all aspects of brain-compatible teaching (Caine &
Caine, 1991, 1994, 1997a, b).

Students learn through different modes, styles and multiple

intelligences. Teachers should access and integrate these modes for
increasing opportunities for students to access and retain new knowledge
(Gardner, 1993).

Student choice invokes critical thinking, decisionmaking, and reflection.

When students are asked to select from alternatives, they are encouraged
to take responsibility for their learning process (Beane, 1997; Caine &
Caine, 1994).

Implementation
Thematic instruction is characterized by a range of distinct strategies. Teachers
who incorporate thematic instruction employ research-based strategies such
as:
1. Choose authentic themes that matter. Choosing themes that are
authentic content connectors strengthens students' ability to build
fluency between school subjects and apply them in real-world contexts.
Select concepts or ideas that will blend disciplines and create bridges to
new knowledge.
2. Employ cooperative grouping. Using small, cooperative learning groups to
support problem-solving and cooperation.
3. Design inquiry-based learning experiences. Designing hands-on, "mindson" activities help students make real-world sense of concepts by
applying what they are learning.
4. Provide for student choice. A curriculum that provides students choices
for demonstrating their learning will allow construction of new
knowledge, engage individual students, and promote self-direction,
autonomy, and collaboration (Bank Street College, 2004).
5. Create a resource-rich classroom. Provide a rich environment for
exploring the theme in multiple avenues. Computers connected to the
Internet, magazines, materials to experiment with, and tools for creating
records of learning all enable elaboration of new knowledge.
6. Connect to the local surroundings. Extend the classroom into the
neighborhood, town, and environment by integrating them into the
curriculum in meaningful ways.
7. Team with other teachers. Collaborate with colleageus to bring good ideas
into the planning process and create strong links to other disciplines by
sharing content expertise.

8. Provide timely feedback. The real world provides authentic feedback,

allowing us to internalize what success or failure looks and feels like.
Feedback in the classroom should replicate authentic learning situations
by being timely and instructive.
9. Link assessment to real-world performances. Use authentic performance
assessments that ask students to apply what they understand in new
ways.
10.
Use technology effectively. Employ appropriate technology tools for
students to explore ideas, engage in simulations, and make new
connections.
16.28Principles of Teaching: Integrative Teaching Strategies
I said on my previous post that I will just "copy-paste" some articles from the
net. However, I was not satisfied by what I found especially about integrative
teaching. Consequently, I'm back to giving my own perspective rather just
"copy-pasting". And now let me present to you integrative teaching.
Integrative teaching is one of the emerging trends in education for the past
years. It focuses on connections rather teaching isolated facts. For instance, a
certain different subject may be integrated in teaching another subject (Like
the content of Science be taught in teaching Language). With this, learners will
be able to realize that subjects being taught to them are not separate and
isolated field of knowledge, but are linked to each other in order to achieve
understanding and concept attainment.
Furthermore, integrative teaching aims to connect what is learned in school to
real life situations, thus it is more on developing problem solving and
discussions of issues in the real world. Learners will learn to relate what they
learn and apply it to their own daily lives.
In addition, integrative teaching involves consideration on the learners'
individual differences. These include multiple intelligences and learning styles.
The teachertherefore must present the lesson in various ways that can cater
each learner's uniqueness.

Finally, when we say integrative teaching, we must remember the ABC domain
of our objectives. The cognitive, behavioral and affective dimensions in teaching
must be given balanced consideration. Values must be integrated
in instruction across all subject areas. Through this, we are molding
"integrated" learners, or well rounded individuals.
Examples of integrative teaching include Content-Based Instruction, Thematic
Teaching, Focusing Inquiry and Generic Competency Model. Watch out for my
post about these.
Field Trips As a Teaching Strategy
By Shelley Frost, eHow Contributor

Print this article

Field trips fall under the category of teaching strategy because of the high
potential for hands-on learning for the participants. While many see field trips as
a fun day away from school, the fun has a greater purpose. Children are able to
see the concepts learned in class work in the real world. Upon returning to the
classroom, the experiences on the trip provide additional educational material.
Other People Are Reading

1.
o

The Significance of Field Trips for Students

Why Do We Need Field Trips in Teaching?
Location
Select the location of class field trips based on the topics covered
in the classroom. Consider local offerings such as aquariums, children's
museums, historical sights, natural landmarks, local businesses, zoos and

farms that lend themselves well to a school trip. Compare the local venues with
the list of specific areas of study within your classroom to determine which
ones allow for the strongest connection.
Making the Connection
o

Creating a strong connection for the students between the field trip
and classroom study increases the educational value of the activity. Create a
set of learning objectives for the field trip, relating them back to specific areas
of the curriculum. Clue the students into the connection before the field trip
takes place. Some field trips offer obvious connections to the curriculum while
others might be more subtle.

Extension Activities
o

Plan classroom activities to extend the learning of the field trips. In

preparation for the field trip, have the students research the venue and provide
pictures or background information for them. Encourage the kids to prepare
questions to ask the tour guide at the location. A KWL chart is a simple way to
assess prior knowledge on the topic. Draw three columns, with the K column
representing what they already know, the W column displaying what they want
to learn and the L column for ideas they learned on the field trip. Complete the
K and W columns before embarking on the field trip. Complete the L column
when you return.
After returning from the trip, hold a debriefing session, which allows the kids
to discuss the experience. Hearing stories from others can clarify some
questions that the students had about the trip. Create a bulletin board or class
book to remember the experiences. Plan writing or journal activities for the
kids related to the book. If the kids have lingering questions about the
experience, use those questions as a basis for more lesson plans in the
classroom.

Read more: Field Trips As a Teaching Strategy |

eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/way_5488951_field-trips-teachingstrategy.html#ixzz2NBnGjPJc

16.31here is a school of thought that presumes all children can learn if they
are provided with the appropriate learning conditions. Learning for
mastery or mastery learning, are terms coined by Benjamin Bloom in 1968
and 1971 respectively. Bloom hypothesized that a classroom with a mastery
learning focus as opposed to the traditional form of instruction would reduce
the achievement gaps between varying groups of students (Guskey 2007). In
Mastery learning, "the students are helped to master each learning unit before
proceeding to a more advanced learning task" (Bloom 1985) in contrast to
"conventional instruction".
Mastery learning has little to do with specific content, but rather is a
description of the process of mastering particular learning objectives. This
approach is based on Benjamin Bloom's Mastery for Learning model, with
refinements made by Block. Mastery learning may be implemented as teacherpaced group instruction, one-to-one tutoring, or self-paced learning with
programmed materials. It may involve direct teacher instruction, cooperation
with classmates, or independent learning. It requires well-defined learning
objectives organized into smaller, sequentially organized units. Individualized
instruction has some elements in common with mastery learning, although it
dispenses with group activities in favor of allowing more able or more motivated
students to progress ahead of others and maximizing teacher interaction with
those students who need the most assistance.
In one meta-analysis (Kulik, Kulik & Bangert-Drowns, 1990), the mean effect
size (Cohen's d) of 103 studies was 0.52, which is considered a moderately
large effect size.
The concept of mastery learning can be attributed to the behaviorism
principles of operant conditioning. According to operant conditioning theory,
learning occurs when an association is formed between a stimulus and
response (Skinner, 1984). In line with the behavior theory, mastery learning
focuses on overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (Baum, 2005).
The material that will be taught to mastery is broken down into small discrete
lessons that follow a logical progression. In order to demonstrate mastery over
each lesson, students must be able to overtly show evidence of understanding
of the material before moving to the next lesson (Anderson, 2000).
Contents
[hide]
1 Assessment in Mastery

Learning
2 Application
3 Criticism
4 See also
5 References
[edit]Assessment in Mastery Learning
In a mastery learning environment, the teacher directs a variety of group-based
instructional techniques, with frequent and specific feedback by using
diagnostic, formative tests, as well as regularly correcting mistakes students
make along their learning path. Assessment in the mastery learning classroom
is not used as a measure of accountability but rather as a source of evidence to
guide future instruction. A teacher using the mastery approach will use the
evidence generated from his or her assessment to modify activities to best serve
each student. Teachers evaluate students with criterion-referenced tests rather
than norm-referenced tests. In this sense, students are not competing against
each other, but rather competing against themselves in order to achieve a
personal best.
[edit]Application
What does a mastery learning classroom look like? Mastery learning curricula
generally consists of discrete topics which all students begin together. After
beginning a unit, students will be given a meaningful and formative
assessment so that the teacher can conclude whether or not an objective has
been mastered. At this step, instruction goes in one of two directions. If a
student has mastered an objective, he or she will begin on a path of enrichment
activities that correspond to and build upon the original objective. Students
who do not satisfactorily complete a topic are given additional instruction until
they succeed. If a student does not demonstrate that he or she has mastered
the objective, then a series of correctives will be employed. These correctives
can include varying activities, individualized instruction, and additional time to
complete assignments (Guskey 2007). These students will receive constructive
feedback on their work and will be encouraged to revise and revisit their
assignment until the objective is mastered.
[edit]Criticism

In general, mastery learning programs have been shown to lead to higher

achievement in all students as compared to more traditional forms of teaching
(Anderson, 2000; Gusky & Gates, 1986). Despite the empirical evidence, many
mastery programs in schools have been replaced by more traditional forms of
instruction due to the level of commitment required by the teacher and the
difficulty in managing the classroom when each student is following an
individual course of learning (Anderson, 2000; Grittner, 1975). Despite the
conclusive evidence that an appropriately instituted mastery approach to
instruction yields improvement in student achievement, there is a strong
movement against it. Critics of mastery learning often point to time constraints
as a flaw in the approach. Those that favor breadth of knowledge over depth of
knowledge may feel that it is more important to cover a lot of material with
little detail rather than focus more energy on ensuring that all students achieve
learning goals. Many teachers are hesitant to institute a mastery learning
approach in their classroom because of fears that they may get behind in their
lessons. Some critics argue that allowing some students extra time to complete
their work is unfair. They argue that differentiated instruction is inherently
unfair because the students who receive extra feedback and time are somehow
given an advantage over the students who master the objectives the first time.
Most of this criticism stems from a misunderstanding of Blooms approach.
[dubious discuss]
In Blooms ideal classroom, the institution of a mastery learning
approach is postulated to eventually lead to a drastic decline in the variation of
student achievement, as Students who require more correctives initially would
gain direct evidence of the personal benefits the process offers (Guskey 2007)
and thus they eventually come to employ these varying strategies and
techniques on their own, while those students who receive less will make
slower progress. As the gap in student achievement shrinks, more time will be
devoted to "enrichment activities" for all students than corrective activities
(Guskey 2007).
16.30 PERSONALIZED INSTRUCTION
By James W. Keefe and John M. Jenkins
Kenneth Sirotnik and John Goodlad caution us to think in terms of school
"renewal" rather than "reform." Sirotnik (1999) tells us that reform is usually
preoccupied with accountability rather than evaluation. Much of high-stakes
reform, for example, is aimed at rewarding or punishing schools and educators.
Renewal, on the other hand, urges a new accountability more akin to
"responsibility." Goodlad (1999, pp. 574, 575) points out that, "The language of

reform carries with it the traditional connotations of things gone wrong that
need to be corrected, as with delinquent boys or girls incarcerated in reform
schools. This language is not uplifting. It says little or nothing about the nature
of education, the self, or the human community .... School renewal is a much
different game ....The language and the ethos of renewal have to do with the
people in and around schools improving their practice and developing the
collaborative mechanisms necessary to better their schools."
Renewal is concerned primarily with what Sarason (1989) calls "creating new
settings" that reflect critical inquiry about educational practice. Renewal is all
about learner growth in knowledge and self-awareness leading to wisdom,
personal happiness, and collective responsibility. Only a minority of schools
achieve these kinds of reflective and exploratory environments. Most schools
are average and are satisfied with maintaining or perhaps fine-tuning
traditional school organizational patterns and pedagogy.
THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF PERSONALIZED INSTRUCTION
Personalization of instruction and learning is the effort on the part of a school to
take into account individual student characteristics and needs, and flexible
instructional practices, in organizing the learning environment. Teachers
committed to personalizing instruction help their students develop personal
learning plans, assist in diagnosing their cognitive strengths and weaknesses
and other style characteristics, help adapt the learning environment and
instruction to learner needs and interests, and mentor authentic and reflective
learning experiences for their students.
In the past, antecedents of personalization have been known under different
names: nongraded education, continuous progress education, individualized
instruction, individually guided or prescribed education, and so forth. Each of
these concepts is concerned with personalized education but in a limited way.
Personalization is broader in scope, more systematic in organization, and more
authentic in its goals and strategies.
Several current systematic approaches to instructional improvement, such as
style-based instruction and differentiated instruction, do border on the truly
personalized. The former typically draws on individualized instruction for it
roots and the latter tends to restrict itself to the individual classroom, but both
can be highly personalized when implemented in a comprehensive, organic and
dynamic fashion.

What, then, are the basic elements of a personalized approach to instruction? If

we consider the implications of historic efforts to renew schooling, and take
into account the most flexible of recent efforts to individualize learning, a
direction begins to emerge. Darling-Hammond (1997) argues that we must put
students first, that all children have a right to learn. She cites four factors that
are important for powerful teaching and learning:
* Structures for caring and structures for serious learning, structures that
enable teachers to know students well and to work with them intensely.
* Shared exhibitions of student work that make it clear what the school values
and how students are doing.
* Structures that support teacher collaboration focused on student learning, in
particular, teacher teams.
*Structures for shared decision making and dialogue about teaching and
learning with other teachers, students and parents. (Darling-Hammond, 1996).
These structures are not a model to be imposed on schools but rather a broad
blueprint for ongoing improvement in school organization and good practice.
With this important caveat in mind, we proposesix basic elements of
personalized instruction (see Figure 1) that should be present if a school wishes
to develop powerful teaching and learning for student success. These elements
or structures produce a challenging, integrative, but child-centered learning
environment, one that is interactive and meaningful, but with reasonably
structured learning activities, flexible use of time and space, and authentic,
performance-based assessment of student progress.
We think of these six basic elements as constituting the culture and context of
personalized instruction. The cultural components--teacher role, student
learning characteristics, and collegial relationships-- establish the foundation
of personalization and ensure that the school prizes a caring and collaborative
environment, student diversity, and individual development. The contextual
factors--interactivity, flexible scheduling, and authentic assessment--promote
and support student engagement, thoughtful growth, and proficient
performance.
-------------------------------------------------------------FIGURE 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF PERSONALIZED INSTRUCTION

1. A dual teacher role of coach and adviser.

2. The diagnosis of relevant student learning characteristics, including:
. Developmental level;
. Cognitive /learning style;
. Prior knowledge/ skills.
3. A culture of collegiality in the school, characterized by:
. A constructivist environment;
. Collaborative learning arrangements.
4. An interactive learning environment characterized by:
. Small school or small group (class) size;
. Thoughtful conversation;
. Active learning activities;
. Authentic student achievement.
5. Flexible scheduling and pacing, but with adequate structure.
6. Authentic assessment.
---------------------------------------------------------------1. DUAL TEACHER ROLE
The indispensable catalyst in the personalized instructional environment is the
teacher, the instructional specialist who is closest to the learning situation and
best understands the needs and interests of students as well as the policies of
the school and the district. Personalized instruction demands that the teacher
assume the dual roles of subject-matter coach, consultant and facilitator, and
teacher-adviser to a select group of students. As learning coach, the teacher
collaborates with other teachers, student peer tutors, and community resource
persons to guide student learning. As teacher-adviser, the teacher provides

advice, counsel, and guidance to 15 to 20 students on academic and schooladjustment issues.

TEACHER-COACH
Teacher-coaches offer the same kind of instruction, demonstration, practice,
and feedback to their students that athletic coaches and student activity
advisers have modeled in the most successful of their programs. The needs of
today's students are quite different from those of their counterparts two or
three generations ago. The world has experienced several social revolutions and
a knowledge explosion that makes it almost impossible to "cover" more than a
small part of what students need to know for a reasonably successful life.
Cognitive and problem solving skills, what some call metacognitive skills, are
more important today than any particular piece of knowledge. The teachercoach in the school environment must be a facilitator of learning, a learning
guide who helps students find appropriate resources and engage in suitable
learning activities.
Members of the Learning Environments Consortium International (Georgiades,
Keefe, Lowery et al.,1979) describe such a teacher as "not so much educational
broadcaster as academic troubleshooter. He devotes fewer hours to lecturing in
front of a class and more to working with students individually and in small
groups."
TEACHER-ADVISER
Teacher-advisers are the first-line of offense and defense in a school guidance
program geared to student success. Advisement is the other facet of the new
teacher job description--a helping role. Teachers and other qualified adults join
professional counselors in helping students plan and achieve appropriate
career and personal-social goals. In advisement, teachers, counselors, and
other adults work as a team to promote student adjustment and success in
school. Professional counselors serve as advisers to a group of teacher-advisers
and help them to learn their role and its functions.
Over the years, advisement programs have been called expanded homeroom,
advisory period, home base, advisory base, student assistance, teacher adviser,
adviser-advisee, and personal adult advocate. The programs have varied from
place to place, but generally call for a teacher to assume school guidance
functions that are narrowly limited to academic program planning,

career/college information, school adjustment issues and personal-social

guidance.
In middle schools, many adviser programs take on the character of group
guidance, but these applications are usually limited in scope and often in
success. The most successful advisement programs emphasize personal
contact between students and advisers and continuing support of the student
in his or her academic program and personal adjustment to school. The 1996
NASSP Breaking Ranks report specifically mentions the role of the Personal
Adult Advocate in helping the student personalize the education experience.
2. DIAGNOSIS OF STUDENT LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS
If the goal is to build a learning environment suited to the aptitudes, needs,
and interests of each student, personalized instruction must begin with
knowledge of the learner The foundation of any personalized instruction
approach is some form of diagnosis--determining what are the learning related
characteristics of individual learners. Direct teacher observation and various
types of diagnostic assessment are among the principal tools of instruction
viewed as coaching, mentoring, facilitating, and advising. Diagnosis is
concerned with discovering such student learning traits as developmental level,
learning style, and learning history.
DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
Developmental characteristics are those specific stages in individual
maturation when certain capacities for learned behavior appear (e.g., visual
perception, language pronunciation, and cognitive thinking skills). Examining
these characteristics of students can tell us when They are developmentally
ready to learn something. They describe individual readiness for learning.
Certain capabilities appear only after the appropriate stage in individual
development occurs. If not exercised then, the capacities are not likely to
develop later (e.g., skills in athletics, peer relations, language learning, etc.). If
teachers are to personalize student instruction, they must have a good
understanding of learner developmental traits.
Darling-Hammond (1997) calls for "developmentally attentive schools," starting
with the presumption that schools should be user-friendly. School organization
and student work must build on student developmental considerations.
Learning activities should be based on student needs and legitimate interests

rather than, arbitrarily, on generic curriculum guides or the contents of

approved textbooks. Particularly in the lower grades, students need hands-on
learning with active and concrete learning activities. Nor should developmental
attentiveness end with primary schooling. Braddock and McPartland (1993)
argue that many problems that teenagers have in school are a result of the
notable mismatch between their developmental needs and the learning
environments of most junior and senior high schools. When teenagers need
close relationships, they get large, impersonal schools. When they need to
experience autonomy, they get rigid rules, curricular tracking, and large doses
of memorization.
STUDENT LEARNING STYLE
Student learning style is the second broad diagnostic element. Learning style
encompasses information-processing habits, attitudinal tendencies and
biologically based responses that are typical of the ways a given student learns
and prefers to learn. There are three broad categories of learning style
characteristics:
* Cognitive styles are preferred ways of perception, organization and retention.
For example, perceptual modality preferences--whether a student prefers
visual, auditory, or psychomotor learning--are basic to cognitive style diagnosis.
* Affective styles include those dimensions of the learning personality having to
do with attention, emotion, and valuing. Each learner has a personal
motivational approach.
* Physiological styles are individual traits deriving from a person's gender,
health and nutrition, and reaction to the physical surroundings, such as
preferences for levels of light, sound, and temperature in the learning
environment.
Learning style is a gestalt that tells us how a student learns and prefers to
learn. The Learning Style Profile, for example, assesses independent scales
representing four factors: perceptual responses, cognitive styles, study
preferences, and instructional preferences. Seven cognitive skills are profiled
including sequential and simultaneous processing skills. The Learning Style
Profile and other comprehensive style instruments help teachers identify
student style strengths and weaknesses and organize instruction more
efficiently and effectively.. Learning style diagnosis is a key element in any
attempt to make instruction more personalized.

STUDENT LEARNING HISTORY

"Student learning history" is a term coined by Benjamin Bloom and his
colleagues in mastery learning research to describe the aggregate of personal
learning that each student brings to a particular course, class, or school
program. A learner's "history" characterizes his or her instructional readiness
or "entering behavior." Learning history is the third broad area of diagnosis. In
fact, existing student knowledge, skills and attitudes define the fertile ground
for student success in subsequent learning.
Learning history tells us what a student knows and can do at a given point in
his or her learning career--the knowledge, skills and attitudes that the student
possesses before beginning a new learning experience. Diagnosis of learning
history involves the determination of what has occurred as a basis for what
should occur. Observation, surveys, inventories, and curriculum-referenced
tests (rather than the traditional standardized tests) best assess these
knowledge or skill levels. Information about student learning history is also
available to teachers in cumulative record folders, in teacher and counselor
reports, and from student questionnaires, inventories, and various diagnostic
tests.
3. CULTURE OF COLLEGIALITY
Another essential ingredient of personalized instruction is a school culture of
collaboration where teachers and students work together in a cooperative social
environment to develop meaningful learning activities for all students. Choice
theory (Glasser, 1986) proposes that all behavior is an attempt to satisfy basic
needs hardwired into our genetic structure. We always choose to do what is
most satisfying to us at the time. Glasser tells us that "if what is being taught
does not satisfy the needs about which a student is currently most concerned,
it will make little difference how brilliantly the teacher teaches--the student will
not work to learn ....Teachers are well aware that hungry students think of
food, lonely students look for friends and powerless students seek attention far
more that they look for knowledge." A constructivist environment and
collaborative learning arrangements characterize a collegial culture.
CONSTRUCTIVIST ENVIRONMENT
Many educators today have adopted a constructivist view of schooling.
Constructivism holds that individual learners construct knowledge by giving

meaning to their current experiences in the light of their prior knowledge. Time
and opportunity for reflective dialogue are critical elements of such a learning
environment. Constructivist teachers build instruction on student learning
styles and skills, and encourage students to seek out personal knowledge of a
topic. Students work with their teacher-coaches to improve their cognitive skills
and to expand their current experience through reflection, seminars, and longterm projects. Constructivist teachers look for opportunities to encourage
student reflection, problem solving and initiative.
COLLABORATIVE LEARNING ARRANGEMENTS
The task of personalized instruction is to create learning communities in which
students can confront important ideas and apply these ideas to real-world
experiences that they can understand and use. Collaborative learning
arrangements provide an opportunity for students and teachers to work
together to verbalize their ideas, to sharpen their thinking, to capitalize on
differences. Considerable evidence exists, for example, that students learn
better in cooperative groups than when alone (Slavin, 1991, 1995). Cooperative
small groups encourage collaboration that is more useful and better
socialization than traditional classrooms, yet produce solid achievement gains.
Glasser (1986) believes that small learning teams offer a good chance of
motivating almost all students, for several reasons. Students gain a sense of
belonging by working in teams of two to five and a sense of belonging provides
the initial motivator for students to do the work. As they achieve some success,
they will want to work even harder. Stronger students, Glasser argues, find it
need-fulfilling to help weaker students, and weaker students find it needfulfilling to contribute to the team effort. Students learn to depend not only on
the teacher but on the teammates and their own creativity. Collaborative
learning arrangements are necessary for a personalized learning environment
because they promote interaction, dialogue, and thoughtful reflection.
4. INTERACTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
Interactive learning environments are designed to foster collaborative learning
and reflective conversation.. Recent studies have found that high schools
restructured to provide interactive learning arrangements produce higher
student achievement gains that are also more equitably distributed among
socioeconomic subgroups (Lee & Smith, 1995). These studies found that
collective responsibility for student learning, an academic emphasis, and high

morale are important features of a successful school learning community.

Successful practices included school-within-school units, interdisciplinary
teaching teams and common teacher planning time. Interactive learning
environments are characterized by small school or group size, thoughtful
classrooms, active learning experiences, and authentic student achievement.
Let us explore these characteristics.
SCHOOL OR GROUP SIZE
Darling-Hammond (1997) reports than more than 30 years of studies on school
organization "have consistently found that small schools (with enrollments of
roughly 300 to 600) promote higher student achievement, higher attendance,
lower dropout rates, greater participation in school activities, more positive
feelings toward self and school, more positive behavior, less violence and
vandalism and greater postschool success.These outcomes are also found in
settings where students have close sustained relationships with a smaller than
average number of teachers throughout their school careers." The 1996 NASSP
Breaking Ranks report also recommended that high schools not exceed 600
students.
Unfortunately, earlier studies on class size are inconclusive or at least
debatable. Smaller class size is invariably the better choice when the group is
20 or less, but in the range from 20 to 40 students, class size makes little or no
difference (ERS, 1978; Glass & Smith, 1978). Class size studies are difficult to
conduct because so many other socioeconomic, organizational, and
instructional variables can intervene. The issue becomes moot, however, when
one approaches the issue of class or group size from the learner's point of view.
The issue, then, is how can the client best be served? What kind of grouping
(large, medium, small) best serves the target content or the activity? A choir or
a band usually benefits from a larger size. Skill learning, discussion, and
reflective conversation demand small groups. Research and reading are often
best done alone. The size of the group should be a function of its purpose.
Having said this, however, we should reiterate that most school-based learning
benefits from smaller-sized groups because they encourage collaboration,
interaction, and shared satisfaction.
THOUGHTFUL ENVIRONMENTS
Smaller schools and small group size can better support thoughtful
conversation, learning by doing, apprenticeship experiences, and authentic

student achievement. Schrag (1992) argues for more "thoughtfulness" in

classrooms. Researchers at the University of Wisconsin National Center on
Effective Secondary Schools developed a set of rating scales for "thoughtful
lessons" in social studies based on Schrag's conception of good thinking. The
University of Wisconsin research found that social studies classes in 16 schools
evidenced more thoughtfulness when school principals and department chairs
promoted thinking as a central goal.
Instruction is thoughtful when it focuses on a few important topics with
coherence and continuity, provides plenty of time for investigation and
interactive dialogue, raises challenging issues that require students to produce
new knowledge, and stresses the quality of supporting explanations and
reasons over the need for "right" answers. Barry Beyer (1992, pp. 94-95) argues
that at least four elements must be present for a thoughtful learning
environment:
1. Classroom layout that invites thinking--not in traditional rows, but
students facing each other in groups, working in learning centers or in
meaningful clusters.
2. Classroom interactions that involve information processing, rather than
information receiving or repeating--posing and solving problems, seeking
out evidence, and judging the quality of supporting reasons.
3. The use of precise, thoughtful language rather than vague terminology or
generalizations--hypothesizing, sifting evidence, questioning inferences
and assumptions, making predictions, drawing conclusions.
4. The organization of classroom study and courses around thoughtful
questions--inquiry built on questions of real interest to students
themselves.
ACTIVE LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Susan Kovalik and Karen Olsen (1998) contend that prior learning experiences
are critical to the success of active forms of learning. The human brain
continuously searches for patterns in incoming information as it attempts to
find meaning in the data. The more active the learning experience, the more
likely that the input will be rich in meaning. Kovalik and Olsen (1998) suggest
two rules of thumb for enhancing learning:

* Provide real-life richness and context in all learning situations. The less the
input, the harder the learner will struggle to find meaning.
* Curriculum and instruction must try to utilize all of a learner's prior
experience and to maximize the amount of sensory input during learning.
Human learning is rarely linear or neat or orderly or typically logical, but
rather multilinear, multisensory, and seemingly illogical until the learner
perceives clear patterns in the information that are personally meaningful.
At Central Park East Secondary School in New York City, all of the classes are
organized in seminar style. The objective is to encourage an interactive and
more active learning environment. Central Park East students spend their
classroom time "building replicas, writing books, transcribing interviews,
constructing mathematical models, creating dramas, developing photos, writing
lab reports or debating a class decision." In the field, they spend their time
"collecting samples, interviewing contacts, sketching and drawing, looking for
tracks, measuring, recording, searching, or just asking why. The point is that
they are "learning through doing, through genuine experience" (Wood, 1992).
Teachers who are concerned about personalizing the learning process believe in
teaching through genuine experiences and thoughtful reflection.
AUTHENTIC STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT
Instruction is authentic when it focuses on the kind of mastery found in
successful adults and personalized instruction must be authentic. Authentic
human achievement is concerned with what is significant, worthwhile and
meaningful in the lives of successful adults from all walks of life--from artists
and electricians to laborers and scientists. Authentic academic achievement,
then, must be concerned with accomplishments that are significant,
worthwhile, and meaningful for learners preparing for adulthood (Keefe &
Jenkins, 1997).
The Center on Organization and Restructuring of Schools (CORS) at the
University of Wisconsin-Madison devoted five years of research to the
formulation and study of criteria and standards for authentic academic
achievement, authentic instruction, authentic assessment tasks, and authentic
performance (Newmann, Secada, & Wehlage, 1995). The center characterized
authentic academic achievement in terms of three criteria:
1. Construction (not reproduction) of knowledge,
2. Disciplined inquiry (mastery of a field), and

3. Value beyond school.

Human cognition is complex, but the need for "authenticity" in learning is
straightforward. All learners need to feel competent and capable to understand
and accomplish real-world tasks. Newmann, Secada, and Wehlage (1995) argue
that "the kind of mastery required for students to earn school credits, grades,
and high scores on tests is often considered trivial, contrived, and
meaningless--by both students and adults. This absence of meaning breeds low
engagement in schoolwork and inhibits transfer of school learning to issues
and problems faced outside the school." Engagement here is the key word.
Without engagement, much of schooling is meaningless and unproductive. It is
difficult to envision a personalized instructional environment without the
element of authenticity.
5. FLEXIBLE SCHEDULING AND PACING
The schedule of a school makes the educational philosophy of the school
evident and visible. If the philosophy is traditional, the schedule will likely be
very structured, even rigid. If the philosophy is constructivist or learnercentered, the schedule will almost necessarily be personalized or at least very
flexible.
Two ingredients seem necessary to the development of a more personalized
school schedule for students. First, both students and teachers need input into
the use of time. Teachers can accomplish this by making requests through
team leaders or department chairs or other representatives. This information
can be communicated to teacher-advisers who meet with individual students to
guide their scheduling decisions and monitor student progress. (Obviously,
state and local mandates must be acknowledged, such as graduation
requirements.) Waiver processes are now in effect in most states that permit
some latitude in redefining credits and time. Second, achievement should be
judged on a performance basis. Placing the emphasis on performance rather
than time increases the opportunities for student choices in curriculum and
instruction. (See the discussion of authentic assessment below for more on
performance-based assessment.)
In his book, Horace's School: Redesigning the American High School, Theodore
Sizer (1992) proposes a sample high school schedule designed to tailor school
practices to the needs of every group of adolescents (Figure 2). Periods 1, 2,
and 6 are 105 minutes each. Periods 3, 4, and 5 share 2 hours for lunch,

advisory, and tutorials by the teaching team. Team members decide on group
and individual activities. Advisers schedule tutorials for individual students.
Period 1 has a 10-minute passing period; all others have 5 minutes. Subjects
are scheduled on a four-day rotation to provide opportunities for teachers and
students to meet at different times of the day.
----------------------------------------------------------------A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction for
one class. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class
instruction. Details will vary depending on the preference of the teacher,
subject being covered, and the need and/or curiosity of children. There may be
requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Developing a lesson plan
o

1.1 A well-developed lesson plan

1.2 Setting an objective

1.3 Selecting lesson plan material

1.4 Types of Assignments

2 Further reading
3 See also
4 Notes and references

[edit]Developing a lesson plan

While there are many formats for a lesson plan, most lesson plans contain
some or all of these elements, typically in this order:

Title of the lesson

Time required to complete the lesson
List of required materials

List of objectives, which may be behavioral objectives (what

the student can do at lesson completion) or knowledge objectives (what the
student knows at lesson completion)

The set (or lead-in, or bridge-in) that focuses students on the

lesson's skills or conceptsthese include showing pictures or models,
asking leading questions, or reviewing previous lessons

An instructional component that describes the sequence of events that

make up the lesson, including the teacher's instructional input and guided
practice the students use to try new skills or work with new ideas

Independent practice that allows students to extend skills or knowledge

on their own

A summary, where the teacher wraps up the discussion and answers

questions

An evaluation component, a test for mastery of the instructed skills or

conceptssuch as a set of questions to answer or a set of instructions to
follow

A risk assessment where the lesson's risks and the steps taken to
minimize them are documented.

Analysis component the teacher uses to reflect on the lesson itself such
as what worked, what needs improving

A continuity component reviews and reflects on content from the previous

lesson[2]

[edit]A well-developed lesson plan

A well-developed lesson plan reflects the interests and needs of students. It
incorporates best practices for the educational field. The lesson plan correlates
with the teacher's philosophy of education, which is what the teacher feels is
the purpose of educating the students.[3]
Secondary English program lesson plans, for example, usually center around
four topics. They are literary theme, elements of language
and composition, literary history, and literary genre. A broad, thematic lesson
plan is preferable, because it allows a teacher to create various research,
writing, speaking, and reading assignments. It helps an instructor teach
different literature genres and incorporate videotapes, films, and television

programs. Also, it facilitates teaching literature and English together.

[3]
Similarly, history lesson plans focus on content (historical accuracy and
background information), analytic thinking, scaffolding, and the practicality of
lesson structure and meeting of educational goals.[4] School requirements and a
teacher's personal tastes, in that order, determine the exact requirements for a
lesson plan.
Unit plans follow much the same format as a lesson plan, but cover an entire
unit of work, which may span several days or weeks.
Modern constructivist teaching styles may not require individual lesson plans.
The unit plan may include specific objectives and timelines, but lesson plans
can be more fluid as they adapt to student needs and learning styles.
[edit]Setting an objective
The first thing a teacher does is create an objective, a statement of purpose for
the whole lesson. An objective statement itself should answer what students
will be able to do by the end of the lesson. Harry Wong states that, Each
[objective] must begin with a verb that states the action to be taken to show
accomplishment. The most important word to use in an assignment is a verb,
because verbs state how to demonstrate if accomplishment has taken place or
not.[5] The objective drives the whole lesson, it is the reason the lesson exists.
Care is taken when creating the objective for each days lesson, as it will
determine the activities the students engage in. The teacher also ensures that
lesson plan goals are compatible with the developmental level of the students.
The teacher ensures as well that their student achievement expectations are
reasonable.[3]
[edit]Selecting lesson plan material
A lesson plan must correlate with the text book the class uses. The school
usually selects the text books or provides teachers with a limited text book
choice for a particular unit. The teacher must take great care and select the
most appropriate book for the students.[3]
[edit]Types of Assignments
The instructor must decide whether class assignments are whole-class, small
groups, workshops, independent work, peer learning, or contractual:

Whole-classthe teacher lectures to the class as a whole and has the

class collectively participate in classroom discussions.
Small groupsstudents work on assignments in groups of three or four.

Workshopsstudents perform various tasks simultaneously. Workshop

activities must be tailored to the lesson plan.
Independent workstudents complete assignments individually.

Peer learningstudents work together, face to face, so they can learn

from one another.

Contractual workteacher and student establish an agreement that the

student must perform a certain amount of work by a deadline.[3]

These assignment categories (e.g. peer learning, independent, small groups)

can also be used to guide the instructors choice of assessment measures that
can provide information about student and class comprehension of the
material. As discussed by Biggs (1999), there are additional questions an
instructor can consider when choosing which type of assignment would provide
the most benefit to students. These include:

What level of learning do the students need to attain before choosing

assignments with varying difficulty levels?
What is the amount of time the instructor wants the students to use to
complete the assignment?

How much time and effort does the instructor have to provide student
grading and feedback?

What is the purpose of the assignment? (e.g. to track student learning; to

provide students with time to practice concepts; to practice incidental skills
such as group process or independent research)

How does the assignment fit with the rest of the lesson plan? Does the
assignment test content knowledge or does it require application in a new
context?[6]

[edit]Further reading

Ahrenfelt, Johannes, and Neal Watkin. 100 Ideas for Essential Teaching
Skills (Continuum One Hundred). New York: Continuum, 2006.
Carey, Lou; Dick, Walter (1978), The Systematic Design of Instruction. (1
ed.), Glenview: Scott, Foresman, ISBN 978-0-673-15122-3

Gagne, Robert; Briggs, Leslie (1974), Principles of instructional design (1

ed.), New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, ISBN 978-0-03-0081712, hdl:2027/mdp.39015004151000

Serdyukov, Peter, and Ryan, Mark. Writing Effective Lesson Plans: The 5Star Approach. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2008.

Salsbury, Denise E., and Melinda Schoenfeldt. Lesson Planning: A

Research-Based Model for K-12 Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Prentice Hall,
2008.

Skowron, Janice. Powerful Lesson Planning: Every Teachers Guide to

Effective Instruction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2006.

Thompson, Julia G. First Year Teacher's Survival Guide: Ready-To-Use

Strategies, Tools & Activities For Meeting The Challenges Of Each School Day
(J-B Ed:Survival Guides). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007.

Tileston, Donna E. Walker. What Every Teacher Should Know About

Instructional Planning Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2003.

Wolfe, Shoshana. Your Best Year Yet! A Guide to Purposeful Planning and
Effective Classroom Organization (Teaching Strategies). New York: Teaching
Strategies, 2006.

[edit]See also

Bloom's Taxonomy
Lesson

NCLB

HotChalk

Lesson planet

TES Lesson Plans

16.32
Reflective teaching: Exploring our own classroom practice
Submitted by TE Editor on 15 June, 2011 - 12:10

Reflective teaching means looking at what you do in the classroom, thinking

about why you do it, and thinking about if it works - a process of selfobservation and self-evaluation. By collecting information about what goes on
in our classroom, and by analysing and evaluating this information, we identify
and explore our own practices and underlying beliefs. This may then lead to
changes and improvements in our teaching.
Reflective teaching is therefore a means of professional development which
begins in our classroom.

o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o

Why it is important
Beginning the process of reflection
Teacher diary
Peer observation
Recording lessons
Student feedback
What to do next
Think
Talk
Read
Ask
Conclusion
Why it is important
Many teachers already think about their teaching and talk to colleagues about
it too. You might think or tell someone that "My lesson went well" or "My
students didn't seem to understand" or "My students were so badly behaved
today."
However, without more time spent focussing on or discussing what has
happened, we may tend to jump to conclusions about why things are
happening. We may only notice reactions of the louder students. Reflective
teaching therefore implies a more systematic process of collecting, recording
and analysing our thoughts and observations, as well as those of our students,
and then going on to making changes.

If a lesson went well we can describe it and think about why it was
successful.
If the students didn't understand a language point we introduced we
need to think about what we did and why it may have been unclear.

If students are misbehaving - what were they doing, when and why?

Beginning the process of reflection

You may begin a process of reflection in response to a particular problem that
has arisen with one or your classes, or simply as a way of finding out more
about your teaching. You may decide to focus on a particular class of students,
or to look at a feature of your teaching - for example how you deal with
incidents of misbehaviour or how you can encourage your students to speak
more English in class.
The first step is to gather information about what happens in the class. Here
are some different ways of doing this.

Teacher diary
This is the easiest way to begin a process of reflection since it is purely
personal. After each lesson you write in a notebook about what happened. You
may also describe your own reactions and feelings and those you observed on
the part of the students. You are likely to begin to pose questions about what
you have observed. Diary writing does require a certain discipline in taking the
time to do it on a regular basis.
Here are some suggestions for areas to focus on to help you start your diary.
Download diary suggestions 51k
Peer observation
Invite a colleague to come into your class to collect information about your
lesson. This may be with a simple observation task or through note taking.
This will relate back to the area you have identified to reflect upon. For
example, you might ask your colleague to focus on which students contribute
most in the lesson, what different patterns of interaction occur or how you deal
with errors.
Recording lessons
Video or audio recordings of lessons can provide very useful information for
reflection. You may do things in class you are not aware of or there may be
things happening in the class that as the teacher you do not normally see.


o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o

Audio recordings can be useful for considering aspects of teacher talk.

How much do you talk?
What about?
Are instructions and explanations clear?
How much time do you allocate to student talk?
How do you respond to student talk?
Video recordings can be useful in showing you aspects of your own
behaviour.
Where do you stand?
Who do you speak to?
How do you come across to the students?
Student feedback
You can also ask your students what they think about what goes on in the
classroom. Their opinions and perceptions can add a different and valuable
perspective. This can be done with simple questionnaires or learning diaries for
example.

What to do next
Once you have some information recorded about what goes on in your
classroom, what do you do?
Think
You may have noticed patterns occurring in your teaching through your
observation. You may also have noticed things that you were previously
unaware of. You may have been surprised by some of your students' feedback.
You may already have ideas for changes to implement.

Talk
Just by talking about what you have discovered - to a supportive colleague or
even a friend - you may be able to come up with some ideas for how to do
things differently.
o
If you have colleagues who also wish to develop their teaching
using reflection as a tool, you can meet to discuss issues. Discussion can be
based around scenarios from your own classes.
o
Using a list of statements about teaching beliefs (for example,
pairwork is a valuable activity in the language class or lexis is more important
than grammar) you can discuss which ones you agree or disagree with, and

which ones are reflected in your own teaching giving evidence from your selfobservation.
Read
You may decide that you need to find out more about a certain area. There are
plenty of websites for teachers of English now where you can find useful
teaching ideas, or more academic articles. There are also magazines for
teachers where you can find articles on a wide range of topics. Or if you have
access to a library or bookshop, there are plenty of books for English language
teachers.
Ask
Pose questions to websites or magazines to get ideas from other teachers. Or if
you have a local teachers' association or other opportunities for in-service
training, ask for a session on an area that interests you.
Conclusion
Reflective teaching is a cyclical process, because once you start to implement
changes, then the reflective and evaluative cycle begins again.

What are you doing?

Why are you doing it?
How effective is it?
How are the students responding?
How can you do it better?

17. ids to Facilitate Effective Teaching: The Recitation

Levy Dalumpines
FOLLOW
The recitation as a teaching tool is viewed to be a common teaching technique in
a period of class instruction. It is the most visible manifestation of the teachinglearning situation. It helps pupils/students in learning every aspect of the
subject matter to clarify abstract concepts and ideas.

Image Credit
Any teacher if he has to teach effectively must know how to conduct recitations,
makes and asks good questions and gives interesting and challenging
assignments. Specific guidelines and procedures as well as cautions are
necessary and well provided in each area. The new teacher, and even
experienced old teachers, will find this literature a rich mine of information
about every teaching tool. A careful study of each area will undoubtedly solve
multifarious problems that the teacher may encounter in this multifaceted
activity.
The recitation as a teaching tool is viewed to be a common teaching technique
in a period of class instruction. It is the most visible manifestation of the
teaching-learning situation. It helps pupils/students in learning every aspect of
the subject matter to clarify abstract concepts and ideas. Recitation has been
used in all levels of learning as an effective means for teaching and learning.
While it may be assumed that the beginning teacher may not automatically
know how to conduct recitations correctly and effectively, over the years, he will
be able to develop the ability to conduct good and functional recitations.
The Rationale of Recitation
The rationale of the recitation in the teaching-learning process does not need
further explanation. Teachers still believe in its efficiency as an effective means
of imparting knowledge and information, developing many skills, abilities,
attitudes, desirable habits and ideas.

The concept of an effective recitation is often looked upon to an opportunity for

developing creative expression, reflective thinking, favorable attitudes and
ideals for interpersonal relations and social living. Recitation has been regarded
the matrix for the inculcation of democratic ideals, for example, respect for
human worth and dignity, cooperation and development effort, group
responsibility, freedom of expression, use of one's intelligence and the
promotion of the general welfare of the people in a particular society. The use of
traditional type of recitation is now pass.
The contemporary type of recitation is learners centered. The pupils/students
are the most important variable in the teaching-learning process. All learning
activities resolve around the pupils/students. The learners are involved in the
planning, executing and evaluating learning activities in the classroom. The
new type of recitation emphasizes problem solving and inclusion of life-like
situations in the classroom learning activity. Group work, democratic exchange
of ideas, respect for individual differences, initiative, constructive criticisms,
team effort, respect for school rules and regulations, adherence to appropriate
behavior in school and application of new principles learned characterize the
new type of recitation in the school system.

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains

The Three Types of Learning

There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by
Benjamin Bloom (1956), identified three domains of educational activities:

Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge)

Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)

Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little
bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories.
Trainers often refer to these three categories as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and
Attitude). This taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as the goals

of the learning process. That is, after a learning episode, the learner should
have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes.
The committee also produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and
affective domains, but none for the psychomotor domain. Their explanation for
this oversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills
within the college level (I guess they never thought to check with their sports or
drama departments).
This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the
simplest behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes
and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the
educational and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily
understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.
Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956)
involves knowledge and the
development of intellectual skills. This
includes the recall or recognition of
specific facts, procedural patterns, and
concepts that serve in the development
of intellectual abilities and skills. There
are six major categories, which are
listed in order below, starting from the
simplest behavior to the most complex.
The categories can be thought of as
degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before
the next ones can take place.

Category

Example and Key Words (verbs)

Knowledge: Recall data or

information.

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote

prices from memory to a customer.
Knows the safety rules.

Key Words: defines, describes,

identifies, knows, labels, lists,
matches, names, outlines, recalls,
recognizes, reproduces, selects,
states.
Examples: Rewrites the principles of
test writing. Explain in one's own
words the steps for performing a
complex task. Translates an
Comprehension: Understand equation into a computer
the meaning, translation,
spreadsheet.
interpolation, and
interpretation of instructions Key Words: comprehends, converts,
and problems. State a
defends, distinguishes, estimates,
problem in one's own words.
explains, extends, generalizes, gives
an example, infers, interprets,
paraphrases, predicts, rewrites,
summarizes, translates.

Application: Use a concept

in a new situation or
unprompted use of an
abstraction. Applies what
was learned in the classroom
into novel situations in the
work place.

Analysis: Separates material

or concepts into component
parts so that its
organizational structure may

Examples: Use a manual to

calculate an employee's vacation
time. Apply laws of statistics to
evaluate the reliability of a written
test.
Key Words: applies, changes,
computes, constructs, demonstrates,
discovers, manipulates, modifies,
operates, predicts, prepares,
produces, relates, shows, solves,
uses.
Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of
equipment by using logical
deduction. Recognize logical fallacies
in reasoning. Gathers information
from a department and selects the

required tasks for training.

be understood. Distinguishes
between facts and inferences.

Synthesis: Builds a
structure or pattern from
diverse elements. Put parts
together to form a whole,
with emphasis on creating a
new meaning or structure.

Key Words: analyzes, breaks down,

compares, contrasts, diagrams,
deconstructs, differentiates,
discriminates, distinguishes,
identifies, illustrates, infers,
outlines, relates, selects, separates.
Examples: Write a company
operations or process manual.
Design a machine to perform a
specific task. Integrates training
from several sources to solve a
problem. Revises and process to
improve the outcome.
Key Words: categorizes, combines,
compiles, composes, creates,
devises, designs, explains,
generates, modifies, organizes,
plans, rearranges, reconstructs,
relates, reorganizes, revises,
rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.
Examples: Select the most effective
solution. Hire the most qualified
candidate. Explain and justify a new
budget.

Evaluation: Make judgments

about the value of ideas or
materials.

Key Words: appraises, compares,

concludes, contrasts, criticizes,
critiques, defends, describes,
discriminates, evaluates, explains,
interprets, justifies, relates,
summarizes, supports.

A ff e c t i v e D o m a i n

The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom,

Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we
deal with things emotionally, such as feelings,
values, appreciation, enthusiasms,
motivations, and attitudes. The five major
categories are listed from the simplest behavior
to the most complex:

Example and Key

Category

Words
(verbs)
Examples: Listen to
others with respect.
Listen for and
remember the name
of newly introduced
people.

Receiving
Phenomena:
Key Words: asks,
Awareness,
chooses, describes,
willingness to hear,
follows, gives,
selected attention.
holds, identifies,
locates, names,
points to, selects,
sits, erects, replies,
uses.

Examples:
Responding to
Participates in class
Phenomena:
discussions. Gives
Active participation a presentation.
on the part of the
Questions new
learners. Attends
ideals, concepts,
and reacts to a
models, etc. in
particular
order to fully

phenomenon. Learning
outcomes may emphasize
compliance in responding,
willingness to respond, or
satisfaction in responding
(motivation).

Valuing: The worth or value a

person attaches to a particular
object, phenomenon, or
behavior. This ranges from
simple acceptance to the more
complex state of
commitment. Valuing is based
on the internalization of a set of
specified values, while clues to
these values are expressed in
the learner's overt behavior and
are often identifiable.

Organization: Organizes values

into priorities by contrasting
different values, resolving
conflicts between them, and
creating an unique value
system. The emphasis is on
comparing, relating, and
synthesizing values.

understand them. Know the

safety rules and practices them.
Key Words: answers, assists,
aids, complies, conforms,
discusses, greets, helps, labels,
performs, practices, presents,
reads, recites, reports, selects,
tells, writes.
Examples: Demonstrates belief
in the democratic process. Is
sensitive towards individual and
cultural differences (value
diversity). Shows the ability to
solve problems. Proposes a plan
to social improvement and follows
through with commitment.
Informs management on matters
that one feels strongly about.
Key Words: completes,
demonstrates, differentiates,
explains, follows, forms, initiates,
invites, joins, justifies, proposes,
reads, reports, selects, shares,
studies, works.
Examples: Recognizes the need
for balance between freedom and
responsible behavior. Accepts
responsibility for one's behavior.
Explains the role of systematic
planning in solving
problems. Accepts professional
ethical standards. Creates a life
plan in harmony with abilities,
interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes
time effectively to meet the needs

of the organization, family, and

self.
Key Words: adheres, alters,
arranges, combines, compares,
completes, defends, explains,
formulates, generalizes, identifies,
integrates, modifies, orders,
organizes, prepares, relates,
synthesizes.
Examples: Shows self-reliance
when working
independently. Cooperates in
group activities (displays
Internalizing
teamwork). Uses an objective
values (characterization): Has a approach in problem solving.
value system that controls their Displays a professional
behavior. The behavior is
commitment to ethical practice
pervasive, consistent,
on a daily basis. Revises
predictable, and most
judgments and changes behavior
importantly, characteristic of the in light of new evidence. Values
learner. Instructional objectives people for what they are, not how
are concerned with the
they look.
student's general patterns of
Key Words: acts, discriminates,
adjustment (personal, social,
emotional).
displays, influences, listens,
modifies, performs, practices,
proposes, qualifies, questions,
revises, serves, solves, verifies.
Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972)
includes physical movement, coordination,
and use of the motor-skill areas. Development
of these skills requires practice and is
measured in terms of speed, precision,
distance, procedures, or techniques in

execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to
the most complex:

Category

Example and Key Words (verbs)

Perception: The ability to use

sensory cues to guide motor
activity. This ranges from
sensory stimulation, through
cue selection, to translation.

Examples: Detects non-verbal

communication cues. Estimate
where a ball will land after it is
thrown and then moving to the
correct location to catch the ball.
Adjusts heat of stove to correct
temperature by smell and taste of
food. Adjusts the height of the
forks on a forklift by comparing
where the forks are in relation to
the pallet.
Key Words: chooses, describes,
detects, differentiates,
distinguishes, identifies, isolates,
relates, selects.

Examples: Knows and acts upon

Set: Readiness to act. It
a sequence of steps in a
includes mental, physical, and
manufacturing process. Recognize
emotional sets. These three sets one's abilities and limitations.
are dispositions that
Shows desire to learn a new
predetermine a person's
process (motivation). NOTE: This
response to different situations subdivision of Psychomotor is
(sometimes called mindsets).
closely related with the
Responding to phenomena
subdivision of the Affective
domain.
Key Words: begins, displays,
explains, moves, proceeds, reacts,

shows, states, volunteers.

Examples: Performs a
mathematical equation as
demonstrated. Follows
Guided Response: The early
instructions to build a model.
stages in learning a complex
Responds hand-signals of
skill that includes imitation
instructor while learning to
and trial and error. Adequacy of
operate a forklift.
performance is achieved by
practicing.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows,
react, reproduce, responds

Mechanism: This is the

intermediate stage in learning a
complex skill. Learned
responses have become
habitual and the movements
can be performed with some
confidence and proficiency.

Complex Overt Response: The

skillful performance of motor
acts that involve complex
movement patterns. Proficiency
is indicated by a quick,
accurate, and highly
coordinated performance,
requiring a minimum of
energy. This category includes
performing without hesitation,
and automatic
performance. For example,
players are often utter sounds
of satisfaction or expletives as

Examples: Use a personal

computer. Repair a leaking faucet.
Drive a car.
Key Words: assembles, calibrates,
constructs, dismantles, displays,
fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
manipulates, measures, mends,
mixes, organizes, sketches.
Examples: Maneuvers a car into
a tight parallel parking spot.
Operates a computer quickly and
accurately. Displays competence
while playing the piano.
Key Words: assembles, builds,
calibrates, constructs, dismantles,
displays, fastens, fixes, grinds,
heats, manipulates, measures,
mends, mixes, organizes,
sketches.
NOTE: The Key Words are the
same as Mechanism, but will have

soon as they hit a tennis ball or

throw a football, because they
can tell by the feel of the act
what the result will produce.

Adaptation: Skills are well

developed and the individual
can modify movement patterns
to fit special requirements.

adverbs or adjectives that indicate

that the performance is quicker,
better, more accurate, etc.
Examples: Responds effectively
to unexpected experiences.
Modifies instruction to meet the
needs of the learners. Perform a
task with a machine that it was
not originally intended to do
(machine is not damaged and
there is no danger in performing
the new task).
Key Words: adapts, alters,
changes, rearranges, reorganizes,
revises, varies.

Origination: Creating new

movement patterns to fit a
particular situation or specific
problem. Learning outcomes
emphasize creativity based
upon highly developed skills.

Examples: Constructs a new

theory. Develops a new and
comprehensive training
programming. Creates a new
gymnastic routine.
Key Words: arranges, builds,
combines, composes, constructs,
creates, designs, initiate, makes,
originates.

Other Psychomotor Domain Taxonomies

As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a compilation for the
psychomotor domain model, but others have. The one discussed above is by
Simpson (1972). There are two other popular versions:

Dave's (1975):
o
o

Imitation Observing and patterning behavior after someone else.

Performance may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work of art.
Manipulation Being able to perform certain actions by following
instructions and practicing. Example: Creating work on one's own, after
taking lessons, or reading about it.
Precision Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent.
Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be just right.
Articulation Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and
internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music,
drama, color, sound, etc.
Naturalization Having high level performance become natural,
without needing to think much about it. Examples: Michael Jordan
playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc.

Harrow's (1972):
o
o

Reflex movements Reactions that are not learned.

Fundamental movements Basic movements such as walking, or
grasping.
Perception Response to stimuli such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic,
or tactile discrimination.
Physical abilities Stamina that must be developed for further
development such as strength and agility.
Skilled movements Advanced learned movements as one would find
in sports or acting.
No discursive communication Effective body language, such as
gestures and facial expressions.
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, revisited the cognitive domain in

the learning taxonomy in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with
perhaps the two most prominent ones being, 1) changing the names in the six

categories from noun to verb forms, and 2) slightly rearranging them (Pohl,
2000).
This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is perhaps more
accurate:

Category

Example and Key Words (verbs)

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote
prices from memory to a customer.
Knows the safety rules.

Remembering: Recall
previous learned
information.

Understanding:

Key Words: defines, describes,

identifies, knows, labels, lists,
matches, names, outlines, recalls,
recognizes, reproduces, selects,
states.
Examples: Rewrites the principles of
test writing. Explain in one's own

Comprehending the
meaning, translation,
interpolation, and
interpretation of instructions
and problems. State a
problem in one's own words.

words the steps for performing a

complex task. Translates an equation
into a computer spreadsheet.
Key Words: comprehends, converts,
defends, distinguishes, estimates,
explains, extends, generalizes, gives
an example, infers, interprets,
paraphrases, predicts, rewrites,
summarizes, translates.

Examples: Use a manual to calculate

an employee's vacation time. Apply
laws of statistics to evaluate the
Applying: Use a concept in a reliability of a written test.
new situation or unprompted
use of an abstraction.
Key Words: applies, changes,
Applies what was learned in computes, constructs, demonstrates,
the classroom into novel
discovers, manipulates, modifies,
situations in the work place. operates, predicts, prepares,
produces, relates, shows, solves,
uses.

Analyzing: Separates
material or concepts into
component parts so that its
organizational structure may
be understood.
Distinguishes between facts
and inferences.

Evaluating: Make

Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of

equipment by using logical
deduction. Recognize logical fallacies
in reasoning. Gathers information
from a department and selects the
required tasks for training.
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down,
compares, contrasts, diagrams,
deconstructs, differentiates,
discriminates, distinguishes,
identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines,
relates, selects, separates.
Examples: Select the most effective
solution. Hire the most qualified

candidate. Explain and justify a new

budget.

judgments about the value

of ideas or materials.

Creating: Builds a structure

or pattern from diverse
elements. Put parts together
to form a whole, with
emphasis on creating a new
meaning or structure.

Key Words: appraises, compares,

concludes, contrasts, criticizes,
critiques, defends, describes,
discriminates, evaluates, explains,
interprets, justifies, relates,
summarizes, supports.
Examples: Write a company
operations or process manual.
Design a machine to perform a
specific task. Integrates training from
several sources to solve a problem.
Revises and process to improve the
outcome.
Key Words: categorizes, combines,
compiles, composes, creates, devises,
designs, explains, generates,
modifies, organizes, plans,
rearranges, reconstructs, relates,
reorganizes, revises, rewrites,
summarizes, tells, writes.

Next Steps
Learning Strategies: Using Bloom's Taxonomy
Instructional Design Toolkit

References
Bloom B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The
Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc.

Dave, R. H. (1975). Developing and Writing Behavioral Objectives. (R. J.

Armstrong, ed.). Tucson, Arizona: Educational Innovators Press.
Harrow, A. (1972) A Taxonomy of Psychomotor Domain: A Guide for Developing
Behavioral Objectives. New York: David McKay.
Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective
Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.
Pohl, M. (2000). Learning to Think, Thinking to Learn: Models and Strategies to
Develop a Classroom Culture of Thinking.Cheltenham, Vic.: Hawker Brownlow.
Simpson E. J. (1972). The Classification of Educational Objectives in the
Psychomotor Domain. Washington, DC: Gryphon House.
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