Professional Documents
Culture Documents
RYA Day Skipper
Module 1
General Seamanship
Contents
Nautical Terms
Parts of the boat & Hull
General Nautical Terminology
Ropework
Knowledge of the properties of synthetic ropes in common use
Anchorwork
Characteristics of different types of anchor
Considerations to be taken into account when anchoring
Marine Environment
Responsibility for avoiding pollution & protecting the environment
1
A Definition of Seamanship
The art of sailing and handling a boat must be based on sound knowledge not only of your own
particular boat and her behaviour, but of ships and boats in general and the equipment they
carry, of the environment in which they sail ‐ the sea, rivers and estuaries, harbour and coastal
features, and of the multitude of factors, people and organisations which constitute the sailor's
world.
Too much faith in so‐called 'commonsense' can lead to trouble because although commonsense
is important it must be guided by properly acquired knowledge. This knowledge, of ships, boats,
the sea and all things connected with them, coupled with the ability to sail and handle your own
boat constitutes seamanship. This course will provide you with this knowledge; practical training
and, above all, experience will provide you with the ability.
Remember that even the most experienced seaman is continually learning, or re‐learning, the
lessons of the sea; there are always fresh problems, or better solutions to old ones. So if you are
a beginner there is no reason to be ashamed at asking for help or guidance on any aspect of sea‐
going. In fact, you will be respected for it. The person whom professional seamen or experi‐
enced yachtsmen find hard to tolerate is the foolhardy novice who thinks he knows it all, who
will not heed advice, and who then becomes another statistic of the coastguard or the RNLI.
Seamanship is synonymous with 'safety at sea'. Safety is not something to be bought as an
'extra' in the form of man‐overboard equipment, an armoury of pyrotechnic distress signals or
auto‐alarms which go 'bleep bleep bleep' ‐ useful though these things may be.
Safety cannot be bought at the chandlers, nor is there any such thing as a 'safe' boat. Safety de‐
pends much more on the conduct and ability of the crew and the individual in charge of a boat
than on the boat and its equipment.
Experienced yacht delivery skippers sometimes nurse the most indifferent craft through dread‐
ful weather conditions with their expertise and seamanship. On the other hand, an inexperi‐
enced newcomer can go out in a well‐designed, well‐built and well‐equipped vessel in compara‐
tively calm weather and get into trouble in no time at all. Safety is intrinsic, something 'built‐in'
to the whole unit ‐ the person and their boat.
Seamanship (and therefore safety) is, as we have shown, a combination of knowledge about the
sea, boats and their equipment ‐ all of which is provided in this course ‐ and practical experience,
which only you yourself can acquire. This module aims to provide you with some essential
'background' nautical knowledge on which a proper understanding of seamanship depends.
The seaman has a multitude of terms and expressions used daily which must seem almost like a
foreign language to the newcomer, who must therefore come to grips with this new vocabulary
before he can delve deeper into the subject. A good seaman must have a general knowledge of
all types of seagoing craft, not just the type in which he intends to sail, and he must know all the
major items of a boat's equipment (the 'tools' of seamanship), and finally he should know some‐
thing about all the harbour and coastal features which constitute a sailor's environment
.
2
Nautical Terms
This section contains some of the basic nautical terms and definitions you will encounter both
throughout this course and in your practical training and experience. Some of these you may know
already and many more you will learn as the course proceeds and your experience increases.
At first sight this seemingly endless list of new terms and definitions may seem a little daunting but
don't be too alarmed if you are unable to remember them all after a single reading. Read through
them a couple of times and whenever you come across one you can't remember‐ look it up!
By no means are all nautical terms included in this introduction ‐ indeed it would take several large
volumes to explain all the terms which are in common use ‐ but it is important to start with a basic
vocabulary.
Many further terms will be used throughout your course, most of which we will explain whenever a
new one is introduced, but if you encounter a term which is unknown to you and which is not ex‐
plained, do not hesitate to ask your tutor its meaning.
1: Parts of the boat
In the terms relating to boats most are common to all types of craft, but some are peculiar to sail‐
ing boats and others to power boats. Although those keen on sails will not require a detailed
knowledge of power craft, and power enthusiasts will not require a detailed knowledge of sailing
boats, it is not wise to be too selective at this early stage.
A general knowledge of all types of craft, not merely your own, should be aimed at. Good seaman‐
ship includes a knowledge of the working and limitations of all seagoing craft, together with an
understanding and appreciation of other seamen's problems and points of view.
The main body of a boat is called its hull, which is divided approximately into three ‐the fore part,
the midships part, and the after part. The fore part ends in the stem and the after part in the stern.
When standing anywhere in or on the hull, a person is facing forward when he faces the bow and
facing aft when he faces the stern.
3
Any line which runs lengthways in the boat is said to run fore‐and‐aft and the line which joins the mid‐
dle of the stem to the middle of the stern is called the fore‐and‐aft centreline.
When facing the bow, the starboard side is on your
right hand and the port side is on your left.
The lowermost part of the hull under the bottom of a
boat is called the keel. The keel of a seagoing boat is
usually fixed, but some keels can be retractable and
are called centreboards or dagger plates.
The part of a hull which curves in towards the stem is called the bow and, depending on which side is
being referred to, may be called the port bow or the starboard bow. The part of a hull which curves in
towards the stern is called the quarter (port or starboard), while the centre part of the hull is called
amidships. The length of the hull extending at bow and stern beyond the waterline is called the over‐
hang. The lowermost part of the stem is called the forefoot.
The horizontal upper surface of the hull is called the deck or, because it is exposed, the weather deck.
The curve given to the surface of a deck so that water will drain away to the boat's side is called the
camber. The fore‐and‐aft curve of a deck is called the sheer or sheerline; traditionally this is lowest
amidships and rises more towards the bow than towards the stern, but a flat sheer is seen on some
boats or even a reverse sheer in some smaller craft.
When a boat is afloat, the waterline divides the hull into two parts, the topsides and the bottom. A
band of hard paint around a hull parallel to the waterline, covering the area between wind and water,
is called the boot topping. 'Between wind and water' is the term used to describe the area near the
waterline which is alternately submerged and exposed by the movement of the waves and rolling of
the vessel.
The height of the deck
above the waterline at
any point along the hull
is called the freeboard.
The depth of the keel
below the waterline at
any point along the hull
is called the draught.
When a vessel has the
same draught forward
as she has aft, she is
said to be on an even
keel; when she has
more draught forward
than aft she is said to
be trimmed by the
head, and when she has more draught aft than forward she is said to be trimmed by the stern. Trim
is, therefore, the relation of a vessel's fore‐and‐aft axis to the horizontal.
The greatest width of the hull is called the beam. The part of the bottom of the hull which is flat or
nearly flat is called the bilge
4
Types of Hull
Boats perform in the water based on the physical shape of the hull, and how it sits in the water. The
two general types of hulls are displacement and planing. Other types of hull construction combine
features of the displacement and planing hulls and are called semi‐displacement or semi‐planning.
Displacement Hull
Displacement hulls push through the water as they have
no hydrodynamic lift, or the boat does not rise out of the
water as speed increases. The maximum speed of these
hulls is typically between 1 and 1.5 times the square root
of the boat length based on hull design. Some general
characteristics of a displacement hull are:
Rugged construction
Easy to propel through the water at low speeds
Large interior spaces
Planing Hull
Planing hulls are designed to run on top of the water at high speeds. To achieve this they typically
have a very flat stern. The hull design (shape) does not limit the maximum attainable speed but does
affect the power required for it to get on plane (on top of the water). Some general characteristics
of a planing hull are:
At high speeds in rough water the vessel will have a jarring
ride as it pounds into waves and swells
At high speeds, has a tendency to slide sideways in a turn
Tends to roll at rest
Inefficient at low speeds (takes more power to push
through the water)
Semi‐displacement / Semi‐planing Hulls
Semi‐displacement or semi‐planing hulls have features of both planing and displacement hulls. They
have a maximum hull design speed. Exceeding this speed can result in erratic handling and unstable
operation. There is not one hull design characteristic that differentiates semi‐displacement from semi‐
planing hull. The greater the hydrodynamic lift and higher the hull design speed the more likely it will
be referred to as a semi‐planing hull. Some general characteristics of a semi‐planing/displacement
hull are:
Has versatility of combining speed with sea‐worthiness
Offers a degree of useable interior spaces
5
Keels
Various types of keels found on sailing yachts Each has its own merit and the choice of keel largely
depends upon the purpose for which the boat has been bought.
The traditional long keel is found on many
long‐distance cruising boats where
strength and directional stability is para‐
mount, but their design makes them diffi‐
cult for close manoeuvring in busy mari‐
nas.
A development of the long keel is the 'fin and Skeg'
in which the total area of the keel is reduced, but
there is still a fairly substantial fin keel and protec‐
tion for the rudder by way of a Skeg.
A single fin keel means that when a boat dries out
she will lie at an acute angle, unless supported by a
set of legs or a harbour wall. At sea she will sail
closer to the wind.
Bilge keels or twin keels are ideal for sailing areas
where the range of tide is such that many harbours and anchorages dry out, leaving the boat up‐
right and comfortable to stay aboard. Generally, however,
they will not sail as close to the wind as single keel boats,
and on some designs where the bilge keels are set wide
apart they can be uncomfortable when sailing to wind‐
ward.
Lifting keels and centreboards offer a compromise be‐
tween a fin keel and a bilge keel boat, as when the keel is
retracted the boat has both a shallower draught and the
ability to sit upright on its hull. This obvious advantage can
be offset by the lifting mechanism required to perform this operation, because at the very least it
will substantially intrude into the living accommodation of the boat, and it could possibly fail, re‐
sulting in a keel which is stuck in one position.
6
Parts of a Power Boat
Basic features of a power boat
Parts of a Motor Cruiser
7
Power Vessel Controls
Stern Drive
The stern drive engine is often described as an inboard/outboard. The
main body of the engine is mounted inboard, but the legs protrude
through the transom. The boat is steered by turning the leg.
Power Trim
In addition to steering, the stern drive legs are
used to adjust the trim of the boat, this is
achieved by a hydraulic ram raising or lowering
Stern leg away from the boat the leg. Moving the leg away from the boat
causes the bow to rise, which improves per‐
formance in following seas.
Moving the leg forward, keeps the bow down,
reducing slamming in head‐seas
Stern leg close to the boat
Trim Tabs
Trim tabs are located on each side of the boat
at the lower edge of the transom, they too are
controlled by hydraulic rams. They can also be
used to control the fore & aft trim of the boat.
Both tabs up will bring the bow up, both tabs Port Trim Tab Starboard Trim
down will lower the bow.
Trim Tab Up Trim Tab Down
8
Windage can cause the boat to heel over slightly, this can be compensated
for by adjusting the trim tabs individually
Adjusting the Port tab down will Adjusting the Starboard tab down will
lift the port side of the boat lift the starboard side of the boat
Bow thruster
Bow Thruster
A bow thruster is a small propeller situated in the bow. It is useful for turning in tight
spaces and for berthing , particularly when side‐winds are a problem
9
The Cockpit
The cockpit is a well, usually in the after
part of the hull, from which a sailing yacht is
controlled. Many power boats also have a
cockpit, but such craft are usually con‐
trolled from a raised platform or wheel‐
house amidships.
Principle parts of a modern sailing yacht
Detailed descriptions of each of these parts can be found in the course glossary
10
11
Masts and spars
Virtually all masts and spars nowadays are made of aluminium alloy because this provides almost
twice the strength for barely half the weight of wood. As previously mentioned, power boats,
unless they are motor sailers, may have only a short mast for supporting navigation lights, signal
halyards, etc, or perhaps no mast at all, but in a sailing vessel the function of a mast is not only to
support the sails but to transmit the propulsive force generated by the wind in the sails to the ves‐
sel's hull. Older sailing craft with wooden spars have either solid 'grown' masts (whole trees) of fir
or Norwegian spruce, or hollow 'built' masts. Bermudian rig masts must remain absolutely straight
and staying is complicated, but masts for gaff rigged craft do not need such powerful staying as
they are not under such high compression.
A boom is a spar holding the foot of a sail, and may be either flat or round in section. It is connected
to the mast by a universal joint called a gooseneck. Spreaders or crosstrees are spars horizontally
athwart a mast which carry the upper shrouds to the masthead, spreading the angle for better lev‐
erage. A gaff is a spar at the head of a gaff sail, projecting aft from the mast at an angle of about
45°.
A bowsprit is a spar carrying the jib sail forward of the bows, whereas a short spar called a bumpkin
can extend over the stern to take a backstay or the lower block of a mizzen sheet.
Standing Rigging
A mast is stayed (i.e. supported in position) by its
standing rigging, consisting of forestays and backstays
which support it in a fore‐and‐aft direction, and
shrouds which support it in an athwartships direction.
Running Rigging
A sailing vessel's sails are controlled by running rig‐
ging, consisting of halyards for hoisting and lowering sails, sheets for trimming the sails, and a top‐
ping lift which supports the boom when no sails are set.
12
Small sailing craft
The rig of sailing vessels has changed through the ages, partly due to technical innovation, but
mainly because sail has now become the province of the leisure sailor and is no longer used com‐
mercially.
The modern fore‐and‐aft rig allows a boat to sail closer to
Gaff Rigged Yawl
the wind and to be more easily managed. But even with
this type of rig, fashion has changed. In the past, sailing
boats in northern latitudes favoured the gaff rig, with its
short, strong mast, ruggedness and manageability in
heavy weather. Damage could be easily repaired with ma‐
terials on board because this rig has fewer specialised
parts. With the advent of modern materials, however, the
more efficient and easily handled Bermudian sloop rig has
come into its own. This is a rig in which all the sails set on
the masts are triangular in shape, coming to a point at (or
near) the masthead.
The Bermudian sloop is the simplest of rigs, being a sin‐
Bermudian Sloop
gle‐masted yacht setting a mainsail and only one other
sail (at any one time) ahead of the mast.
Bermudian Cutter
A single‐masted vessel carrying
two headsails at any one time is
called a cutter. This might be
either a Bermudian cutter or a
gaff cutter, the latter having a spar called the gaff at the head of the main‐
sail, and another spar extending ahead of the bow called a bowsprit on
which the forward headsail is set.
For ease of handling sails in larger boats, the sail plan is often split be‐
tween masts, as in the ketch, yawl or schooner. In the ketch and the yawl,
the mainmast (largest) is the forward one,
Ketch with a smaller mizzenmast aft.
If the mizzenmast is aft of the rudderpost, the vessel is a yawl. In a
ketch, usually a larger vessel than a yawl, the mainsail is proportion‐
ately smaller and the mizzen larger than in the yawl.
A schooner usually has two masts, the mainmast being aft, but occa‐
sionally has three or more masts.
Once the most popular rig for lar‐ Schooner
ger yachts, the schooner has been largely replaced by the ketch.
13
Multi‐Hulls
Multihull craft developed originally from Polynesian outrigger canoes. The catamaran is a twin‐
hulled motor or sailing craft, and the trimaran has a normal immersed type of hull with a subsidiary
hull on either side. They have the advantage of being shallower and much more spacious than con‐
ventional deep‐keeled craft. Their large beam gives them great initial stability, but if they are cap‐
sized in heavy weather they are unable to recover.
14
Small power craft
Boats driven by engines have a different character to sailing craft. A powerboat thrusts itself at the
seas, forcing its way through the waves. Powerboats generally fall into two categories; those with
planing hulls which at speed rise bodily above the water, and those with displacement hulls which
remain evenly trimmed and, as the name suggests, displace the water at their bow.
Most powerboats can be fitted with any one of the wide
variety of engines. In considering the size of engine re‐
quired it is the continuous rating which is significant, not
the maker's quotations of maximum power. The revolu‐
tions per minute at which the power is developed, to‐
gether with the length of stroke, dictate the piston
speed ‐ which for a continuous running marine engine
should not be over 1500 rev/min. Many powerful but high
‐revving engines may be splendid for towing water skiers
round the bay but not for punching a heavy yacht against
wind and sea over a period of several hours, or perhaps
days.
The typical planing hull with sharp V bow, a wide flat stern and chines is unsuitable for extended
passages offshore not only because of difficult steering tendencies in rough following seas, but also
because steering may be difficult under any conditions at low speeds when the submerged fine
bow causes the boat to lose directional sta‐
bility. Furthermore, in some sea conditions
there may be pounding under the chines,
and when this type of hull lacks adequate
flare and freeboard forward it could lack suf‐
ficient buoyancy for safety in head seas at
any speed. In spite of the foregoing para‐
graph and the expense of fuel, high‐speed
planing motor yachts have become increas‐
ingly popular in recent years, relying on their
speed to reach their destination in calm to
slight seas.
Motor cruisers, as their name suggests, are fully powered boats from about 7 metres (20ft) to 14
metres (45ft) in length. Larger craft 15 metres or more in length would more appropriately be de‐
scribed as motor yachts.
Heavy fishing‐type power craft have long been regarded as the safest kind of motorboat for ex‐
tended passages offshore. Consequently deep‐water commercial fishing craft have exerted a strong
influence on the design of offshore motor boats, and pleasure craft of this kind are often called
MFV motor fishing vessel) type yachts, being deep‐bodied, full‐ended, heavily built, and with a dis‐
placement type hull.
15
Most MFV types are powered by diesel en‐
gines for fuel economy, reliability and
safety, and in the smallest vessels a single‐
screw installation takes up less space, is
lighter, cheaper to install and requires less
maintenance than a twin‐screw installa‐
tion; in addition, the centreline propeller is
well protected by the keel and the MFVs
relatively deep draught allows ample rud‐
der depth and deep immersion of the pro‐
peller.
A problem with a single‐screw offshore
motorboat lacking sail propulsion, how‐
ever, is the complete disability in the event of engine failure. From this point of view twin‐
engine and propeller installations are safer, but then propellers and shafts are more vulnerable
to damage and cannot be immersed as deeply as can a single screw.
Many powerboat owners prefer to rely on some sail for standby propulsion, but as a rule true
powerboats cannot be made to sail to windward. To sail to windward, a vessel must have a
fairly large efficient sail rig and ample draught to prevent leeway. The powerboat with such
characteristics may then be termed a motor sailer.
Motor sailers
Definitions of this type of vessel vary, but a powerboat with sails is not generally regarded as a
motor sailer unless she can make at least some progress to windward and usually this vessel is
fairly close to the type known as a '50‐50', meaning that about half the propulsive power is al‐
lotted to the engine and the other half to the sails.
Motor sailers have many advantages over power‐
boats for long‐range cruising and passage‐making in
that a reasonably efficient sail plan provides econ‐
omy of fuel, two means of propulsion, greater ver‐
satility for heavy weather management and the alle‐
viation of annoying engine noises, smells and vibra‐
tions over lengthy periods of time.
Some people can be rather dismissive of motor sail‐
ers on the grounds that they neither motor nor sail
properly. The days when yachts were built with
small auxiliary engines used only to potter in and
out of anchorages are long gone, and most produc‐
tion sailing boats now have engines which enable
them to make long passages as quickly under
power as they can under sail, thus making them mo‐
tor sailers in the true sense of the word.
16
Terms relating to position and direction within and outside a vessel
'Board' is the old name for a ship's side, hence the term inboard refers to anything within a boat, while
the term outboard refers to anything outside the boat's sides, whether or not it is actually attached to
the boat; for instance, on a large yacht a dinghy may be either stowed inboard or slung outboard.
To describe a position in the fore‐and‐aft direction in a boat you would say, for instance, 'the mast is
forward' (pronounced 'forrard') and 'the cockpit is aft'. Comparing the position of objects one with
another, the cockpit is abaft (aft of) the saloon, the pulpit is before or forward of the mast.
A position across the width or beam of a boat is called athwartships; a position along the length of a
boat is referred to as fore‐and‐aft. Combining the terms just described with port and starboard, the
position of an object on board can be described accurately as shown in the illustration. Examples might
be 'lying fore‐and‐aft on the port side forward', or 'lying athwartships on the starboard side amidships'
and so on.
The steps leading down from the
cockpit to the accommodation are
called the companionway and the
procedure of going down these is
called going below. Ascending the
companionway is going on deck.
Within a boat's hull, walls are
called bulkheads, the ceiling is
called the deckhead and the floor
is the cabin sole.
Ahead, astern and abeam are
terms used to describe the direc‐
tion of an object or point of refer‐
ence outside a vessel. In addition,
when an object is midway be‐
tween ahead and abeam it is said
to bear on the bow, and when
midway between abeam and
astern it is said to bear on the
quarter. The expressions fine and
broad may be used relative to
ahead or astern; for example, an
object may be fine on the star‐
board bow, or broad on the port
quarter
17
Terms relating to the movement of a ship or boat
A vessel is underway when she is not made fast to a buoy or quay or the shore, nor at anchor, nor
aground. When a vessel is moving through the water she is said to be making way. If she is moving
too fast she is said to have too much way on. Note, however, that a vessel may be underway but
stopped, and careful distinction must be made between the terms underway and making way. A
vessel is only making way when she is actually forging ahead or astern under sail or mechanical
power, so that a vessel which is stopped and drifting through the water merely under the influence
of wind and waves is underway but not mak‐
ing way.
A vessel is said to heave‐to when she stops at
sea, perhaps in heavy weather to await the
passing of the storm in order to minimise
damage to the vessel by forging ahead. A ves‐
sel hove‐to in this manner may use a little sail
or engine power to maintain her position with
the seas on one bow, but although underway
is not regarded as making way.
Vessel Hove To
When moving ahead, a vessel is said to be going ahead or making headway; when moving astern
she is going astern . A vessel gathers way when she begins to move through the water, and she has
steerage way when her speed is sufficient for steering (i.e. the rudder becomes effective).
A vessel moving sideways is said to be moving broadside‐on (to port or starboard); if she is making
headway and at the same time being blown sideways by the wind, she is said to be making leeway.
When the wind is blowing on to one side of the vessel, that side is called the weather side; the
other, sheltered side is called the lee side.
A vessel is said to be adrift or drifting when broken away from her moorings and without means of
propulsion. When two vessels are sailing parallel to each other and are level with each other they
are said to be abreast. When a vessel is lying next to another vessel or next to a quay it is said to be
alongside the other craft or quay wall.
18
Terms used in sailing
Close‐hauled is when the sheets are hauled in tight and the boat is sailing as close as possible to the
direction from which the wind is blowing.
Full‐and‐by is sailing not quite so close to the wind as close‐hauled, with the sails full and conse‐
quent gain in speed.
Sailing free is when a boat's sails are filled and she is not sailing close‐hauled, ie sailing so that she is
free to manoeuvre on either side of her course without having to go about. See tacking.
Beam reaching is when a boat is sailing free with the wind abeam. She is on a close reach when the
wind is forward of the beam and on a broad reach when the wind is abeam or slightly abaft the
beam.
Running is when a boat is sailing with the wind abaft the beam. See goosewing.
Beating is the series of alternative tacks a boat makes when her destination lies directly upwind.
To luff is to alter course to bring the boat's head closer to the wind.
To bear away is to alter course to bring the boat's head away from the wind.
19
In irons is to fail to go about when attempting to tack, so that the boat lies head to wind unable
to pay off on either side.
To weather an object means to pass to windward of it.
To back a sail is to trim it so as to catch the wind on what would normally be its lee side.
To heave to is to stop a craft under way for any reason, (eg, for a breather, to reef, or because
the weather is too bad to continue). A sailing boat is usually hove to as close to the wind as
possible carrying minimum canvas.
To shorten sail is to take in sail by reducing the number of sails set or by reefing.
To set sail or make sail is to hoist the sails and get underway.
To goosewing is to set alternate sails to starboard and to port when running before the wind.
To reef is to reduce the sail area.
In steering a sailing craft, the tiller is referred to as the helm, and in directing its movement ref‐
erence is made to the weather or lee side of the craft. When the helm is put to weather, the
bows will pay off or bear away from the wind, and when put to lee the bows will luff up or turn
towards the wind. Close‐hauled is when the sheets are hauled in tight and the boat is sailing as
close as possible to the direction from which the wind is blowing.
Tacking ‐ a boat is on the port tack when she has the wind on her port side, and on the star‐
board tack when she has the wind on her starboard side. A boat tacks or goes about when she
changes from one tack to the other by luffing up into the wind and then bearing away from it
on the opposite tack.
Gybing is the procedure of changing tacks when running, putting the stern through the wind.
Starboard
Tack
Port Tack
Starboard Port Tack
Tack
Gybing Tacking
20
Knots, Lines & Ropework
Learning the fundamentals of Ropework is a vital step to becoming a proficient skipper. You
will need to know which lines to use for specific tasks, (mooring, anchoring, rigging etc.) &
what knots or fittings should be employed to secure them. You will also need to know how to
look after your lines, how to coil, handle & stow them, the use of cleats & winches etc.
Materials used in ropemaking
Synthetic fibre ropes were introduced in marine applications many years ago, and since then
have become firmly established as superior to natural fibre ropes. Nowadays virtually one hun‐
dred per cent of the ropes used are synthetic.
The three types that virtually cover the range of synthetic ropes are nylon, polyester
(Terylene or Dacron) and polypropylene. Essentially all of these are entirely man‐made in that
they have no counterpart in nature, and as they are all thermoplastic materials they can be tai‐
lored by heat manipulation and orientation to a wide variety of sizes, finishes and strengths.
Synthetic fibre ropes, unlike natural fibre ropes, are not affected by general weathering but are
attacked by sunlight. The smaller the rope the greater the loss of strength owing to exposure
to sunlight, as almost all the rope yarns are on the surface of the strands. Polypropylene ropes
are the worst‐affected by such exposure to the sunlight, followed
by nylon and Terylene.
All synthetic fibre ropes are immune from attack by water or ma‐
rine organisms, and are equally flexible wet or dry. Nylon loses
about 7% of rope strength when saturated but recovers to full
strength on drying out. Experiments have shown that after six
months' immersion in fresh and sea water, synthetic fibre ropes
showed no significant loss of strength.
Synthetic fibre ropes, unlike natural fibre ropes, when approaching
their breaking point give no audible or visual warning. Stretch im‐
parted to man‐made fibre ropes is recovered almost instantane‐
ously with release of tension, and with considerable recoil should
the rope fracture.
21
As Terylene does not stretch it is ideal for halyards on sailing vessels and in the manufacture of the
sails themselves. Nylon, on the other hand, will stretch 20% in length and will absorb shock loads, for
this reason it is particularly suitable for anchor warps, tow ropes, etc. Polypropylene also stretches,
floats and is cheaper than nylon so is ideal for mooring ropes. Wire rope is generally used for standing
rigging and is usually made of stainless steel.
When a vessel is berthed alongside a quay wall, pier or jetty, or between buoys, she is secured by
mooring lines. A line used for mooring a vessel by heaving on it to ease her into a lock or dock, or to
move her along a quay, is called a warp. Small craft may have a warp attached to the end of their an‐
chor chain for veering or weighing anchor.
A heaving line is a light rope used when berthing to establish initial contact with the shore in order to
pass the mooring lines or a warp.
When attaching fittings to one another we use a variety of shack‐
les. The most usual one is the straight shackle, in which the pin
can be unscrewed and removed. There are also snap‐shackles,
which may either be of the
spring or the plunger type
and bottle‐screws (rigging
screws) which, when
screwed up, shorten and
hence tighten the rigging or
vice versa.
Tackles are commonly used in all types of vessel to augment the
available manpower whenever a load has to be moved or lifted.
A tackle is a combination of pulley blocks with rope or chain which
form a purchase ‐ a device that will increase the force available.
Davits are small crane‐like devices for securing and launching din‐
ghies or lifeboats. They are often found on quay walls for the con‐
venient launching of small boats, and on larger sea‐going yachts to
secure dinghies or tenders. Each davit has a block and tackle and a
boat may be swung in‐
board for snug storage at sea, or swung outboard for low‐
ering down into the water clear of the vessel's side or
stern.
22
Rope Construction
Rope is manufactured by combining selected fibre into long ribbons known as sliver, which are
later twisted up into yarns. These yarns are then twisted into strands, three or sometimes four
of the latter being finally laid up into the finished rope. The primary object of twisting fibres to‐
gether in a rope is that they are held together by friction when stress is applied to the whole.
Traditionally, rope is of a three strand composition which
may be made up in one of two ways.
Right‐hand lay means the final laying up of the strands is the
same way as in a screw‐thread, and this is described as a Z‐
twist. Left‐hand lay is the reverse of this, described as S‐
twist.
Plaited and braided synthetic ropes are used increas‐
ingly on board yachts. The advantages are softness in
handling, freedom from torque, good winching prop‐
erties, low stretch, excellent wear as the outer
sheath protects the strong inner core, and no ten‐
dency to unlay.
The choice of rope for various applica‐
tions
The three types of synthetic rope materials vary in their suitability for different applications:
nylon has a high tensile strength and quite considerable elasticity; polyester filaments are al‐
most as strong but less susceptible to stretch and are also very hard‐wearing, while polypropyl‐
enes are not as strong as either but are light and less expensive. Note that with the excellent
modern finishes the different materials are not readily distinguishable at first glance, and also
that synthetic ropes develop a surface hairiness very soon in their life but this is not necessarily
an indication of chafe and the rope may (with proper care) remain serviceable for a number of
years.
23
Various types of synthetic rope are recommended for the following applications.
Mooring ropes: nylon is strong and shock‐absorbent but the cheaper polypropylene is usually
adequate if renewed periodically.
Anchor warps: always use nylon because it is strong and elastic
with excellent shock‐absorbent property. Plaited nylon is most Plaited Nylon
suitable as it will lay better when uncoiled and about 4‐5 metres
of chain must be used between the nylon and the anchor so that
the anchor correctly lies on the seabed.
Sheets: braided Terylene should be used as it is kind to the hands and has a good frictional sur‐
face for gripping the drum of a sheet winch.
Most manufacturers nowadays produce their rope in colours from white ‐ blue, red, green and
yellow, either as a solid colour or speckled. Rational use of these colours for sheets and hal‐
yards can lead to a considerable improvement in deck work by aiding identification. There is no
logical reason why a specific colour should be used for particular applications, but as most of
the rope manufacturers suggest more or less the same coding, it seems reasonable to comply
with this in the interests of standardisation. This recommended code is as follows:
You may wish to choose your own colours but the important thing is to differentiate between
control lines, where confusion might have undesirable consequences if the wrong line is
thrown off in the heat of the moment.
24
The measurement, sizes and strength of rope
All rope and wire, whether made from natural or synthetic fibre, is measured by its diameter
in millimetres.
As far as strength is concerned, most modern ropes are far in excess of the minimum safe
working load required, because if a synthetic rope were chosen to be of just adequate
strength for a given purpose, it would be too thin to handle with any comfort. For this rea‐
son it is handling characteristics as well as strength which determines the selection of size.
The table below shows suitable minimum sizes of synthetic ropes for offshore yachts and
although the size of a boat is an indication of its displacement, it must be appreciated that
there can be a considerable difference in weight between a 10 metre round‐the‐cans flyer
and an 11 metre fully kitted‐out long keeled blue water cruiser.
The strength of rope in general should be gauged from the manufacturer's data, and as
stated above most modern ropes selected from the table below will be in excess of the mini‐
mum safe working load for their purpose.
It should be noted that strength data supplied by manufacturers applies only to new rope. It
is not possible to lay down rules which can be applied to determine the degree of deteriora‐
tion in tensile strength which has occurred in used rope. Appearance, stretch and reduction
in size are all important factors in this case which can only be left to judgement and experi‐
ence.
25
Care of Rope
The life of rope will be considerably prolonged if the following points are noted:
1. The life of a rope depends on the amount it is used under strain, because the fibres tend to
slip a small amount under each load in spite of the twist given during manufacture. No at‐
tempt should therefore be made to put a heavy strain on a rope which has been well used, or
once loaded to near breaking point.
2. Dry any wet ropes naturally, not by artificial heat.
3. Examine ropes regularly and frequently for chafe.
4. Fatigue shows as a reduction in the diameter of the rope below its specified size. This indi‐
cates that the rope has stretched under heavy load and has failed to return to its normal con‐
dition. Such a rope should only be used with great caution.
5. If a rope shows no sign of damage or fatigue it is unlikely to be much below its full strength,
but consideration must be given to age.
6. Kinking permanently damages a rope and sharp angles must be avoided. Never attempt to
pull a kink out of a rope ‐ chase the kink along the coil until it runs out at the end.
7. Splicing is the best way of joining ropes. A rope is not progressively weakened by an in‐
creased number of splices ‐ the approximate 10% reduction in rope strength at a splice is
equally effective if one, or more, splices are in a rope.
8. Cut out any particularly worn or damaged parts of a rope and splice up.
9. A right‐handed rope should always be uncoiled by taking away that end of the coil which
enables the turns to be taken off anticlockwise, ie the coil is unwound left‐handed. The re‐
verse applies to left‐handed ropes. Therefore a right‐handed rope is coiled down so that
the turns form clockwise and a left‐handed rope coiled down so that the turns form anti‐
clockwise.
10. ropes can be cleaned by dousing well in fresh water. Salt crystals should be washed out of
ropes as frequently as possible since they harden the fibre and cause internal abrasion.
Because of (6) above, knots reduce the strength of a synthetic fibre rope by between 50% and
70%.
26
Protecting rope from chafe
Synthetic rope is so durable and resilient that we tend to regard it as being immune to any sort of
wear and tear, but when subject to chafe it can very quickly part. Particularly vulnerable are moor‐
ing lines, anchor warps, and halyards.
Temporary chafing gear to protect a rope where it is subject or liable to chafe against some solid or
abrasive object can be achieved by wrapping almost anything round the affected part, from lengths
of old rope strands to canvas or plastic tubing (such as an old garden hose).
A more permanent means of protecting rope, particularly a splice, is by serving it. This consists of
putting a tight binding round the splice or length of rope with waxed
Terylene whipping twine. When it is impracticable to protect the rope
because of its length (for instance when a sheet chafes against the
shrouds), always make sure that there is nothing that the rope can snag
upon that might accelerate wear. Rigging screws with exposed pins are
particularly troublesome in this respect and should be covered by flexible
plastic protectors. Plastic tubing over the shrouds themselves reduces
chafe to a minimum.
Parts of a Rope
27
Winches
Winches allow you to exert force on lines by combining gear re‐
duction and leverage. By using a longer handle which turns a
smaller diameter drum, and by utilizing ratchets to keep the
drum from turning the wrong way, winches let you tame sails
which would otherwise be too hard to control. Most sailors can
produce fifty pounds or more of tension on a line by pulling on it.
Large cruising and racing boats may have sheet loads in the 500
to 5,000 lb. range, which requires us to multiply our otherwise
inadequate strength. Therefore, we use tackles or winches to in‐
crease effectiveness. Winches use both leverage and gear reduc‐
tion to increase power.
Types of gearing
One‐speed winches: Turn one drum revolution for every handle revolution. Limited to small
winches, these offer limited mechanical advantage. Least expensive of all winch types.
One‐speed geared winches: The handle acts on the drum through a series of gears to increase
mechanical advantage. The gear reduction allows the winch to exert more power than a non‐
geared winch. Handle ratchets in the other direction.
Two‐speed winches: Increase power available by changing speeds when the handle is rotated in
the opposite direction. Turn the handle clockwise for a 1:1 gear ratio; turn it the other way for 5:1
or 6:1. A less expensive way of getting two power ratios in the same winch.
Two‐speed geared winches: Use gear reductions in both directions. First gear might have a 2:1
ratio and second speed might be 7:1. First speed (the fast speed) can be clockwise or counter‐
clockwise, so watch out.
Three‐speed winches: Popular on racing boats, expensive and complicated. Three speeds accom‐
modate both fast trimming and high power ratios..
Self‐tailing winches
Useful for all applications, especially when sailing short‐
handed, because they make almost every job on board eas‐
ier. Mount the stripping arm so that it points at the person
grinding the winch, somewhere between the 5 o'clock and 7
o'clock positions.
28
Using Winches
Whether you’re a racer, day sailor, or cruiser, winches are a sailor’s best friend when it comes to
making light work of many jobs . They hoist, trim, and reef our sails. They kedge us off shoals,
pull up our anchors, raise crewmembers in bosun’s chairs, lift dinghies out of the water, lift peo‐
ple out of the water in man over board situations, and too many other tasks to mention. But
please take care to respect the power in these useful pieces of hardware.
Loading Winches
The line on a winch is always led in a clockwise direction, and it’s important when loading a
winch to start the first coil at the bottom of the winch and add
subsequent turns above that, but never overlapping the last Riding Turn
coil on the winch. Initially, just a single or possibly two coils
should be made before taking in the slack from the line. If you
put too many turns on the winch when the line is still slack,
that can cause foul‐ups and a possible “riding turn.” A riding
turn is when the line traps itself under another turn of line on
the winch. Improper coiling of the drum or uneven tension
when tailing usually causes this. Tailing is, of course, the proc‐
ess of handling the line as it exits the winch.
To add additional coils to a winch while the line is under load, grab the tail end of the line at a dis‐
tance away from the drum that is just greater than one coil. While maintaining tension on the
line, keep your fingers pointing away from the winch and make your clockwise rotation around
the drum placing the new coil above the existing top wrap on the winch. To prevent the line
from slipping around the winch while its under load, you’ll need a minimum of three turns, par‐
ticularly if you’re trying to crank the line in. Less than three turns will not provide adequate fric‐
tion and the line will most likely slip as the winch turns, negating any progress. That’s also one
way that a hand can get pulled toward the drum.
All of the coils should be made on the winch before the winch handle is inserted into the top of
the winch. Inserting a handle into a winch too soon makes it very difficult for you to add addi‐
tional coils around the winch. If you’ve inserted the winch handle too soon, it’s best to take the
time to remove the handle, add your additional coils, and then reinsert the handle. Adding winch
coils with a handle still in place results in a sloppy and dangerous technique and often leads to
riding turns.
Tailing Winches
Tailing a winch is one of the most important jobs in ensuring smooth and safe operation. The
method of tailing will depend upon what kind of winch you have. Standard winches simply fea‐
ture a drum and a winch handle. Self‐tailing winches add a line stripper on top that’s designed
with teeth to hold the line for you as you turn the handle. Electric winches are usually equipped
with self‐tailers and no handle or exertion is required. Either of these winch types can be single‐
speed or multi‐speed.
29
If a winch is not self‐tailing, you’ll need to have one hand free or have an additional crewmember
nearby to help tail the line (again, taking in the slack) as the winch does its job. The angle of the tail
of the line coming off the winch is crucial to smooth operation. If the angle is too low, the line may
try to rearrange itself on the drum, and create an over‐ride. If the angle is too high, it will interfere
with the free rotation of the winch handle on top. The here goal is to ensure that the line stays
neatly wrapped on the drum as it turns, and to provide enough tension so that the line does not slip
and negate your winching progress. Most standard winches require having a cleat nearby to secure
the line after the required tension has been achieved.
If a winch is self‐tailing, the job of winching becomes much easier and safer when sailing short‐
handed. A single person can operate the winch without having to exert effort both winching and
tailing. This leaves both hands free to operate the handle. The self‐
tailer’s stripping arm feeds the line leaving the winch drum into a spe‐
cially designed set of teeth at the top of the drum. These teeth cap‐
ture the line and prevent it from slipping. With self‐tailing winches
care must be taken to properly size your line within the specs of your
winch. If a line is too large or too small in diameter, the teeth will not
properly engage the line. Of course no cleat is required when you
want to leave the line in a self‐tailing winch unattended.
30
Emergency Measures Veteran sailors always have a knife in their pocket, or somewhere
handy. If you find yourself in the middle of a winch mishap, having a knife nearby will allow you to
remedy the situation immediately.
When a fully loaded jibsheet or mainsheet is cut away from a jammed winch, be aware that the
now‐loose line on the sail can become a very dangerous weapon whipping about in the wind.
Cleating
Bollards & rings are used to secure mooring lines ashore, along with
cleats, which are also used for the same purpose on board the vessel
being moored. A bowline is common for securing lines to a bollard, a
round turn & two half hitches
to a ring. For securing a line to
a cleat think of the word
“OXO”. First pass the line
around the cleat, then apply a
figure of eight and finish off
with another round turn. An
extra figure of eight may be
required if the line is thin or
slippery
When using non self tailing
winches, the line needs to
be secured. This is often
achieved by using a cleat to
secure the tailed line after
the winch or a rope clutch,
positioned before the
winch.
Multiple rope clutches enable several lines to be controlled
by one winch
31
Terms used in ropework
Belay To make fast to a cleat, belaying pin, bitts or bollard.
Bend The twisting or turning of a rope so as to fasten it to some object.
Bight middle part of a rope between its two ends.
Bitter end The last part of a rope.
Chafe To wear the surface of a rope by rubbing against a solid object.
Coil To lay down rope in circular turns.
Flake down To lay out a rope in long loose turns ready for paying‐out quickly (often termed 'flake' down).
Fall The rope of a tackle.
Fid Tapered wooden pin used to separate the strands of a rope when splicing.
Hauling part That part of a rope or tackle which is hauled upon.
Heave To haul or pull on a line.
Jam To wedge tight.
Kink A twist in the rope.
Lanyard A line attached to an article to make it fast, eg a knife lanyard.
Lashing A passing and re‐passing of a rope so as to confine or fasten
together two or more objects.
Marlinspike A tapered steel pin used as a fid to splice wire rope.
Marry Temporary holding of two lines together side by side or end to end.
Nip To pinch or close in upon.
Part To break.
Pay out To slack off on a line, or allow it to run out.
Reeve To pass the end of a rope through a block, thimble or other opening.
Running part That part of a rope or tackle which runs through the blocks.
Secure To make fast.
Seize To bind two ropes together.
Serve To protect a rope from chafe by binding it.
Slack That part of a rope hanging loose; the opposite of taut.
Splice The joining of rope by intertwining the strands so as to increase the
diameter of the rope as little as possible.
32
Standing part That part of a rope which is secured to some fitting, in contrast to the hauling or running parts.
Take a turn To pass a line around a cleat or bollard to hold on.
Taut Tight.
Unbend To untie or cast adrift.
Veer To allow rope to run out; to slack off.
Whipping To bind the end of a rope to prevent the strands unlaying.
33
Basic rules in handling rope
(a) Seamen regard their knife as their best friend and carry it with them wherever they go. It is a
tool and not a weapon and the end of the blade should therefore be rounded, not pointed, and the
blade should be sufficiently deep and thick to cut without bending
(b) Working aloft, or over the side, all tools should be secured with a lanyard either to a part of the
rigging or round the body to prevent possible injury to persons, or loss of tools over the side.
(c) When a rope is cut its ends should immediately be whipped to prevent it unlaying.
(d) A heaving line, or any line or rope which is being hauled in, should be coiled either in the
hand or on the deck as it is hauled aboard so that it is immediately ready for further use.
(e) When coiling a right‐hand‐lay rope in the right hand the rope should be held with the right
thumb pointing towards the end sea below and when coiling in the left‐hand the left thumb.
should point towards the bight. The coil will then form correctly
(f) When belaying rope to a cleat, take the initial turns as shown below then continue with figure‐of
‐eight turns round the horns of the cleat as many times as are required. It will be seen that when
the figure‐of‐eight turns are removed, the rope is ready to be checked under control. A rope belayed
to a cleat must be ready for casting off at a moment's notice, so the turns should not be completed
with a half‐hitch because this may jam them. After belaying, the surplus rope should be coiled in the
hand as described in (e) above and the coil hung over the top horn of the cleat so as to keep the deck
clear and the rope dry. Cleats are not suitable for belaying wire.
(g) All synthetic fibre rope stretches to nearly half its own length before parting, when the
stretched rope immediately whips back directly along the line of pull, therefore never stand in the
direct line of pull when heavy loads are applied.
(h) Exercise extreme care when easing out from a cleat or bollard under heavy load. It may slip
suddenly and cause injury.
(i) A sailor always keeps a lookout aloft and never stands below an object which is being
hoisted or lowered, nor stands inside the coil or bight of a rope.
(j) Always look out for chafe anywhere and take steps to prevent it.
(k) A rope which has been set up taut when dry will shrink when subjected to dew, rain or
spray. Such extra strain must be relieved at once otherwise the rope may part or become
permanently damaged.
34
Basic bends and hitches
The round turn and two half hitches would be made round a post or
mooring ring.
A clove hitch consists of a pair of hitches to secure a rope to a
spar, rail or post.
The rolling hitch is used for securing a rope to a spar when the
pull is expected from one side or the other, or to another rope
under strain. Always pass the two turns on the side from which
the pull is expected.
A figure‐of‐eight knot is used to prevent a rope running
through an eye or a block.
The reef knot consists of two overhand knots made consecutively,
and is used as a common tie for bending together two ropes of
approximately equal size. It is not reliable if the ropes are of un‐
equal size or very slippery unless the ends are seized back to their
standing parts.
The double sheet bend is used to bend a small rope to a larger
one . It will not slip and is easily cast off.
The bowline is the most useful knot for making temporary
eyes in ropes of all sizes. It is used for bending a heaving line to a mooring rope, as a lifeline
round somebody's waist and for a great variety of similar purposes.
35
Mooring
The most common place to moor a vessel is alongside a quay or pontoon. When moored alongside
a quay that is affected by the tide, it will probably be necessary to regularly adjust the mooring
lines to allow for the rise & fall. Pontoons on the other hand float, so this adjustment is not re‐
quired
At popular harbours or on busy weekends there may not be enough room on the quay, in this
case boats may need to moor against each other. This is called rafting up.
36
Mooring Lines
The stern line is used in conjunction with the
The bowline is used to position the boat &
bowline to position the boat & prevent the
prevent the bow from drifting away from
stern from drifting away from the quay
The fore spring is used to prevent the boat The back or aft spring is used to prevent
from moving forwards along the quay the boat from moving astern along the
These are called breast lines, they hold
the vessel close to the quay. Useful if
there is an offshore breeze & you’re When rafting, secure to the boat next to you
trying to get ashore. Their disadvan‐ with springs & breast lines, but always lead
tage is that they need frequent adjust‐ your bow & stern lines ashore. This way the
ing if the berth is tidal whole weight of your boat is not being ex‐
erted on the next boats mooring lines & cleats.
When going ashore across other boats in the
raft, always cross by their foredecks, never the
cockpits, unless invited. This will help to pre‐
serve privacy
37
Mediterranean Moor
In areas where there is little or no tide it is common to moor either stern or bows to the
quay. Bows to is the easier option & offers more privacy in the cockpit , but it is more con‐
venient to step ashore if moored stern to.
Mooring Buoys
A mooring usually consists of a floating buoy,
attached by a chain called a riser, which is se‐
cured to the seabed by one ore more heavy
weights or anchors. In rivers & estuaries, lines of
mooring buoys may be attached to a secured,
continuous heavy chain on the seabed. These
lines of buoys are called trots.
For smaller craft, a pick‐up buoy is connected to
the floating buoy by a nylon strop which often
has an eye spliced into one end. The pick‐up
buoy is brought onboard, using a boat hook and
the eye splice is then fed through a bow fairlead
or anchor roller and dropped onto a cleat.
Fore & Aft Buoys
Fore & aft buoys are often found, in
rows, close to the edge of tidal & river
channels. The boat is secured at the
bow & stern & therefore will not swing.
38
Anchors & Anchoring
Being able to anchor easily and with confidence is important for any skipper, whether it be
simply enjoying a tranquil spot for lunch & a swim, or in the case of an emergency, such as
an engine failure in a tidal estuary or harbour.
A skipper should not only know how to anchor, but should also understand the advantages
& disadvantages of different types of anchor, the significance of the nature of the seabed
and what considerations need to be taken into account when anchoring.
Anchoring Equipment
All vessels should carry at least two
anchors of a suitable size (1) which is
secured to the vessel by a cable (2),
3
this may be all chain or a combination
of chain & nylon. If there is a danger
of the anchor becoming fouled it is a
4 2
good idea to use a trip buoy (3) which
is secured to the crown of the anchor 5
by a trip line (4), which should be
weighted to prevent it from floating
1
& fouling propellers. The curve of the
anchor rode is called the catenary (5).
On the foredeck the anchor rode is guided onboard over
6 the bow or stem‐head roller, then lead onto the windlass.
The anchor should be secured by a short line to prevent it
jumping free from its mounting.
8
The main anchor is called the bower & the second anchor is
called the kedge.
When using a combination of nylon & chain for the rode,
the chain should be
joined to the nylon by a
splice.
7
39
Types of anchor
There are several different types of anchor available, they all have their advantages & disadvantages
Plough or CQR
Stows well on a bow roller, but can be awkward to stow on
deck or in a locker.
Take care when handling to avoid trapping fingers
Danforth
The Danforth employs a hinged plate to form the flukes. and a stock
to prevent it from rolling over.
As it lies flat, it is easy to stow on deck or in a locker. Care needs to
be taken when handling to avoid trapping fingers.
Delta Bruce
Good holding to weight Good holding to
ratio. Stows well on the weight ratio. Stows
bow roller. well on the bow roller.
Does not hinge flat, so Does not hinge flat, so
can be awkward to can be awkward to
stow on deck or in a stow
40
Anchoring Considerations
Before selecting an anchorage the following factors should be taken into consideration
Shelter Is the anchorage protected from current & forecast wind & swell
Holding What is the nature of the seabed, is it suitable for anchoring, mud & sand
are far better than rock, clay or weed covered areas
Obstructions Are the any underwater obstructions that may foul the anchor
Dangers Are there any charted dangers such as wrecks or rocks
Depth Is it to deep for the amount of warp you have available. Will the depth be
sufficient at low water
vessels swing at the same rate. Some ride to the tide while others ride to
the wind
Safe landing area If you intend to go ashore, is there a suitable place to land
Transits Are there suitable objects ashore to check if your anchor is dragging
Safe to leave It you intend to stay overnight, is the anchorage safe to leave in the
dark, should the need arise
Prohibitions Is anchoring allowed
To work efficiently, the pull on the anchor
needs to be horizontal as shown here.
If the anchor warp is to short for the depth,
the anchor will not hold, as shown below.
When using all chain, the minimum length of the cable
should be at least four time the depth, this increases to a
minimum of six times the depth when using a combination
of nylon & chain.
When employing nylon, at least 6 metres of chain should
be used to attach to the anchor, This will prevent the nylon
chafing on the seabed.
41
Marine Environment
Waste
Whilst onboard it is easy to accumulate a fair amount of garbage and unlike at home where you
have your wheelie bin just outside there is very little space to store it. Sadly, the quantity of litter
found in our ocean, seas and along our coasts is rising and this has a serious impact on the envi‐
ronment and wildlife. Contrary to popular belief, marine litter does not provide a suitable habi‐
tat/ artificial reef for marine organisms. It has been reported that some types of litter can persist
in the marine environment for periods up to 500 years.
Garbage means all food, domestic and operational wastes produced on board (except sewage).
This includes food wastes, paper products, rags, glass, metal, bottles, crockery and similar refuse
from all vessels.
The basic principles are:
put no garbage into the sea
retain garbage on board and dispose of it ashore
The UK has strict rules on dumping garbage at sea with substantial penalties for offenders. Food
wastes may only be disposed of at sea if they have been pulverised and you are at least 3 miles
off shore (12 miles in the North Sea or English Channel). There are rules for ports and terminal
operators to provide adequate disposal facilities ashore.
Sewage
With more and more of us taking to the water each year it is important we all know how to deal
with our waste in a responsible manner. It is no longer acceptable to pump it all out whenever
and wherever it suits and it is our responsibility to consider the effects that may have on the sur‐
rounding environment.
Black water (raw sewage) discharges are likely to become less common as, since 2006, the Rec‐
reational Craft Directive (RCD) has required all new vessels to have provision for a holding tank
to be fitted. In the majority of cases, the waste water from onboard sinks and showers (known
as grey water discharges) empties directly into the water.
Levels of sewage input from recreational craft are thought to be small compared to direct inputs
from sewage treatment works but the effects are serious and can potentially affect water qual‐
ity in a number of ways. Raw sewage poses as a serious health risk to humans, adversely affects
shellfish and reduces oxygen levels in the water where as grey water discharge leads to nutrient
enrichment and algal blooms. As a result, it is our responsibility as recreational boaters to be
aware of the rules regulating the disposal of garbage and sewage.
To find out more visit the Green Blue website where there is more information on this topic and
practical tips and advice you can follow to reduce your impact on the environment whilst boat‐
ing.
42
Oil & Fuel
Oil and fuel contain hydrocarbons and heavy metals which can not only affect human health but
can also seriously damage our aquatic environment. Only 5% of oil and fuel pollution in the water
is from catastrophic spills, the majority come from everyday sources such as refuelling, engine
emissions and oil leaks.
Oil spills are one of the most easily identifiable forms of pollution in the aquatic environment.
Odour and iridescence (rainbow effect) are reliable clues for a spill. Small amounts of oil can con‐
taminate large areas of water whilst larger spills on land can cause tonnes of contaminated soil.
The containment of spilt oil can prevent financial, legislative and environmental implications.
Small craft tend to spill small amounts of refined petroleum products repeatedly, often in mari‐
nas and harbours. These may have poor water circulation and water may be agitated by propel‐
lers and hull movements that disperse spills into the water column. It can be assumed that oil
spills from re‐fuelling and maintenance operations are likely to be more common in marinas, and
that this may contribute to an accumulation of pollutants in the surrounding sediments. How‐
ever, boat owners can take simple precautions to minimise accidental releases by carefully refu‐
elling and maintaining their engines so they operate efficiently.
Antifouling
Environmental good practice and antifouling need not be the opposite ends of the spectrum.
But do you know how to choose the right antifouling, apply the right quantities, carry out that
mid‐season scrub and remove and dispose of the old coatings?
Since the banning of TBT in 1987, copper biocides are now the most commonly used alternative
for antifouling paints. However, it is now thought that certain species are copper sensitive with
even low levels of copper compounds being toxic to them and the use of copper based antifoul‐
ing has even been banned in some European countries. However, it is recognised that the poten‐
tial for impact is greatest where concentrated copper scrapings are allowed to enter the water,
rather than the slow leaching process of the antifouling from the boat hulls.
Antifouling products themselves are also covered by a variety of different regulations. As haz‐
ardous substances, they are covered by Control of Substances Hazardous to Health regulations
(COSHH) and under the Control of Pesticides Regulations 1986 they are subject to legal require‐
ments and approval by Government Ministers. The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) adminis‐
ters this approval process and it is the duty of the user to comply with the conditions of use
printed on the product’s label. The Biocidal Products Regulations (2001) is now in force in the UK
and covers the use of biocide products.
We, as boat owners and users, have a responsibility to prevent as much antifouling as possible
from entering the UKs coast and waterways. The reality is that all over the county people scrub
down their boats and antifouling paint and residue does leech into the water but there are some
simple steps that can be taken to prevent this.
For more advice on environmental & pollution issues visit The Green Blue website.
http://www.thegreenblue.org.uk/index.asp
43
44