SAW TOOTH WAVE GENERATION:

AIM:
Our aim is to generate the saw tooth waveform generation using pspice schematic.
INTRODUCTION:

SCHEMATI
C OF SAWTOOTH GENERATOR:

OUTPUT WAVEFORM :

SPICE DESGN USING LPF AND HPF:

The aim of this experiment
1. To design a First Order Low Pass OR a High Pass Filter using an Op-Amp and a
designated capacitor as the frequency determining component.
2. Build the low-pass or high-pass filter of your design and check its frequency response.
Drive the circuit with a sine wave and record input (constant) and output voltage for
different frequencies.
INTRODUCTIONS:
In this experiment you will design, build, and test the filters. The configurations to build
are: Active Low Pass Filter / Active High Pass Filter
Simulate the design using PSpice.
Layout the board using PCB Editor.
Construct the circuit on the PCB
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF FILTERS:
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TYPES OF FILTERS:
The most common filters are:
1. Low Pass Filters (LPF)
2. High Pass Filters (HPF)
3. Band Pass Filters (BPF)
4. Band Reject Filters (also called Band Stop Filters BSF)
Youll be building either an LPF or an HPF in this lab. The typical Frequency response
of these filters is as shown below
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
These are your design constraints for this experiment: You are required to use the LM318
Operational Amplifier, and the 0.22uF capacitor as one of the two frequency determining
components. All other resistor & capacitor values are determined by your design
calculations, but you may only use standard value components in the EECS Shop. Standard
Values will be discussed in the lab.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

The circuit configuration looks something like this Note that the op-amp is used in its noninverting mode (the input is connected to pin 3).
The resistor-capacitor configuration between the input and the op-amp's non-inverting input

provides the desired filtering.

PROCEDURE:
1. Design a Filter for the given Cut-off Frequency and Gain. The Relevant Equations for both
Low pass & High pass circuits are:
Note: Use C = 0.22uF for the capacitor in the filter network.
Select RF and RG between 1khz and 50khz. If RF and RG are less than 100 (chosen to be 1khz
or greater for a safety margin) too much current will flow through the feedback loop, and the LM
318 will be damaged. If RF and RG are greater than 50khz not enough current will flow
through the feedback loop, and will invalidate some of the other practical assumptions of the LM
318.
Gain: = 1 + RF/ RG
Cut off Frequency = 1 / (2 RC)
2. Simulate the circuit that you designed in PSpice. Use appropriate standard valuesof resistors.
Be careful to only pick values available in the EECS shop. Determine the power supply filter
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capacitors by looking at the LM 318 datasheet on the lab website. Follow the steps below to
create the circuit simulation. If you do not follow the steps below the simulation will work, but
the circuit will not transfer to PCB Editor correctly.Creating your Circuit Schematic in Allegro
Design Entry CIS (PSpice) so it is compatible with PCB Editor.
a. Create a new Analog or Mixed A/D blank project.
b. Select and delete all libraries currently in the Libraries field. The only library left will be the
Design Cache (because it may not be deleted), but do not use any of its parts.
Create your schematic for simulation using the components in this folder.The recommended
components are:
Resistor R/ANALOG
Capacitor C disc/ANALOG
OP Amp LM318
3.Bias the op-amp with a 12 V supply. Apply an AC signal of 1Vpp to the Input.
4. Obtain the Frequency Response (the Bode Plot magnitude and phase) of the filter using
PSpice.
FILTER DESIGN:
Filters are electric components that allow applying different operations to signals based on
specific frequencies. Example Operation: Gain, Attenuation, Phase Shift
EXAMPLES OF FILTERS:
Equalizer on a stereo
Allows you to apply different gains at different frequencies
Car fuel gauge Display the level of fuel in the gas tank without changing the reading as
the car drives over bumps and goes through corner
IMPEDANCE OF A CAPACITOR:

IMPEDANCE OF AN INDUCTOR

IMPEDANCE OF A RESISTOR:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

Here we can see the circuit passes low-frequencies.

High-frequency signals are reduced in magnitude (attenuated) and shifted -90deg
There is a transition region in between low and high, near the time constant of the circuit.
This is called a low-pass filter.

AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS:

PSPICE has a mode which does circuit simulation one frequency at a time and does the
measurements you just performed.
Called AC Sweep. Horizontal axis is frequency, not time.
Use VAC as the signal source, not VSIN.
Important to realize:

Circuit simulator first solves for DC operating point

Then it finds how small AC signals get transferred through the circuit (in a linear manner for
linear circuits)
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Circuit simulation then takes the AC small-signal source and passes it through the

linearized

circuit
Important output data is magnitude or phase
SIMULATE THE SCHEMATIC:
Setup an AC Sweep Analysis
Decade spacing means use an equal number of points from 1kHz to 10kHz as from
100kHz to 1MHz (in each decade)
PHASOR OUTPUT:
Magnitude: often represented in decibels
Magnitude dB = 20 log10(Magnitude)
PHASE ANGLE:

LOW PASS FILTER(SIMULATION):

Build the circuit shown below and determine the cut-off frequency (P-Spice).

HIGH PASS FILTER (SIMULATION):

Build the circuit shown below and determine the cut-off frequency (P-Spice).

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS USED FILTERS:

Continuing the discussion of Op Amps, the next step is filters. There are many different types of
filters, including low pass, high pass and band pass. We will discuss each of the following filters
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in turn and how they are used and constructed using Op Amps. When a filter contains a device
like an OpAmp they are called active filters.These active filters differ from passive filters (simple
RC circuits) by the fact that there is the ability for gain depending on the configuration of the
elements in the circuit. There are some problems encountered in active filters that need to be
overcome. The first is that there is still a gain bandwidth limitation that arises. The second is the
bandwidth in general. In a high pass filter there is going to be high frequency roll off due to the
limitations of the Op Amp used. This is hard to overcome with conventional op amps. The
mathematical operations discussed in the previous lab (the integrator and differentiator) are both
types of active filters.As for now, the discussion will focus mainly on the low pass(LP),high
pass(HP)and band pass(BP)filters.There is also a band stop filter that can be created from the
band pass filter with a simple change of components. Low Pass Filters.The low pass filter is one
that allow slow frequencies and stops (attenuates)higher frequencies, hence the name. The design
of a low pass filter needs to take into consideration the maximum frequency that would need to
be allowed through. This is called the cut off frequency (or the 3 dB down frequency). Based on
the type of filter that is used (e.g. Butterworth, Bessel, Tschebyscheff) the attenuation of the
higher frequencies can be greater.This attenuation is also based on the order (e.g. 1st, 2nd, 3rd)
of the filter that is used. Based on the order of the filter the roll off of the filter calculated using
the formula n*20 dB/decade.This means that a first order low pass filter has an attenuation of
-20 dB/decade,while a second order filter should have -40 dB/decade roll off and on down the
list for higher orders. Shown in Figure 1 is the basic active 1storderlow pass filter (in the noninverting configuration) with unity gainThe equation in (1) is used to calculate the value of the
capacitor needed based on a chosen value for cutoff frequency and R1(or vice versa if a value for
C1anda cutoff frequency are chosen then the value of R1can be found). There is unity gain in
this configuration because of the non-inverting properties of the Op Amp. To change the gain, the
feed back network must be changed to include two other resistors (R2and R3).
The gain is then found to be 1 + R3/R2because of the non-inverting configuration. The circuit
with a non-unity gain is shown.
To find the value of the capacitors needed the equations listed in (2) are helpful. Notice that the
values of the resistors in the circuit of Figure 3 and in (2) are equal. The odd coefficients of the
equations in (2) come from finding the transfer function and then solving for the desired cutoff
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frequency. These are sometimes referred to as the frequency normalization coefficients. As the
need to go to higher orders arises, the need to cascade filters comes out. To get a 4thorder EE

3305 Bessel filter one would cascade two 2ndorder Bessel filters. Based on the cutoff frequency
chosen and the values of resistors available, the values of the capacitors can be calculated.High
Pass Filters If creating a low pass filter was easy, then creating a high pass filter is even easier.
In the case of the 1storder Bessel LP filter the capacitor and resistor only need to be interchanged
with each other and the result is a high pass filter.The same equation holds for finding the cutoff
frequency and is shown in (1). The circuit showninFigure4isthatofa1storder Bessel HP filter with
unity gain. The gain can be adjusted to the non-unity case by adding the feedback network
resistors in the same location as the LP circuit of Figure 2.
HIGH PASS FILTER:
If creating a low pass filter was easy, then creating a high pass filter is even easier. In the case of
the 1st order Bessel LP filter the capacitor and resistor only need to be interchanged with each
other and the result is a high pass filter. The same equation holds for finding the cutoff
frequency and is shown.
The circuit shown in Figure 4 is that of a 1st order Bessel HP filter with unity gain. The gain can
be adjusted to the non-unity case by adding the feedback network resistors in the same location
as the LPF.
SECOND ORDER BESSEL FUNCTION:
The values of the components used are calculated from (3). These values again arise from the
transfer function and then solving for each of the coefficients. To obtain a higher order filter the
cascade technique will have to be used. Therefore to make a 4th order HP filter two 2nd order
HP filters need to be cascaded.

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LPF SPICE MODEL:

RESPONSE FOR LPF :

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HPF SPICE MODEL:

RESPONSE:

OP-AMP COMPARATOR:
A comparator finds its importance in circuits where two voltage signals are to be compared and
to be distinguished on which is stronger. A comparator is also an important circuit in the design
of non-sinusoidal waveform generators as relaxation oscillators.
In an op-amp with an open loop configuration with a differential or single input signal has a
value greater than 0, the high gain which goes to infinity drives the output of the op-amp into
saturation. Thus, an op-amp operating in open loop configuration will have an output that goes to
positive saturation or negative saturation level or switch between positive and negative saturation
levels and thus clips the output above these levels. This principle is used in a comparator circuit
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with two inputs and an output. The 2 inputs, out of which one is a reference voltage (Vref) is
compared with each other.
WORKING OF 741 IC OP-AMP COMPARATOR CIRCUIT:
NON-INVERTING 741 IC OP-AMP COMPARATOR CIRCUIT:
A non-inverting 741 IC op-amp comparator circuit is shown in the figure below. It is called a
non-inverting comparator circuit as the sinusoidal input signal Vin is applied to the non-inverting
terminal. The fixed reference voltage Vref is give to the inverting terminal (-) of the op-amp.
When the value of the input voltage Vin is greater than the reference voltage Vref the output
voltage Vo goes to positive saturation. This is because the voltage at the non-inverting input is
greater than the voltage at the inverting input.

741 IC Non-Inverting Comparator Circuit

When the value of the input voltage Vin is lesser than the reference voltage Vref, the output
voltage Vo goes to negative saturation. This is because the voltage at the non-inverting input is
smaller than the voltage at the inverting input. Thus, output voltage Vo changes from positive
saturation point to negative saturation point whenever the difference between Vin and Vref
changes. This is shown in the waveform below. The comparator can be called a voltage level
detector, as for a fixed value of Vref, the voltage level of Vin can be detected.
The circuit diagram shows the diodes D1and D2. These two diodes are used to protect the opamp from damage due to increase in input voltage. Thes diodes are called clamp diodes as they
clamp the differential input voltages to either 0.7V or -0.7V. Most op-amps do not need clamp
diodes as most of them already have built in protection. Resistance R1 is connected in series with
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input voltage Vin and R is connected between the inverting input and reference voltage Vref. R1
limits the current through the clamp diodes and R reduces the offset problem.

741 IC Op-Amp Non-Inverting Comparator Waveform

INVERTING 741 IC OP-AMP COMPARATOR CIRCUIT:
An inverting 741 IC op-amp comparator circuit is shown in the figure below. It is called a
inverting comparator circuit as the sinusoidal input signal Vin is applied to the inverting terminal.
The fixed reference voltage Vref is give to the non-inverting terminal (+) of the op-amp. A
potentiometer is used as a voltage divider circuit to obtain the reference voltage in the noninverting input terminal. Bothe ends of the POT are connected to the dc supply voltage +VCC
and -VEE. The wiper is connected to the non-inverting input terminal.
When the wiper is rotated to a value near +VCC, Vref becomes more positive, and when the
wiper is rotated towards -VEE, the value of Vref becomes more negative. The waveforms are
shown below.

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Op-amp 741 IC Inverting Comparator Circuit

COMPARATOR CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Operation Speed According to change of conditions in the input, a comparator circuit
switches at a good speed beween the saturation levels and the response is instantaneous.
2. Accuracy Accuracy of the comparator circuit causes the following characteristics:(a) High Voltage Gain The comparator circuit is said to have a high voltage gain characteristic
that results in the requirement of smaller hysteresis voltage. As a result the comparator output
voltage switches between the upper and lower saturation levels.
(b) High Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) The common mode input voltage
parameters such a noise is rejected with the help of a high CMRR.
(c) Very Small Input Offset Current and Input Offset Voltage A negligible amount of Input
Offset Current and Input Offset Voltage causes a lesser amount of offset problems. To reduce
further offset problems, offset voltage compensating networks and offset minimizing resistors
can be used.

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SPICE MODEL FOR OPAMP BASED COMPARATOR:

RESULT:
Thus the analysis of sawtooth wave generation ,high pass filter ,low pass filter and comparator is
verified successfully by using pspice simulation software.

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