ME2134-2

FLOW & ENERGY LOSS

VENTURI METER & ORIFICE PLATE METER

(WS2-02-46)

SEMESTER 3
2015/2016

NOTE TO STUDENTS:
Students are requested to find out in advance the exact location and directions to the
lab. Latecomers who are more than 15 minutes late will not be permitted to perform
the experiments.

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CONTENTS
Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF SYMBOLS

ii and iii

INTRODUCTION

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT

THEORY OF OPERATION

PROCEDURE

A BRIEF NOTE ON FLOW MEASUREMENTS

REFERENCES

10

Figure 1

Schematic diagram of flow measuring apparatus

Table 1

Raw Data Sheet

11

Table 2

Processed Data Sheet 1

12

Table 3

Processed Data Sheet 2

13

SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS

14

LIST OF SYMBOLS
A

Cross-sectional area of flow (subscripts 1-9 denote the location)

AO

Orifice plate opening area

Overall coefficient of orifice plate meter

Cc

Coefficient of area contraction due to vena contracta in orifice plate meter

Cd

Discharge coefficient

Diameter of pipe

Gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2

P
P*
Piezometric head =
. (subscripts 1-9 denote the location)
+Z=
g
g

HO

Head loss in orifice plate meter

HV

Head loss in venturi-meter

Loss factor (subscripts V and O denote the venturi meter and orifice plate
meter respectively)

Re

Reynolds Number =

Pressure (subscripts 1-9 denote the location)

P*

Piezometric pressure = P + gZ

QA

Actual volumetric flow rate

QT

Theoretical volumetric flow rate

Q'T

Quasi-theoretical volumetric flow rate in orifice plate meter

Average velocity = Q/A (subscripts 1-9 denote the location)

Local velocity

Potential head (subscripts 1-9 denote the location)

VD

ii

Greek Symbols:

Density of fluid

Specific weight of fluid = g

Kinetic energy correction factor given by =

Dynamic viscosity

Kinematic viscosity =

ii

1
v 3 dA
3
AV A

INTRODUCTION
There are many measurements which need to be taken in fluid flow experiments. The setup in
this experiment features some typical flow devices: (a) venturi meter, (b) orifice plate meter,
(c) rotameter, (d) diffuser and (e) a 90 elbow, but measurements will only focus on two of
these.

Objectives
This experiment is prepared for students taking ME2134 - Fluid Mechanics I with the
following objectives:
a)

To become familiar with some flow measuring devices, such as the venturi meter and
orifice plate meter.

b)

To determine the energy losses and pressure drops or losses for the venturi meter and
orifice plate meter.

c)

To determine the coefficient of discharge for the venturi meter and orifice plate meter.

Scope
This manual contains a detailed description of the equipment, theory of operation and the
procedure for conducting the experiment in a systematic manner.

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
A schematic diagram of the flow measuring apparatus is shown in Figure 1. The experiment
is conducted using water, which is an incompressible fluid. Water enters the equipment
through a perspex Venturi meter having pressure tappings at inlet (1), throat (2) and exit (3).
After a change in cross-section through a diffuser and another pressure measuring station (4),
the flow continues down a settling length and through an orifice plate meter having pressure
tappings at (5) and (6).
After a further settling length and a 90o Elbow with pressure tappings at (7) and (8), the flow
enters the rotameter which consists of a transparent tapered tube having a float which takes
up an equilibrium position. The position of the float, estimated from the scale on the wall of
the rotameter, provides an indication of the flow rate. The pressure drop across the rotameter
can be derived from the pressure readings at (8) and (9). The water flowing past the rotameter
returns to the reservoir after flowing through a control valve and the weighing tank.
All the pressure tappings are connected to a bank of vertically inverted water-air manometers
which give the piezometric pressure head. Note that the piezometric pressure head is the
same as the pressure head if the elevation head Z is zero.

Figure 1

Schematic diagram of flow measuring apparatus. 1-9 denote locations

connected to manometers.

THEORY OF OPERATION
As fluid flows through the Venturi meter, the orifice meter, the rotameter, the diffuser and the
90 elbow, the continuity equation (which is a restatement of the principle of conservation
of mass) for a steady incompressible fluid flow between any two general locations x and y is
given by
Vx A x = Vy A y = Q ,

(volumetric flow rate)

(I)

where A is the cross sectional area and V is the average velocity, which is related to the local
velocity v by
V=

1
Q
vdA = .

AA
A

As fluid flows through the flow measuring devices, the energy equation for steady
incompressible fluid flow between any two general points x and y can be written as

Py
Vy2
Px
V2
+ x x + Z x H =
+ y
+ Zy ,

2g

2g
where

(II)

V2
,
= Loss of energy, or head loss, generally expressed as H = K
2g
where K is the loss factor

= Specific weight of fluid = g

= Kinetic energy correction factor =

1
v 3dA ,
AV 3 A

A is the cross sectional area considered, v is the local velocity and V is the average velocity.
Note that for turbulent flow through pipes with circular cross sections, = 1.06 ~ 1.
If viscous effects and other energy losses are neglected, the energy equation (II) becomes
identical to the Bernoullis equation:
Py Vy2
Px Vx2
+
+ Zx =
+
+ Zy .

2g

2g

(III)

Equations (I) and (II) are the two fundamental equations which will be applied repeatedly to
yield expressions for the head loss corresponding to the various flow measuring devices.
(i)

Venturi Meter
Assuming negligible energy losses between locations 1 and 2, Bernoullis
equation (III) can be written as
P1 V12 P2 V22
+
=
+
2g
2g

(Z1 = Z2 = 0)

and the continuity equation (I) for steady incompressible flow is given by:
V1 A 1 = V2 A 2 = Q

(volumetric flow rate)

The terms P1/g and P2/g are the pressure heads at locations 1 and 2,
respectively. P1/g and P2/g can be, respectively, represented by piezometric
heads h1* and h2* , which are the heights of the liquid column in the
manometric tubes 1 and 2, since the elevation head Z is zero.
The above equations can be simplified to yield an expression for the
theoretical flow rate of the form:

2g(h 1* h *2 ) 2
Q T = A1
.
2
(A1 /A 2 ) 1

(a.1)

The actual discharge QA is determined from weighing tank measurements, and

is less than the theoretical discharge QT due to losses. The coefficient of
discharge Cd is defined as:
Cd = Q A QT .

(a.2)

Head Loss for Venturi Meter

The loss of energy in terms of head loss H V can be found by applying the
energy equation (I) between pressure tappings at locations 1 and 3. Applying
the energy equation (I) between 1 and 3:
P3 V32
P1 V12
+
+ Z1 =
+
+ Z 3 + H V .
2g
2g
The head loss associated with the Venturi meter is thus given by

H V =

P1 P3

= h 1* h *3 ,

since V1 = V3 due to continuity and Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = 0. Hence,

H V =h 1* h *3 .
Also, since H V = K V
KV =

(a.3)

V22
, therefore:
2g

H V
,
(V22 /2g)

(a.4)

where KV is the loss factor for the Venturi meter.

(ii)

Orifice Plate Meter

The semi-theoretical volumetric flow rate through the orifice plate meter can
be expressed as
1

2g(h *5 h *6 ) 2
,
Q'T = A O
2

1
(A
/A
)
O
5

(b.1)

where AO is the orifice opening area, h6* is the piezometric head at the vena
contracta (location 6), and A5 and h5* are the cross-sectional area and
piezometric head at location 5 before the orifice plate meter.

The actual discharge QA for the orifice plate meter can be expressed as
Q A = C Q 'T ,

(b.2)

where C is similar to the discharge coefficient. The actual discharge QA is

determined from weighing tank measurements, and is less than QT due to
losses.
The term QT does not exactly represent the theoretical discharge since h *6 is
slightly different from the piezometric head at the orifice i.e. h *6 h *O . The
piezometric head at the orifice cannot be measured directly. Hence, C is not
exactly the same as the normally defined discharge coefficient Cd. In fact,
1(A O /A 5 ) 2
C = Cd
2
2
1C d (A O /A 5 )

(b.3)

however the difference between C and Cd for high values of Cd and low values
of AO/A5 is small. This may be verified in the present experiment.

Head Loss for Orifice Meter

Applying the energy equation (II) between locations 5 and 6, the head loss in
the orifice plate meter is given by
H O =

V52 V62 P5 P6
+
2g
g

since

Z 5 =Z 6 = 0 .

For steady flow, according to the continuity equation (I), the volumetric flow
rate. Q A = V5 A 5 = V6 A 6 = V6 C C A O = VO A O . Hence,
Q 2A 1
1 *
*
H O =
2 2 2 +h5 h6
2g A 5 C c A O

C2A2
1
1
O
(h *5 h *6 ) 2 2 2 + h *5 h *6
=
1 ( A O ) 2
A5 CCA 0

A5

1 A 2

O
2

A 5
C

= (h *5 h *6 ) 1 C 2 c

O
1

A 5

Assuming the coefficient of area contraction Cc = 1, since the contraction of

area due to the vena contracta is small,

)(

H O = h *5 h *6 1 C 2 .

Also,

H O = K O

(b.4)

VO2
,
2g

where KO is the loss factor for the orifice plate meter.

Thus,

KO =

H O
.
(VO2 / 2g)

(b.5)

A summary of the relevant equations for analysing the experimental results is

provided on the last page of this manual.

PROCEDURE
Experiment
1.

Close the delivery valve and open the exit valve after the rotameter fully.

2.

Start the pump and control the flow rate through the apparatus by opening the
delivery valve slowly.

3.

Bleed the air entrapped in the apparatus completely before taking any
measurement.

4.

Pressurise the vertical inverted water manometer by means of a bicycle pump

to obtain a suitable reference pressure so that the variations of piezometric
heads are within the manometer range. The magnitude of this reference
pressure need not be known since it will be cancelled out when computing the
difference between the piezometric heads.

5.

Determine the maximum and minimum flow rate in terms of maximum and
minimum rotameter and manometer readings. A total of 6 readings will be
taken in this range (steps 6-8).

6.

Allow sufficient time for the flow to stabilise before taking the manometer
readings.

7.

Record the time required for both 5 kg and 10 kg of water to be collected in

the weighing tank.

8.

Repeat steps 6 and 7 for another five different flow rates.

9.

Close the delivery valve and then switch off the pump at the end of the
experiment.

10.

Measure the temperature of the water and use interpolation to calculate its
kinematic viscosity .
T (oC)

(m2 s-1)

20

1.004 x 10-6

30

0.801 x 10-6

Computation
1. From the experimental data recorded in Table 1, calculate the flow rates and head losses
required in Table 2 according to the equations given in THEORY OF OPERATION (in
particular, see the SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS on the last page) and enter the processed
data in Table 2.
7

1a. For the venturi meter, calculate QA at various QT [using Equation (a.1)], and then
determine Cd using see Equation (a.2).
1b. For the orifice plate meter, calculate QA at various Q'T [using Equation (b.1)], and then
determine C using Equation (b.2).
1c. Tabulate Hv and Ho at various QA in Table 2 to compare the pressure losses between
venturi and orifice plate meter.
2. Calculate the Reynolds number and loss factors in Table 3. Recall that the Reynolds
number Re is given by Re = VD/, where is the kinematic viscosity. The Reynolds number
should be computed based on the average velocity and diameter at the local cross section.
3. Plot the loss factors KV and KO against their corresponding Reynolds number Re.
4. Provide sample calculations for one set of readings.

Discussion
1. Comment on the relative advantages and disadvantages of venturi meter and orifice plate
meter as flow measuring devices, based on your experimental observation of their
comparative simplicity and accuracy.
2. Comment on the head losses associated with both flow devices studied in this experiment,
emphasising the relationship between the mechanism of loss generation and its magnitude.
Where do you think the greatest head loss would occur, and why?
3. Explain with the aid of simple sketches what is the vena contractor of an orifice meter?
How is this area contraction considered in computing the actual discharge from the head loss
(compare equation (a.2) for venturi meter with equations (b.2) and (b.3) for orifice)?

A BRIEF NOTE ON FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Fluid flow measurements involve measurement of pressure, velocity, discharge, density,
viscosity and many other properties, and may be accomplished in a number of ways. These
are basically either direct or indirect methods using gravimetric, volumetric, electronic,
electromagnetic, optical and other new techniques. There are a number of parameters which
govern fluid flow. One important parameter is the quantity of flow or discharge. The flow is
generally expressed in terms of volumetric rate of flow for incompressible fluids and mass
rate of flow for compressible fluids. Direct methods of discharge measurement involve
determining the weight of fluid passing through a section in a given time interval. Indirect
methods of discharge measurement require determination of head, pressure differential, or
computing the discharge. The most precise ones are the gravimetric or volumetric
measurements in which the weight or volume is measured directly by a weighing scale or by
a calibrated tank for a time interval measured by a stopwatch.
Velocity measurements can be achieved, for example, by a simple Pitot-static tube or Prandtl
tube, current meter, hot wire anemometer, laser Doppler anemometer, etc. The flow of gas
can be measured using a gas flow meter.
Electromagnetic flow devices and laser Doppler devices are utilised for flow measurement in
conduits. For the case of free surface flows in open channels, weirs and notches are utilised
for the measurement of flow. Flow can also be measured using positive displacement meter
like disc meter or wobble meter employed in domestic water distribution systems. A number
of flowmeters like orifice meters, Venturi meters, etc. are standardised according to the test
codes given by the British Standards Institution, for example.
The following references might be useful for a better understanding of flow measurements.

REFERENCES
British Standards Institution: BS 1042.
Dally J.W., Riley W.F. and McConnell K.G., Instrumentation for Engineering
Measurements, John Wiley & Sons, 2nd Edition, 1993.
Elrod Jr H.G. and Rouse R.R., An Investigation of Electromagnetic Flowmeters, Trans.
ASME Vol. 74, 589, May 1952.
Goldstein R.J., Fluid Mechanics Measurements, Taylor & Francis, 2nd Edition, 1996.
Holman J.P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, McGraw Hill, 6th Edition, 2001.
Phan-Thien, N., Lecture notes for ME2134: Fluid Mechanics I.
Massey B.S., Mechanics of Fluids, Taylor & Francis, 8th Edition, 2006.
Sabersky R.H., Acosta A.J., Haupymann E.G. and Gates E.M., Fluid Flow, Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 4th Edition, 1998.
Streeter V.L., Wylie E.D. and Bedford K.W., Fluid Mechanics, McGraw Hill, 9th Edition,
1997.
Ward-Smith A.J., Internal fluid Flow, The Fluid Dynamics of Flow in Pipes and Ducts,
Oxford, 1980.
Yuan S.W., Foundations of Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall, SI Unit Edition, 1970, pp. 157
- 166.

10

Table 1: Raw Data Sheet

Diameters (mm)

Trial
No.

Manometer Reading (mm) at Location

1
2
3
5
6

D1 = D3 =

Rotameter
Reading (mm)

Weight
(kg)
5.0

1
D2 =

10.0

D5 = D6 =

5.0
2

Do =

10.0
5.0

Areas (mm2)

3
10.0

A3 =

5.0
4

A2 =

10.0

A5 = A6 =

5.0
5

Ao =

10.0
5.0
6
10.0

Temperature of water =
Kinematic Viscosity of water =

11

Time (s)

Table 2: Processed Data Sheet 1 (See SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS on last page)

Trial
No.

Rotameter
Reading
(mm)

QA
(mm3/s)

QT
Venturi
(mm3/s)
[Eqn. a.1]

1
2
3
4
5
6

12

Q'

Orifice
(mm3/s)
[Eqn. b.1]

Venturi
Loss
HV
(mm)
[Eqn. a.3]

Orifice
Loss
HO
(mm)
[Eqn. b.4]

Table 3:

Processed data sheet 2 (See SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS on last page)

Estimation of loss factors

Trial
No

Actual
flow
QA

Velocity
V2
[Eq f.1]

Venturi meter
Reynolds
No.
Re2
[Eq f.6]

Orifice plate
Reynolds
Velocity
No.
VO
ReO
[Eq f.2]
[Eq f.7]

Loss
Factor
KV
[Eq a.4]

1
2
3
4
5
6

13

Loss
Factor
KO
[Eq b.5]

Remarks

SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS
Computation of energy loss or head loss between any two stations x and y:
2
* Vx2 * Vy

,
h y +
H xy = h x +

2g
2g

Q
Q
where Vx = A and Vy = A .
Ax
Ay
a.

Venturi Meter (between 1 and 3):

Q
V2 = A
A2

b.

H
H V = h h (a.3) K V = 2 V (a.4), where
(V2 / 2 g )
Orifice Meter (between 5 and 6):

H
(b.4) K O = 2 O
(b.5), where
(VO / 2g)

Q
VO = A
AO

*
1

)(

H O = h h 1 C
*
5

*
6

*
3

(f.1)

2g(h 1* h *2 )
Q T =A 1

2
(A1 /A 2 ) 1

(f.2)

2g(h *5 h *6 ) 2
(b.1)
Q'T =A O
2
1(A O /A 5 )

(a.1)

1(A O /A 5 ) 2
C=Cd
2
2
1C d (A O /A 5 )
c.

C d = Q A Q T (a.2)

Q A =CQ'T (b.2)

(b.3)

Rotameter (between 8 and 9):

H R = h *8 h *9 (c.2) K R =

H R
(c.3), where
(V82 / 2 g )

V8 =

QA
A8

(f.3)

d.

Diffuser (between 3 and 4):

H
Q
Q 2A 1
1
*
*
2 2 (d.1) K D = 2 D
(d.2), where V3 = A (f.4)
H D = (h 3 h 4 ) +
A3
2g A 3 A 4
(V3 /2g)
e.
90 Elbow (between 7 and 8):
H
Q
Q 2A 1
1
*
*
2 2 (e.1) K E = 2 E
(e.2), where V7 = A (f.5)
H E = (h 7 h 8 ) +

A7
2g A 7 A 8
(V7 / 2 g )
Reynolds Number:
V D
VD
VD
VD
Re O = O O (f.7);
Re 8 = 8 8 (f.8);
Re 3 = 3 3 (f.9);
Re 2 = 2 2 (f.6);

14

Re 7 =

V7 D 7

(f.10)