Theory of Translation

CONTENTS
Chapter 1 - About translation
1.1. The meanings of the word translation
1.2. Theories corresponding to the meanings of the

word translation
1.3. Background views on translation
1.4. Translation and the cultural equation
10
1.5. Translation as conversion
12
1.6. The translator
13
1.7. "Equivalence" in translation
17
1.7.1. Equivalence and adequacy in Translation
21
1. 8. Practical applications
22
Chapter 2 - Traps in translating literary texts
28
2.6. Practical applications
36
References
48
Chapter 1 About translation

1.1. The meanings of the word translation
There are three distinguishable meanings for the word translation. It can
refer to:
1. translation - as the abstract concept which deals with both the
translating process and its product, i.e. subsuming both the activity and the
entity;
2. translation - as the product of the process of translation (translating),
i.e. the translated text;
3. translating - as the process, the activity performed by the translator.
A definition which distinguishes the process from the result may be the
following: "The process or result of converting information from one language or
language variety into another. The aim is to reproduce as accurately as
possible all grammatical and lexical features of the source language (SL)
original by finding equivalents in the target language (TL). At the same time, all
factual information contained in the original text must be retained in the
translation" (Meetham and R. Hudson 1969: 242).
1.2. Theories corresponding to the meanings of the word

translation
Given the three meanings of the word translation, R. Bell (1991: 26)
suggests three possible theories depending on the focus of the investigation:
1. a theory of translation as both product and process, i.e. a theory of
translation and translating;
2. a theory of translation as product, i.e. a theory of translated texts,
which would require a study of texts not only by means of the traditional levels
of linguistic analysis (syntax and semantics), but also making use of stylistics
and recent advances in text - linguistics and discourse analysis.
3. a theory of translation as a process, i.e. a theory of translating, which
would require a study of information processing including perception, memory,
and the encoding and decoding of messages, drawing heavily on psychology
and psycholinguistics.
We should add a fourth possible theory, i.e.;
4. an interpretive theory of translation, i.e. a theory of translating and
translation, which besides the integrated study of both, would lay equal stress
on the interpretive process of any stretch of language, involving linguistics,
psycholinguistics, semantics, pragmatics, the cultural context, communicative
competence within a translation-oriented text analysis.
This would be an interdisciplinary, multilevel approach to the explanation
of the phenomena of translation, interpretation for translation (i.e. translationoriented interpretation), and interpretation as oral translation, involving a more
complex internal process.
The interpretive theory of translation has much to do with:
- observing conventions of form (linguistic structure;
- interpreting and translating style and register;

- preserving the textual organicity, perceiving the text as a larger unit of
discourse, and laying stress on coherence and cohesion in textual
clarity;
- performing the interpretive analysis closely linked with or preceding
the translation oriented text analysis;
- interpretation of meaning at the word and above the word level;
- the cultural context.
Therefore, it requires all the components of the translational
competence.
However, the interpretive theory of translation has nothing to do with the
implication that the difficulties of translation can be reduced to statistics (cf.
Delisle 1988: 95). They need to be overcome by interpretation and analysis.
1.3. Background views on translation

Due to the development of culture, translation has generated a large
mass of literature, although the scientific research in the field is only several
decades old.
Translation has been viewed as the rendering of a source language text
(SLT) into a target language text (TLT) so as to ensure that the surface
meaning of the two will be approximately similar and that the structures of the
source text (ST) will be preserved as closely as possible on condition they do
not affect the target text (TT) structures.
This is a restricted view of translation, because it lays stress on the
syntactic system of the language studied. It goes hand in hand with both the
underestimation of the art and with the low status accorded to the translator. In
this respect, what H. Belloc wrote long ago (1931, qtd. in S. Bassnett-McGuire
1991: 2) still proves perfectly applicable today, i.e. that the art of translation has
never been granted the dignity of the original work and that this natural
underestimation of its value has almost destroyed the art altogether. Thus, the
corresponding misunderstanding of its character has added to its degradation:
neither its importance nor its difficulty has been grasped.
Translation has been considered a secondary activity, a "mechanical"
rather than a "creative" process. Moreover, it is the product only, the result of
translation process that has been analysed, not the process itself.
It is true that, to a great extent, the thinking of most translation theorists
(with a small number of exceptions, e.g. E. Nida, and J.C. Catford in the mid
1960s) has been dominated by Tytler' s thinking put forward in an essay written
in 1791. Today's normative approach, i.e. the setting up of a series of maxims
consisting of do's and don'ts, can be traced back to Tytler's rules which were
normative prescriptions deriving from the subjective and evaluative
description of a "good translation". He set forth three "laws".
1) the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the
original work;
2) the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with
that of the original;
3) the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.

Tytler argues that these rules would flow from an accurate definition of a
"good translation", i.e. the translation "in which the merit of the original is so
completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly
apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that
language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original
work" (Tytler 1791: 79, quoted by Bell 1991: 11). Thus, Tytler is aware of the
two extreme positions adopted in relation to translation:
- to attend only the sense and spirit of the original; therefore, it is
allowable to improve and embellish;
- to convey the style and manner of writing of the original; therefore, it
is necessary to preserve even blemishes and defects.
A new stage of the debate on translation was opened by J. C. Catford
(1965) who tackled the problem of linguistic untranslability and suggested that
the two "processes" of translation and transference must be clearly
differentiated in any theory of translation, on the ground that translation is the
substitution of target language (TL) meanings for the source language (SL)
meanings, not the transference of TL meanings into the SL, whereas
transference is an implantation of SL meanings into the TL text. This, of course,
implies a narrow theory of meaning, because it is important for the linguist only.
The discussion of the key-concepts of equivalence and cultural untranslability
occurred much later.
Great progress has been made in translation studies since 1965, and
clearly defined schools of translation studies have emerged placing their
emphasis on different aspects of this very vast field.
Thus, there are four general areas of interest, with a degree of overlap
between them. Two of them are product-oriented, the emphasis being laid on
the functional aspects of the TL text in relation to the SL text, and two of them
are process-oriented, the emphasis being on the analysis of what actually
takes place during the translating process.
As S. Bassnett- McGuire (1991: 7-8) writes, the first category involves
the History of Translation and investigates the theories of translation and
translation criticism at different times, the methodological development of
translation, and the analysis of the work of individual translators.
The second category, Translation in the TL Culture, investigates single
texts or authors, the influence of a text, or author on the absorption of the
norms of the translated text into the TL system and on the principles of
selection which operate within that system.
The third category, Translation and Linguistics, is concerned with the
comparative arrangement of linguistic elements of the SL and TL texts
regarding the phonemic, morphemic, lexical, syntagmatic and syntactic levels.
Therefore, it includes the problems of linguistic equivalence, linguistic
untranslability, and the translation problems of non-literary texts.
The fourth category, Translation and Poetics, refers to the literary
translation theory and practice.
Holmes' descriptive theory of translation includes product-oriented,
function-oriented, and process-oriented descriptions (Holmes 1972, 1975:
12-14). The product-oriented description became the approach most identified
with the later translation studies. It was concerned with a "text-focused"
empirical description of translations, and with larger corpuses of translations in

a specific period, language or discourse type. The function-oriented description
introduced a cultural component which affected the reception of the TT. The
process-oriented approach was concerned with the problem of the "black box",
i.e. what was going on in the translator's mind.
Lefevere (1975) prefers Holmes' second description, i.e. the one that
privileges the function of the text on the original readers. His prescriptions recall
Nida's and Wilss' conceptions, namely that the translator's task is to render the
ST, the original author's interpretation of a given theme expressed in a number
of variations by replacing the original author's variation with their equivalents in
a different language, time, place and tradition (Lefevere 1975: 99). In his
opinion, particular emphasis must be laid on the fact that the translator has to
replace all the variations contained in the ST by their equivalents.
Another definition of translation describes it as the replacement of a
representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent
text in a second language (Hartmann and Stork 1972: 713, qtd. in Bell
1991:22).
Translation was also defined as the expression in the TL of what has
been expressed in the SL, preserving the semantic and stylistic equivalences
(Dubois 1973, ibidem).
Wilss, a great representative of the science of translation in Germany,
writes that the science of translation is not a sealed, "nomological" science but
a "cognitive/hermeneutic/associative" one (Wills 1982: 16). His translation
theory is based upon:
a) the concept of a universal language;
b) a belief that deep-structure transfer is possible by a hermeneutic
process, and
c) a qualitative ranking of texts, from a high level incorporating art and
science texts to a low level including business and pragmatic texts.
In his opinion, translation research must develop a frame of reference to
view a text as a communication-oriented configuration with a thematic,
functional and text-pragmatic dimension. These three text dimensions can be
derived from the surface structure of the respective text. He argues that the
deep structure of the language (in which he includes the sign in the context)
can be determined and transformed into any language in any contemporary
context. Thus, he refers to Nida' s argument that the interlingual communication
is possible due to two factors:
1) that semantic similarities in languages are due to "the common core
of human experience", and
2) that fundamental similarities exist in the "syntactic structure of
languages, especially at the so-called kernel, or core level" (Nida 1969: 483
qtd. by Wilss 1982: 49). He ends his theory with the pronouncement that
"everything can be expressed in every language", (Wills 1982: 48). This view is
widespread in modern linguistics. Later on he considers that the large degree
of variability in translated texts is less a fault of the well-trained translator, and
more a result of the differing cultural contexts in which the translators find
themselves and their subjective creative decisions. That is to say, the cultural
factors do not only influence the final product, but also weigh upon the decisionmaking process. Consequently, he says: "I do believe that there are many

aspects of translation that transcend the cultural boundaries and that they are,
in fact, universal" (Wills 1989: 134).
The appearance of a collection of essays edited by Hermans in 1985,
entitled The Manipulation of Literature, aroused a great deal of debate because
the contributors to that volume thought that translation editing was a
manipulatory process. They said that by examining what took place during the
processes of reading, rewriting in another language and the subsequent
reception, attention was shifted away from the ST and its cultural background.
Some translators thought that their main task was to examine the impact of the
translation in the target system.
In her Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach (1988), widely
discussed in Europe, M. Snell-Hornby suggests a "prototypology", a more
flexible Gestalt-like system with blurred edges. She offers a very complicated
stratification model proceeding from a general level (macrolevel) to more
particular levels (microlevels) (Gentzler 1993: 72).
However, Gentzler concludes that "whether the Snell - Hornby model
achieves an integrated approach for Translation Studies remains to be seen"
(idem, ibidem).
Most of these translation studies are directed primarily to teaching
translators or evaluating translations, being prescriptive in nature. They rely too
heavily upon very traditional dichotomies of good/ bad and faithful/ free. They
also tend to be source-oriented in nature, arguing that the original embodies
some sort of deep structure, which contains the information necessary for its
subsequent encoding in another language to which the translator must remain
faithful. Thus they are concerned only with reproducing the original. Gentzler
considers that "such an approach reaffirms antiquated notions of translation,
notions which view translations as second-hand, merely serving as
handmaiden of a higher, more creative art. The biggest problem is that the
focus of these sciences [of translation] is too narrow. They look primarily at
what is a non-verifiable space - i.e. the black box of the human mind-and make
large statements not only about translability but also about how that process
should occur" (Gentzler 1993: 73).
Metaphors used to define translation. A study of the figurative
language used by the translators in their statements about their work can tell us
about the status of the translation as a textual act.
It ranges from Mounin's view of the translation as "belles infidelles", or
"tower of Babel" up to the metaphor about the translator as "a tightrope walker
forced to dance with his legs tied up in a sack (namely the original author's
rhythm, rhyme patterns, figures of speech, etc). Many theories of translation
show the difficulties-or even the impossibility-of reproducing the original (the
trammelling of the sack and the difficulties of moving the legs" (Banta 1994:
79).
According to the metaphors used by the Dutch, French and English
translators of the Renaissance, the translator is variously seen as following in
the footsteps of the original author, borrowing garments, reflecting light, even
searching for jewels in a casket (Bassnett - McGuire 1991: XIII).
In the eighteen century, the translation was a mirror, or a portrait, the
depicted or artificial held up against the real.
In the nineteenth century, the dominant metaphors involved property and

class relations. The notion of translation was based on the idea of a masterservant relationship: either the translator takes over the ST and "improves" it, or
approaches it with humility and seeks to do it homage (Bassnett-McGuire 1991:
XV).
In the 1980s, translation began to be referred to in figurative terms
involving infidelity, unfaithfulness and reformed marriage.
The cannibalistic view of translation put forward by the Brazilian
translators (with the image of the translator as a cannibal devouring the ST in a
ritual which results in the creation of something completely new), involves a
changed idea of the value of the ST in relation to its reception in the target
culture (TC). Thus, the translation process creates an "original" text, the
opposite of the traditional position whereby the "original" is the starting point.
There is a school of thought now that considers translation as the
rewriting of texts across linguistic boundaries, the rewriting taking place in a
very clearly inscribed cultural and historical context. For example, Lefevere
(1975, qtd. in Bassnett - McGuire 1991) has done a lot in this field.
As opposed to the translation-as-a-mirror conception involving reflection,
the refraction theory (Lefevere' s term refraction has been coined to replace
the old terminology of "influence") involves changes of perception. We consider
it a much more suitable image used to describe what happens when a text
crosses the culture boundaries.
We consider that translation is a complex task, involving, a great deal of
skill, preparation, knowledge and intuitive feeling for texts.
As opposed to Tytler' s list of do's and don'ts, translation is no longer
referred to in terms of what a translator "should" or "should not" do. This kind of
evaluative terminology is used with pedagogical implications, where translation
has a very precise and narrowly defined role, and is an intrinsic part of the
foreign language teaching process (Levitchi 1986).
According to the Romanian School of thought, i.e. Levichi, Duescu,
Banta, translation can be taught, that is translators can also be made not only
born. We should add that this may hold true except for the truly born God
chosen poetry translators as the three mentioned above are.
According to Levichi, whose remarks on translation came from his
extremely vast experience, the translator, a "hardworking labourer in a noble
field", follows the way from the smallest detail and deepest subtlety up through
the larger and larger units (Levichi 1975, 1993: 5). In his opinion, "everything
can be translated but only with efforts and pains" (Levichi 1988), the possibility
of translation being scientifically proved by the universality of the linguistic
categories (Levichi 1975: 9, 1993:6).
In his Guide Book for Translators (1975, 1993), Levichi writes that to
translate well means to render the meaning, the logical structure and the
emotional content of the SLT so faithfully that the translated text can have the
same effect as the original does upon the reader. He calls it a total translation,
i.e. the translation which transfers as many meanings and overtones as
possible from the ST to the TT.
According to Banta, a faithful translation, well guided by the translationoriented text analysis (TOTA) "through revealing in the SL the most adequate
linguistic and literary means for meeting the same requirements, structures,

patterns and peculiarities to which the author himself had submitted in creating
the original [...] tends to change into a shunt or transfer to a parallel line, into
the ensurance of continuity" (Banta 1988:18).
In Duescu's (1988) opinion, "the faithfulness-beauty antinomy is a false
problem", because he considers translations "both faithful and beautiful".
Referring to the "no loss, no gain" principle in translation (Levichi 1975,
1993), Kohn considers that if any losses occur, they can be "made up for", thus
rejecting two opposite theses, i.e. the impossibility of translation and absolute
translability (Kohn 1983, Graur 1980).
To conclude, translation is closely linked with the context, and any
assessment of a translation can only be made by taking into account both the
process of creating it and its function.
What translation brings to the linguist's work is an opportunity of seeking
the universal through the particularity of languages, drawing in the comparisons
and equivalences sought by the translator in his work. Moreover, translation
gives the linguist the opportunity to understand how texts are constructed and
how to go about making meanings. In this respect, the negotiation of the
meaning of the ST and TT is a psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic matter.
However the translation may turn out, other translations are always
possible, not better or worse, but different, depending upon the initial choices
made by the translator and the points when the languages interlock and begin
to develop not in the SL or TL, but in "that grey area in between", as Gentzler
(1993: 101) puts it.
Of all the theories mentioned and discussed above, we have adopted
the "no loss, no gain" principle, including the possibility of "making up for" some
loss, on condition it does not affect the TT.
For a translation to be successful, we consider the translation-oriented
text analysis very useful.
1.4. Translation and the cultural equation

Translation is a disparity between language cultures (LCs). The act of
translation includes a cultural equation or meaning-inducing tension between
the system of representation (SR). It does not involve a process of transferring
signification but a commitment to the disparity of two cultures under
consideration. That "tension" will be revisable according to historical and sociocultural factors.
Each cultural element is not simply seen in respect of LC1, but viewed as
being the ground of a potential difference, distinction or tension. The cultural
equation concerns the translator's conception of translation and its role in
cross-cultural relationship.
The cultural equation should be taken into consideration whenever we
have to appreciate the choices made in any situation of translation and when
we propose our own choices.
The fact must be added that the translator's very particular reading
strategies are completely different from those of the "normal reader". It is the
potential translation difficulties which tend to catch his attention, especially

when the STs are hard to translate, i.e. when they do not conform to received
norms of "textual beauty", acceptability, etc. and when they are obscure, poorly,
or differently expressed, etc..
Thus, it is obvious that the theoretical problems of translation can be
understood and explained only within a certain macrolinguistic context, to which
"the essential element of the translation process is not the linguistic system as
an abstract concept, but the text as a speech unit" (Kohn 1983: 7).
A satisfactory theory of translation must describe the cultural features
relevant to a given text because the cultural element is central to a theory of
translation.
According to the cultural view, even whole texts are too small units in
translation when they are taken in isolation. Thus, in Lefevere and Bassnett' s
(1990: 8) opinion, culture becomes the operational "unit" of translation.
The unit of translation (UT) was defined by Newmark as "the smallest
segment of an SL text which can be translated, as a whole in isolation from
other segments. It normally ranges from the word through the collocation to the
clause. It could be described as 'as small as possible and as large as it is
necessary', though some translators would say that it is a misleading concept,
since the only UT is the whole text" (Newmark 1988: 285).
The fact that culture becomes the operational unit of translation leads to
a tendency to very abstract notions, such as the "universe of discourse" which
Lefevere defines as" the knowledge, the learning, but also the objects and the
customs of a certain time" (Lefevere 1985: 233).
According to Snell - Hornby' s "Gestalt" conception of a text, it is not an
entity reducible to the "mere sum of its parts", it should not be considered
"simply as a sequence of sentences, these themselves each a string of
grammatical items" (Snell - Hornby 1987: 93).
Thus, the translator has to detect the "particular elements" in the text of
the culture concerned, because he does not deal with the totality of a culture.
The cultural approach is valid only if it probes deep enough into the
cultural context which affects the translation.
According to Crisafulli (1993: 205), the distinction between the cultural
and the linguistic approach is fictitious because the cultural values are
embodied in language, and the relationship between language and society is
so close that they cannot be separated.
As a conclusion, we could emphasize the importance of the crosscultural knowledge for the translator as a mediator between cultures. The
translator has to know about the culture-specific behaviour patterns in general,
and must not restrict his abilities merely to linguistic spheres.
1.5. Translation as conversion

Concerning translation as conversion, the fact must be underlined that
the finality of conversion strategies should be to establish a meaningful tension

between the original and the translation, in valid texts converted in inter - and
intralingual communication.
Conversion should be considered as a meta - text or a text constructed
upon another text. It can be established in various degrees of "equivalence"
with the original according to the objectives and intentions of the converting
operators.
Translation or interlinguistic conversion should be considered as the
complex interplay between a source text (ST), a mediator, and alternative
formulations in a different language culture (LC).
The fact must be added that the converting principle can no longer be
analogy, or differences in likeness, but homology, or likeness in fundamental
difference as Jakobson considered (1966: 233), and in keeping with Benjamin's
intuition that "kinship does not necessarily involve likeness" (1969: 74).
Thus the initial text becomes the ST and is no longer a co-negotiated
"act" of reference, it becomes an object, as Ladmiral (quoted by Hewson and
Martin 1991) rightly considered: "Translation is a meta-communication, a
second-degree communication which, from one language to another, is brought
to bear on the first-degree communication which it takes as its object. Which
means that translation proceeds to an objectification of the SL communication
which it globalizes in order to make it the content of the message it has to
translate into the TL" (Ladmiral 1987:144).
Its function is now to serve as the basis for the construction of another
situation of communication. It is the "complete set of paraphrases that must
be reconstructed in order to account adequately for the initial SL sequence
when considered as translation input", as Hewson and Martin define it
(1991:31).
Translation consists in sets of homologically related paraphrases
constructed on the initial ST. Interlinguistic conversion is only one aspect of
translation, the other being the insertion of the converted text or rather text
potentialities into a different LC.
A homologon is strictly related to a variation range. The homologon
involvement does not produce translations but variation ranges in LC 2. The
homologon or verbal equation of the ST serves as the basis for variations
(not equivalents, much less translations) in a different LC. Homological
generation consists only in sets of paraphrastic related items.
These variations are the TL paraphrastic sets. Therefore, homology is
the relation established between two variation ranges.
Thus, conversion into a new system of representation (SR) means
adapting to an entirely different set of norms-discursive, situational and
sociological.
No transfer or equivalence of meaning can be achieved across
languages. There can be only homologies between paraphrastic sets, i.e.
between the SL paraphrastic set "framing" the ST and LC 2 paraphrastic sets
comprising the translation options. The nature of the homological link needs to
be investigated beyond the simple provisional reference to Jakobson's notion of
"resemblance in difference". In order to approximately reach it, Steiner (1975)

suggests a "reshaping process" referring to topology.
Thus, in his opinion "topology is the branch of mathematics which deals
with those relations between points and those fundamental properties of a
figure which remain invariant when the figure is bent out of shape ... The
relations of invariance within transformation are, to a more or less immediate
degree, those of translation" (1975: 425).
To sum up, translation involves selecting the appropriate terms in
keeping with an explicitly defined target context (the contextualization of
homologies, i.e. a certain number of determining factors).
1.6. The translator

Starting from Steiner' s striking assertion that "inside or between
languages, human communication equals translation" (Steiner 1975: 47), one
could say that all communicators are translators. This is possible because as
receivers (whether listeners or readers), they face essentially the same
problem: they receive signals (in speech or writing) containing messages
encoded in a communication system which is not identical with their own. We
consider matters do not stand like this with the translator.
According to Steiner (1975: 45), "any model of communication is at the
same time a model of translation of a vertical or horizontal transfer of
significance". No two historical epochs, social classes, localities use words to
signify exactly the same thing, and neither do two human beings.
This underlies particular views of reading according to which making
sense of a text means is to deconstruct it and then to reconstruct it (Norris
and Benjamin 1988, quoted after Bell 1991:14).
A question may arise regarding the difference between the translator (or
the interpreter) and the normal communicator. It is the re-encoding process
which makes the translator differ from the normal communicator. This is rooted
in the definition given to the translator as a bilingual mediating agent between
monolingual communication participants in two different language communities
(House 1977: 1). It means that the translator decodes messages transmitted in
one language and encodes them in another.
If it is, in any sense, true what Newmark (1969: 85) said that "any fool
can learn a language ..., but it takes an intelligent person to become a
translator", then the investigation of what this "intelligence" implies is worth
making.
First, the translator is an applied linguist who has certain obligations to
the furthering of our understanding of language and of our ability to explain the
acts of communication in which we are continually engaged.
Secondly, as translation "lato sensu" is one of the most powerful means
of negociation between communication partners, the translator has metacommunicational status, being a sort of a third party to the initial communication

on the one hand, and having to establish a hypothetical situation of
communication in the LC2 on the other.
He is a mediator between intercultural situations of communication. This
is based on his personal perception of the Cultural Equation and on cultural
competence. This competence is objective, i.e. based on interlinguistic
techniques accumulated through practice and instruction, and subjective, i.e.
the mediator creates both the translation options and the conditions in which
they are to be inscribed.
He mediates between two situations; he "will take it upon himself to
define the norms and options that need to be established between two
Language Cultures", as Hewson and Martin mention (1991: 27).
Thirdly, at first sight, it seems that the translator, called the Translation
Operator (TO), explores LC2 with the aim of finding the "equivalent" to what he
has discovered in LC1.
The TO's attention must be drawn to the LC1 - specific elements of the
text, as his reading is always situated at the level of difference. He will pay
special attention to certain elements which take on a particular importance
when considering the text from the LC2 perspective.
One of the translator's major problems is to analyse the surface syntax
of the ST with its explicit clause structures coming to the implicit, underlying,
universal meaning carried by the propositions, given the fact that there is no
simple one-to-one relationship between the syntactic and the propositional
structure.
It is obvious that the translator needs:
- syntactic knowledge, i.e. how clauses are used to carry propositional content
and how they can be analysed to retrieve the content embedded in them;
- semantic knowledge, i.e. how propositions are structured;
- pragmatic knowledge, i.e. how the clause can be realized as information
bearing text and the text decomposed into the clauses.
Lack of knowledge in any of these areas affects the translator's
competence.
As a communicator, the translator must possess the knowledge and
skills which are common to all communicators.
The professional (technical) translator, as Johnson and Whitelock (1987:
137, quoted in Hewson and Martin 1991) underline, has access to five distinct
kinds of knowledge:
1) SL knowledge;
2) TL knowledge;
3) text-type knowledge;
4) subject area, and cultural knowledge;
5) contrastive knowledge.
In addition, he needs the decoding skills of reading and encoding skills
of writing, all of them making up the translator's competence.
The fact must be added here that it is important to point out the danger
of working at a micro - textual level. The temptation is to divide the ST into very
small units and to look for "equivalents" for each and every unit. Although
equivalence does have a certain use it prevents one from clearly seeing what
the operations involved in the translating process are. This is very dangerous
for students who tend to work at the level of the word anyway. The only option
open to the TO is to try to judge the overall effect of the use of words and thus
to solve the problem at a macro - textual level.
The TO does not look for an "equivalent", but he seeks to express the
"same" reality through LC2, although a "full" cultural context is replaced by one
which is virtually empty, and differently structured anyway. He has to analyse
very minutely the various elements which go to make up the overall effect of the
ST, such as he comes to interpret it. After this analysis, he is faced with what
might be called the "concave - mirror effect" of trying to express such elements
through another culture. This is explained by: 1) the distorting effect produced
by the changing cultures, and 2) by the automatic series of connections which
are made within the second culture, and which interfere with the network of
connections originally operating in LC1, as Hewson and Martin point out (1991:
152).
The translator (TO) needs to have bilingual and bicultural
competence. The production of homologous sets in LC 2 is closely related to
the translator's bilingual and bicultural competence. His contribution is decisive
because it clarifies the difference between what is acquired and what is
generated in the translating process, between competence and production.
Homologizing procedures are useless without bicultural competence.
Homologies correlate structures by establishing global correspondences of
factors within different relational systems, as Hewson and Martin (1991: 49)
point out. They also consider that concerning lexical problems, the syntagmatic
or "definitional" paraphrase enables the translator to pass over the arbitrary
boundaries between lexis and syntax. Their opinion is also shared by Levichi
(1975, 1993: 6)
No reformulation is conceivable without a reformulator or mediator.
Besides his function as the vehicle of a certain cultural equation, his specific
intervention can be defined according to two different lines of consideration.
He represents a distinctly psycho-socio-cultural stance which he
reflected in his productions. That is why translations are bound to be renewed
in keeping with the cultural changes; they also bear the imprint of the translator.
TO's position. The TO must be competent in two LC s, that is he must
have the knowledge and practice of two independently developing entities. He
must have a position from which he can compare and convert from one LC into
the other. The area he occupies is a no-man's land whose boundaries, LC 1 and
LC2, are changing shape and size, because the LC s evolve and influence each
other.
However the translator is not midway between the two. He is always
anchored, to a greater or lesser extent, in one LC. His being in the middle
ground involves competence.

The TO's position was represented by Hewson and Martin (1991:135)
as follows:
1.6. The area occupied by the translator (source Newson and Martin 1991:135)
Consequently, the TO's competence is measured by his ability to

analyse, compare and convert two cultural systems, while respecting both the
conflicting forces within one LC, and the interplay of these forces as the LC s are
brought into contact.
As regards the translator's position towards the writer, his work is harder
than that of the latter. Leon Levi]chi compares the translator with Ariel in "The
Tempest" after having come out of the split of the oaktree trunk beginning to
work for Prospero (Levichi 1988, our translation).
Taking into consideration that everything is translation, i.e. from one
code into another, from one domain into another, from thinking to feeling and
words, Levichi says that "the writer translates himself, turning his imagination
into words, thus keeping faithful to himself, whereas the translator must be
faithful to the writer, to the tradition from which he translates, to the language
into which he translates and to many other canons" (ibidem, our translation).
Thus, the translator has to overcome language, cultural and time
boundaries.
According to Banta, the translator, as the first receiver of the text in a
foreign language, must become conscious of the author's intentions and try to
preserve as many of them as possible: "he must discern the author's general
as well as specific intentions, his reference to proverbs, etc., other meta-textual,
inter-textual allusions, etc. (a point in which the dynamic contextual analysis as
well as intertextuality ought to help him, alongside his general background, allround culture, etc.)" (Banta, 1988: 7).
The translator must be aware of the difficulties in grasping or feeling the
intentions, in identifying the allusions, in achieving the equivalence besides
overcoming the resistance opposed by the tradition of non-translation (Banta,
1994: 81).
Therefore, it is by undertaking the dynamic contextual analysis (DCA)

(cf. Slama -Cazacu 1988) that the translator is able to evaluate the original right
and come to a moment of choice.
The translator's position is, as Banta puts it, "similar to that of a
producer who prepares to stage a play, or to make a film, or perhaps to that of
a performer, or a conductor preparing to play a piece of music: having taken
stock of whatever there is in the respective work, he has also to take stock of
the means at his disposal, of the technical facilities, of the public he addresses,
of the critics who will analyse his achievement, etc. and here is where all the
theories of reception and DCA come in" (Banta 1988: 8, 1994: 79).
As a conclusion, we could say that we agree with A. Banta who both as
a translation theorist and as a professional translator, suggests that translators
should be bound by their obligation as servants of two masters: selling to
customers (readers or spectators) the original product (the writer's work)
without cheating in either quantity, or in its original form, including colours,
musicality, etc. He adds that "to push the metaphor further, translators should
pack coffee without decoffeinizing it and also preserve its full flavour" (Banta
1994: 81).
Consequently, translation depends upon the interpretive as well as
linguistic, semantic and creative ability and cultural knowledge of the translator.
1.7. "Equivalence" in translation

The new translation theory is no longer concerned with defining one or
several translated "equivalents" to any given source text (ST), but with
producing a variation range in the other language culture (LC 2) corresponding
to the reconstituted range framing the ST.
The theory of "partial communication" seems to be the basis of most
contemporary translation studies. According to this theory, communication does
not transfer the total message. The same holds true for the translating process:
it does not transfer the totality of what is in the original.
It is apparent, as Bell rightly points out (1991: 6), that "the ideal of total
equivalence is a chimera. Languages are different from each other; they are
different in form having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of
grammatical stretches of language and these forms have different meanings".
Further, he adds that "there is no absolute synonymy between words in the
same language, so why should anyone be surprised to discover a lack of
synonymy between languages?" That is why something is "lost", the translator
being accused of "betraying" the author's intentions. Hence the traitorous
nature ascribed to the translator by the famous Italian proverb "traduttore
traditore". He must always choose between translating word-for-word (literal
translation), or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). In case he picks the
former, he is criticized for the "ugliness" of a "faithful" translation; in case he
picks the latter, he is criticized for the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation.

Traditionally, the two texts involved in translation are said to be
equivalent. Jakobson's (1959) use of the word equivalence for the relationship
between formally different texts involved in translation has been criticized on
the ground that the relationship between a SLT and the corresponding TLT is
not fully symmetrical and reversible. The best argument to be brought forward
in this respect is the fact that the back-translation does not bring us back to the
source language text (SLT).
Catford's (1965) definition of translation equivalence in terms of textual
interchangeability in a given situation can be easily dismissed. Reiss and
Vermeer (1984: 127) among others, criticized it on the ground that a translation
is not interchangeable with its source text in a given situation; source texts and
translations operate in different language communities. As Jakobsen (1993:
161) puts it, "The information they convey may be felt and judged to be
equivalent, and the situations they communicate in may be felt to be
interculturally comparable (or equivalent), but they are not the same".
Therefore, translational equivalence cannot be tested by the interchangeability
in a given situation and cannot be defined in terms of it.
Bassnett-McGuire (1991) subscribes to the conception that the
interpretation of translation should be based on the comparison of the text's
"function" as original and as a translation. As Gentzler (1993) mentions, her use
of the term function is so broad that almost any deviation, addition, deletion
could be labelled a "functional equivalent". Unlike Holmes who tries to preserve
the sound, the sense, the rhythm, the textual "material" and recreate those
specific sensations-sound, sense and association - despite inherent limitations
in the TL, Bassnett leaps to the central theme and meaning, grasps the
"original function" and allows the replacement of much of the text, with all its
particular resonance and associations, with something new and completely
different, but which theoretically affects the reader the same way (Gentzler
1993: 101).
According to Holmes (1974: 78), translation establishes a hierarchy of
correspondences which depend upon certain initial choices, which in turn
predetermine subsequent choices. That is to say, the translator's choices will
ultimately restrict and determine the kind of correspondences available during
the translation of the rest of the text.
Van den Broeck (1978) begins his essay The Concept of Equivalence in
Translation Theory in agreement with Holmes and concludes that "we must by
all means reject the idea that equivalence relation applies to translation"
(Broeck 1978: 33). In his opinion, all the speculations on defining equivalence
contain many different and contradictory equations, especially when applied to
such complex phenomena as poetry in translation. He redefines and
recuperates "equivalence" for his own concept of "true understanding" of how
one should regard literary translation (Broeck 1978: 29).
His definition of equivalence is based upon the semiotics of Pierce, the
philosophy of Stevenson, and the linguistics of Catford. Thus, he shifts the
focus from a "one-to-one" to a "many-to-one" notion of correspondence (Broeck
1978: 34), and defines meaning as the total network of relations entered into by
any linguistic form. He adopts Catford s definition of translation equivalence.
For Broeck, those relevant features have nothing to do with the semantic
reference, and everything to do with the textual reference, arguing that both
texts must be relatable only to the functionally relevant features of the
communicative situation.
However, in contrast to Broeck, Catford considers the functionally
relevant features as being relatively indeterminate and more a matter of
opinion. Catford distinguishes between situational features which are
linguistically relevant, and those which are functionally relevant in that they
are relevant to the communicative function of the text in that situation.
Therefore, for translation equivalence to occur, "both the SL and the TL text
must be relatable to the functionally relevant features of the situation. A
decision, in any particular case, as to what is functionally relevant in this sense
must in our present state of knowledge remain to some extent a matter of
opinion (Catford 1969:94, emphasis in the original).
In agreement with Lefevere (1975), Broeck (1978) considers that the
original author's intention and the function of the original text can be determined
and translated so that the TT will be equivalent to the ST and function
accordingly. A translation can only be complete if and when both the
communicative value and the time-place-tradition elements of the ST have
been replaced by their nearest possible equivalents in the TT (Lefevere 1975:
102, Broeck 1978: 39).
According to Neubert, the text has a kind of a "mosaic" quality, an
elasticity that allows it to be translated into a variety of "relative" TTs. He
introduces the term "translational relativity" in the reconstruction process,
allowing for a "creative" process of transfer from the ST to the TT. This relativity
derives from an inherent multiplicity of structural possibilities in the original
(Neubert 1986: 97). He refers to text equivalence in terms of a
"macroproposition, which corresponds to the semantic content of the ST and
which is then broken down into a fabric of words mapped on to syntactic
structures" (Neubert 1986: 95).
By considering translation from the point of view of the target culture
(TC), Toury (1980) argues that translation equivalence is not a hypothetical
ideal, but becomes an empirical matter. Thus, the actual relationship between
the ST and TT may or may not reflect the postulated abstract relationship.
The translated texts are still viewed by Translation Studies theorists as
one kind of metatext, measured and evaluated in comparison with the ST or
some idealized interpretation of that initial version.
Nevertheless, in Toury' s opinion, the translated text exists as a cultural
artefact for the replacement of a ST by an acceptable version in the TC. Toury
considers that it is only by analysing the translated texts from within their
cultural-linguistic context that one can understand the translation process.
Therefore, translations are subject to different social, cultural and literary
contextual factors. He sets forth a TT theory for translation, focussing not on a

notion of equivalence as postulated requirements, but on the "actual
relationships" between the ST and its "factual replacement" (Toury 1980: 39).
The following aspects of Toury' s theory have contributed to the
development of translation theory:
1) the abandonment of one-to-one notions of correspondence and the
possibility of literary/linguistic equivalence;
2) the involvement of the literary tendencies within the TC in the
production of any translated text;
3) the destabilization of the notion of an original message with a fixed
identity;
4) the integration of both the ST and TT in the semiotic web of
intersecting cultural systems.
Translation theory in Toury' s conception can be defined as a theory of
possible translations, and as a theory of how these possible types of
equivalence may function in different systemic conditions.
It is an established fact in Translation Studies that there may be as many
variants of a translation as there are translators. Yet somewhere among those
many versions, there will be what Popovi (1976) calls the "invariant core" of
the original. This invariant is that which exists in common between all existing
translations of a single work. It is part of a dynamic relationship and should not
be confused with speculative arguments about the "nature", the "spirit" or "soul"
of the text; the "indefinable quality" that translators are rarely supposed to be
able to grasp.
The fact must be added that instead of prescribing a technique which
can eliminate losses and smooths over changes, Popovi accepts that losses,
gains and changes are a necessary part of the translation process because of
the inherent differences of intellectual and aesthetic values in the two cultures.
The dynamic relationship cannot but remind us of Nida' s (1969) two
types of equivalence: formal and dynamic equivalence. The formal
equivalence focusses attention on the message itself, in both form and content,
while the dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect, i.e.
that the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the
same as that between the original receivers and the SL message.
Most theories to date can be characterized as theories of (what is
allegedly) the only legitimate or genuine kind of translation (Delabastita
1991:143).
The genuine concept of translation can be defined in positive terms, i.e.
"to render the SL message with the closest TL equivalent ... is, we believe,
the only possible way leading to fidelity" (Shen 1989: 234, emphasis in the
original). It can also be defined in negative terms, i.e. "literalism has indeed little
claim to theoretical validity as an approach to "total translation" (Shen 1989:
224).
Some later theories allow greater flexibility, and accept variations in the
techniques of ideal translation according to concrete circumstances and
communicative requirements. For example, translation is seen as an act of
communication across cultural boundaries, the main criteria being

determined by the recipient of the translation and its specific function (SnellHornby 1988: 47).
Now the translational relationships between the ST and TT are replaced
by networks of relationships and concepts of intertextuality (Toury 1986,
Lambert 1989, Gentzler 1993).
Translation scholars in England and USA like Bassnett - McGuire,
Levefere, Lloyd and Tymoczko seem to adopt more of a cultural studies model.
Therefore, there is a tendency to consider translation less as an
empirical fact a concrete text as defined by the TC - and more as a complex set
of translational relations in any given situation (Gentzler 1993: 143).
The translator's task is to strive for the highest possible degree of
"matching" or "equivalence" between the SL and the TL text, i.e. the TL text
must try to achieve a similar effect on the foreign reader as the SL text does on
the native reader (Wekker and Wekker 1991: 221, qtd. in Gentzler 1993). The
TL text must be equivalent to the SL text on both a linguistic and a sociocultural level.
It is obvious that the language variety chosen for the TL discourse will
play a very important role in creating the desired effect on the reader / listener.
1.7.1. Equivalence and Adequacy in Translation

According to Reiss and Vermeer (1984: 133, quoted by Jakobsen
1993: 158), in a number of translations, e.g. translations for teaching purposes
and philological translations, the function of the TLT is different from that of the
SLT. In this case, the principle governing the translation process is adequacy.
Adequacy is described by Reiss as the appropriate selection of linguistic
signs in the TL in view of the dimensions selected in the ST. An adequate TT is
one in which the TT matches a relevant dimension of the ST, because the
translator does not aim at producing a full textual equivalent of the ST but
focusses on a certain dimension of the ST.
Adequacy is a more general concept than equivalence. Equivalence
involves matching not just one dimension, but all dimensions of the ST. It
results that an equivalent TT will always satisfy the criterion of adequacy.
Therefore, equivalence is a special case of adequacy which can be found in
communicative translation where there is full semantic, pragmatic and cultural
adequacy and where the TT reads like an original TLT.
Nida (1976: 64) considered that the relative adequacy of different
translations of the same text "can only be determined in terms of the extent to
which each translation successfully fulfils the purpose for which it was
intended" (Nida 1976: 64).
Now it is obvious that progress has been made in turning from a more
theoretical approach to a discourse or text-typological one, e.g. Hatim (1984),

Hatim and Mason (1992), Reiss (1971, 1984 Jakobsen) among many others.
They point out the need for an analytical framework to identify the discourse
features of various text-types or genres and of the nature of those discourse
features (social, cultural and/or personal).
Much translation work is aimed at a more appropriate end-product.
In this sense, adequacy, as defined by Reiss and Vermeer (1984: 80), is
a function of the relationship between means and end and is, therefore
process-oriented; adequacy is appropriateness, and "appropriateness is not an
absolute standard but must always be considered in context with action".
Equivalence, on the other hand, reflects the correlation between two
products, the ST and the TT.
1. 8. Practical applications
1.8.1. Consider the following sentences paying special attention to the
paraphrases underlined. Point out the translation difficulties and give their
equivalents in Romanian:
1. When I entered the library I found her putting her books in a certain
order on the shelf.
2. He was resting (in a horizontal position) on the grass in the orchard,
happy to hear the birds singing.
3. The next day some journalists attacked (with words) the general
manager for having made such a stupid mistake.
4. He feared them for he knew they would attack him physically as soon
as they caught him.
5. The girl was so unhappy because her horse was not able to walk
properly because of a hurt leg.
6. Im sure he will make a fool of himself with such an excuse that is hard
to believe.
7. The old woman suffered a lot when she heard that her youngest son
was experiencing difficulties and needed to be helped.
8. Everything was getting worse and worse and we all knew that he was
a president whose period in office was coming to an end.
9. How could such a beautiful woman marry that narrow-minded guy?
10. Madeleine was broken down when she heard that the last hard battle
had caused Orrin not to be able to walk properly.
11. After a two months voyage the whole crew was happy to reach the
shore.
12. At an early age she fell in love with a man living in an imaginary place
of impossible dreams and perfection.
13. They decided to send him there a few days before just to try and grasp
the state of affairs/ see how matters stood.
14. (spoken, humorous) Im so glad to see you have recovered.
15. I wonder why most people are now thinking of Canada as the place
where life is very easy and pleasant.
16. (fig.) He was jumping with joy thinking that he had caught the big fish/
had been very lucky.
17. (informal) She was so proud that her brother had won the big prize.
18. He saw red every time she managed to get out of any difficult
situation.
19. He had never imagined that one day he would find himself without
board and house.
20. It was too late when she realized that she had caused her friend to get
into trouble.
21. We all knew that he was tangled in that fishy affair and that it would
bring him in a very embarrassing situation.
22. As the owners sons were not getting on well with one another, the
company finally got to a very bad situation.
1.8.2. Give the paraphrases of the following troublesome words and phrases
and translate them into Romanian:
1. Living among such people he couldnt but lapse into a lot of nasty
habits.
2. We heard her grandfather had been a lapsed protestant.
3. We knew he was away, but we were amazed to see him there, as
large as life.
4. Every time she came across him she looked through him though he
was larger than life.
5. The kids hid her handbag for a lark and she couldnt pay for the milk.
6. (BrE, spoken)Gather all these papers and do the room right now?
Blow/ sod that for a lark!
7. The waiter brought me chicken soup again; I couldnt stand that eating
lark any more.
8. She went to sleep early but was up with the lark every morning.
9. The kids lurked behind the old nut-tree waiting for their neighbour to
leave; they wanted to steal the apples she had put on the bench.
10. (informal)When he saw his car damaged he lashed himself into a
terrible fury.
11. When the old woman saw the glass broken she started lashing out at
the kids playing in the yard.
12. The last dish was delicious; it was pie with lashings of apple and nuts.
13. I thought it foolish of him to go up there himself, to say the least.
14. Nobody knew where he had been, least of all his wife.
15. She knew what was going on but didnt say anything; she was thinking
that least said, soonest mended.
16. He used to be a plain man, but this time he felt there was something
wrong so he kept what he knew for himself; he thought that the least
said, the better.
17. Though late in life, she was a good-looking woman.
18. If you take care of yourself now, you will be healthy in later years.
1.8.3. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the troublesome
words and phrases. Give their English paraphrases:
1.
Membrii comitetului au dirijat discuia ctre nenelegerile

referitoare la bugetul necesar realizrii proiectului de cercetare.
2.
Ne-a povestit c n cele ase luni ct a stat la tatl su vitreg a
avut o via foarte grea/ o via de cine.

3.
Le prea ru c bunicul lor era foarte bolnav, dar tiau c n
tineree avusese/ dusese o via foarte dezordonat/ frivol/ de
plceri.
4.
Nu puteau s-i cumpere nici mcar o cas mic; erau foarte
sraci i triau de azi pe mine.
5.
Toat lumea tia c cei doi nu se neleg i c duc o via dubl.
6.
Avocatul aprrii a obiectat mpotriva faptului c acuzarea pune
martorului ntrebri tendenioase.
7.
Ne-am sturat de mofturile lui. Ne-a scos peri albi/ ne-a dat
atta btaie de cap/ ne-a fcut zile fripte tot timpul ct a stat la noi.
8.
Nu-mi place deloc faptul c este meschin i i face pe toi s
joace dup cum le cnt ea. Pcat c muli au ncredere n ea.
9.
Cum poate un om ca el s se lase dus de nas?
10.
Cred c idila lui cu Ioana l-a schimbat de ctva timp, l-a fcut
s se abat de la drumul lui/ de la preocuprile sale.
11.
Soul ei a avut mai multe aventuri n tineree iar acum ea i face
viaa un infern/ imposibil/ zile fripte.
12.
Sora mea vitreg ne-a fcut viaa un calvar n ultimele luni din
cauza fiei de pmnt pe care a motenit-o de la bunicul.
13.
Echipa din care fcea el parte a fost n frunte timp de doi ani,
dar acum doi juctori foarte buni au fost exclui/ lsai pe dinafar i
echipa nu mai este cum era.
14.
Comentariile pe care le-a fcut cu privire la rezultatele obinute
au picat foarte prost.
15.
Se vedea clar c ceea ce spunea era doar o scuz care nu
inea/ era cusut cu a alb i au rugat-o s termine cu minciunile/ s
nu se mai prefac.
16.
Dac a fi n locul tu a fi mai prudent n ceea ce l privete.
17.
Toi i ddeau seama c este cam viclean i c nu se pot baza
pe el.
18.
i propusese s-l aduc n faa instanei dar tia c trebuie s
consulte un avocat.
19.
Contabilul a refuzat s semneze contractul deoarece i-a dat
seama c afacerea nu este legal.
20.
Concluzia fireasc la care au ajuns toi a fost c nu-l interesau
deloc rezultatele cercetrilor de laborator.
1.8.4. Translate into English paying special attention to the troublesome
words and phrases. Give their synonyms and paraphrases in English:
1. Nu l-am invitat nuntru pentru c era mare dezordine n camer.
2. Trebuie s-i amintesc c a avut de cteva ori ocazia s-i
dovedeasc tria de caracter.
3. M ateptam s fac un scandal ngrozitor, dar spre marea mea
surprindere era blnd ca un mieluel.
4. M-am bucurat mult c am avut vreme bun, pentru c am putut spa
toat grdina.
5. Nu putem spune c am avut o iarn grea; chiar a fost o iarn blnd.
6. I-a fcut doar cteva reprouri cu blndee, dar tot s-a suprat pe ea.
Aa-s brbaii.
7. Mi-a plcut brnza aceea; nu era srat.
8. Dei era foarte nervoas, el i-a rspuns cu blndee c nu vrea s fie
o povar pentru ea.
9. M-am gndit c nu se cade s spun ceea ce aveam eu pe suflet, c ar

fi complet deplasat/ c n-ar fi deloc potrivit.
10. Nu i-au oferit dect cteva nenorocite de lire pentru produsele acelea
care ar fi costat destul de mult.
11. Are cteva amintiri confuze cu privire la tot ce s-a ntmplat.
12. Nu cred c se cuvenea s faci asemenea glume cnd erau i femei de
fa.
13. Prinii lui nu suportau s-l vad ntr-o companie/ societate dubioas.
14. S ai o fire deschis este bine n unele privine, ru n altele.
15. Nu ne-a venit s credem cnd am auzit c este amestecat n afacerea
aceea dubioas.
16. Mi-a fost tare mil de el! Mi-am dat seama c este un copil
traumatizat.
17. Cred c s-a fcut o ncurctur n ceea ce privete rezervarea locurilor
la restaurant.
18. Asta s-a ntmplat din cauza harababurii/ zpcelii de la sfritul
conferinei.
19. n fiecare diminea l auzeam bombnind c are de fcut multe
treburi.
20. Nu mai suporta s aud gemetele rniilor.
21. Ast-noapte nu a fost lun; nu vedeai nimic pe ntuneric.
22. Mi-e mil de Donna; i pierde vremea explicndu-i soului ei c face
foarte multe greeli. E ca i cum ar ltra un cine la lun.
23. Era n al noulea cer c se mrit.
24. Pretinde c este prietenul nostru iar el vine pe la noi din an n Pate/
din Pate n Crciun.
25. Cum poate fi att de meschin? A uitat c atunci cnd a avut nevoie de
ea i-a promis i luna de pe cer.
26. Mai bine nu-i lua n seam i ai grij de profesia ta/ de treburile tale.
Cinii latr, caravana trece.
27. M sturasem pn peste cap s-l aud plngndu-i de mil toat
ziua.
28. Eram frnt de oboseal; am condus aproape zece ore iar traficul
fusese foarte intens.
29. Toate bunurile lui mobile le-au revenit nepoilor.
30. Nu am fost deloc surprini cnd ne-au spus c ea a fost cea care a
iniiat ntotdeauna toate schimbrile.
1.8.5. Provide phrases with merge, mess, mixed, give their Romanian
equivalents and find suitable contexts for them.
1.8.6. Make right choices of the paraphrases corresponding to the
troublesome words and phrases given below. Provide suitable contexts and
translate them into Romanian:
1. macaroon. 2. macaroni. 3. as mad as wet hen/ a hatter/ a March hare. 4.
make a mad dash. 5. work like magic. 6. have a magic touch. 7. magical. 8. a
maze of rules/ regulations/ details. 9. bear somebody no malice. 10. with
malice afterthought. 11. much maligned. 12. malignant. 13. to mark
somebody out for. 14. to marry somebody off.
15. as merry as a cricket/
lark. 16. to master ones fear/ weakness. 17. to muster up courage. 18. pass
muster. 19. (BrE, informal) make a meal of. 20. (AmE) a meal ticket. 21. to go
through the mill. 22. put somebody through the mill. 23. run-of-the-mill.

a) thin pipe-like Italian pasta, cooked in boiling water; b) a cake made of
sugar, eggs, crushed almonds and coconut; (informal) dull, idiot; (informal,
BrE) a dandy; c) behave in an uncontrolled way; d) be extremely angry; e) to
have a special ability to make things work well; f) be very effective; g) very
charming and enjoyable; h) a large number of complicated rules; i) done on
purpose; j) not to have the desire to harm somebody in spite of their
behaving badly to you; k) showing a strong desire to harm somebody; l)
unfairly criticized; m) to be destined for; n) to find a husband or wife for; o)
extremely happy; p) to cheer up, to try and find courage in order to do
something difficult; r) fight against a bad feeling; s) to be accepted as
satisfactory; t) a way of getting money to secure a good life style; u) spend
too much time or effort doing something; v) to make somebody work hard
and suffer; x) to experience a lot of hardships; y) considered to be ordinary,
uninteresting.
1.8.7. Make the right choice of the English equivalents for the following words
and phrases considered to be translation difficulties:
1. srccios. 2. de origine modest. 3. a fi ru intenionat, a avea intenii
rele. 4. a fi bine intenionat, a avea intenii bune. 5. rutcios. 6. a cheltui
prea mult, a-i permite multe lucruri. 7. a costa mai mult dect i poate
permite cineva. 8. un scop n sine. 9. cu orice pre. 10. cine s-atinge de
mrcini, nevtmat nu scap. 11. ncurctur, harababur. 12. a fi ncurcat,
nvlmit. 13. a se zpci cnd are prea mult de lucru. 14. a proceda haotic.
15. a ncurca/ amesteca lucrurile, a ncurca iele. 16. a nu fi n stare s
gndeasc limpede, a fi confuz. 17. a-i gsi naul/ omul. 18. a se bga n
gura lupului. 19. a reui s o scoat la capt, a tri de azi pe mine. 20. a se
izbi/ lovi de/ a da peste greuti.
1.8.8. Comment on the ways of rendering the following troublesome
Romanian words, phrases and structures into English:
1. grozav. 2. vechi de cnd lumea, de pe vremea lui Pazvante. 3. a avea
foarte mult experien n/ la. 4. srmana. 5. poliia. 6. (informal) btrn, rea
i ciclitoare, zgripuroaic. 7. Vulpea btrn nu se prinde cu psruicile
mici. 8. Cinele btrn nu latr la lun. 9. Calul btrn nu se mai nva n
buiestru. 10. Boii btrni fac brazda dreapt. 11. i scutur baba (Dochia)
cojocul. 12. cntece vechi dar nemuritoare.
1.8.9. Translate, interpret and make comments on the following excerpts
considering the theoretical aspects discussed in the previous sections:
a) -Pe ce te bazezi? zise tefan, uitndu-se n jos, cu pleoapele lsate i cu
sprncenele ridicate, semn al unei absene a gndului aproape total, dei
se vedea c asculta cu cea mai mare atenie ceea ce spunea taic-su.
- Pe ce m bazez? strig Parizianu. M bazez pe chiondoroenia lui,
se uit la tine ca i cnd s-ar crede cel mai detept din ci exist, n timp ce
nu tie nici mcar s ridice un pai de lng el Iar tat-su, dac era ceva de
capul lui, ajungea i el primar, nu umbla s vnd pmntul i s rd lumea
de el. Nu mi-a spus mie Aristide? M, alde Parizianu, zice, vorbete tu cu
Moromete, dac e om detept, l fac primar Eu m retrag Pi, de ce,
domnule Aristide, zic, n-ai mai gsit pe nimeni n partidul liberal ct e satu
sta de mare? E, dar e 'oi, zice, mie mi trebuie unul care s nu fie o! i ce,
se terminar oamenii cinstii? E cinstii, zice, da' e proti, mie mi trebuie unu
i cinstit i detept Dac ar fi venit la mine i-ai fi spus i ar fi ajuns i el

cineva.
b) -Nu mai spune ! Ct de mare eti acum? chicoti ea din nou. Mai bine zi c
eu am inut la tine De cte ori treceam pe drum spre biseric, te vedeam
ntr-o zi ai ieit pe prisp cu pinea n mn.
El ncepu s rd:
-Ha, ha, ha! Cu pinea n mn! Mare brnz!
-Mare, exclam ea cu un glas scurt, acoperind un gnd.
Poate vrusese s spun c ea l vzuse, n timp ce el nu tia, n-o
vzuse pe ea?
-Aveai o carte n mn i te-ai dus sub salcmi i te-ai ntins cu spatele n
sus. ntr-o mn ineai cartea i n alta pinea. Tocmai o scosese maicta din est: Nu rupe, m, zice, c se ncruzete, am auzit-o din tind, dar
tu ai ieit pe urm cu colcovanul n mn
-i tu unde te duceai? zise al lu Parizianu cu un glas intrigat de
aceast amintire a ei care prea ntr-adevr ndeprtat. Ci ani aveai?
-Ci aveai i tu, rspunse ea ferindu-se, ca i cnd n-ar fi vrut s
dezvluie un secret att de neptruns al vieii ei.
(Marin Preda, Delirul, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1975: 33)
Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts
Chapter 2 - Traps in translating literary texts

2.1. Like any kind of communication, translation is recipient/reader
oriented. Starting from this idea, it is the intended purpose of the target text
(TT) i.e. translation skopos (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984), that imposes the
translation methods, techniques and strategies. Unlike the functional or
specialized translations that have to consider the end user and have to
meet with certain exact requirements such as conciseness, exactness and
objectivity, the literary translations need careful investigation of the cultural,
social and historical contexts of the source text (ST) and target text (TT).
Besides the extralinguistic factors, they need psycholinguistic, linguistic and
pragmatic knowledge of both languages and cultures in which the translator
operates, the Translation Operator (TO) being a mediator between the two
languages and cultures in contact.
2.2. In translating literary texts, both the translation theory and
practice, on the one hand, and translation criticism, on the other, have to
consider a series of criteria for the analysis of the ST and TT important in
interpreting and translating the text. Among the most important coordinates of
literary translations, intentionality determines the translators choices, the
authors intention being as important as the recipient that defines the
communicative situation and the function of the text.
According to the functional pragmatic approach, translation criticism
focuses on the product of the translating process, i.e. the TT, comparing it to
the ST. A critical analysis of the ST and TT version(s) is made in terms of
accuracy, adequacy and effect. Style, which is a property of language users
in particular kinds of settings (Hatim and Mason 1992: 10) is also extremely
important both in translating literary texts and in comparing the ST and TT
version(s).
The ideal to touch in translating literary texts consists in expressing
the whole universe of ideas of the source language text (SLT). In a wider
sense, this ideal means the re-creation of the SLT in the TL by different
means, which reminds us of R. Jakobsons likeness in fundamental
difference (Jakobson 1959).The literary translation helps the reader go ,by
way of comprehension, up to the authors universe of ideas and feelings, as
Schleiermacher put it. Re-creating the SLT means decoding the authors
universe, rendering the denotations and the connotations in the TL, rendering
the message, as well as identifying, on the one hand, with the authors
universe in the TL system and with the TL reader, on the other.
One of the most important semantic aspects of translation is the
semantic content of a word which consists of: a) the general meaning of the
linguistic notion; b) the occasional meaning , i.e. the general meaning in a
certain situational context; c) the general representation of the notion as a
result of all the occasional uses or occurrences ; d) the secondary
representations, i.e.
subjective associations; e) feeling tones, i.e.
connotations.
Therefore, distinction must be made between the primary linguistic
aspect, based on the cognitive experience and including the denotative
meaning usually described by means of referential definitions, and the
secondary linguistic aspect which includes the specific overtones related
to the cultural context or to a certain individual experience , i.e.
connotations.

Nida distinguishes between the referential or cognitive meaning,
related to the extralinguistic object in its cultural context, and the emotive
meaning, related to the subjective relations. The former is possible, though
sometimes difficult to translate, but it can be exactly rendered to a certain
extent, whereas the latter is very difficult to translate. These feeling tones
are real traps for translators of literary texts.
2.3. A translator of literary texts should never forget one of the
fundamental translation principles, namely that the translation should
accurately reflect the meaning of the original text and that nothing should be
added or removed arbitrarily, though, occasionally, part of the meaning can
be transposed.
The so-called loaded words and phrases, with underlying
implications, as well as the words and phrases whose dictionary meanings
are not the most suitable ones, are frequent traps for literary translators.
In order to illustrate various types of difficulties a translator has to
overcome in translating literary texts, a series of examples will be provided
out of many others found in investigating a very large corpus, prepared for
study with a group of students within the master programme in the
Translation and interpretation specialization.
In discussing such traps which cover many types of difficulties, we
considered both the extralinguistic or extratextual factors (socio-cultural and
historical background, author, the authors intention, the place and the time
the ST was written in function of the ST/TT, and the ST / TT reader), on the
one hand, and the linguistic or intratextual factors (subject matter, content,
presupposition - as carriers of semantic information - , as well as
composition, lexis, sentence structure both surface and deep structure
and suprasegmental features ), all of them bearing stylistic implications.
All these factors are very useful in the correct interpretation of the ST
within a Translation Oriented Text Analysis (TOTA), and in producing the
TT.
2.4. A number of translation difficulties found in the corpus studied were
classified according to the following criteria:
1) Connotations difficult to render in the TT;
2) Different contextual distributions in the TL;
3) Collocabillity;
4) Shifts or transpositions;
5) Different syntactic structures from SL to TL.
Studying the connotations found in the corpus, three types were
obvious: a) connotations derived from the primary dictionary meaning or
denotation; b) connotations derived from one of the secondary dictionary
meanings; c) (a) different connotation(s) in the TT in terms of the co text.
Among the three types of connotations mentioned above, the first one
was the most frequent in translating five of the fragments included in the
corpus. An interesting example may be the noun consecration in the structure
consecration of its loneliness (in the fragment from Jane Eyre), rendered by
sfinenia singurii: I saw the fascination of the locality. I felt the
consecration of its loneliness Descopeream fascinaia tinutului. Simeam
sfinenia singurtii acestei aezri
In this context, the noun consecration cannot be translated by its first
meaning, i.e. dedication to the service and worship of God (Webster), but it
has to be given a connotative meaning in terms of the co text, as well as in
terms of its collocabillity with the verb to reverence:

I liked to read what they liked to read;what they enjoyed delighted
me;what they approved I reverenced mi plcea s citesc ceea ce le
plcea i lor; ceea ce pentru ele era o bucurie, pentru mine era o ncntare;
preuiam tot ceea ce ele apreciau
Another example is the verb to shield in the syntagm to shield his life
from the eyes of men, in the fragment from The Landscape Painter: For five
years, accordingly,he managed to shield his life from the eyes of men n
consecin, a reuit timp de cinci ani s triasc departe de privirile celor din
jur
This verb cannot be translated by its primary dictionary meanings, i. e. ai proteja /a-i feri viaa de, because they are not specific to the TL; besides,
the Romanian phrase de ochii lumii has fully different connotations and
matches different contexts. Therefore, a phrase specific to Romanian has to
be used.
The adjective outside in the structure the outside world (in the fragment
from Picture of Dorian Gray) was rendered by cei care nu-l cunoteau prea
bine/ care l cunoteau mai puin in terms of the co-text,in contrast with
Society cei apropiai:
At half past twelve next day Lord Henry Wotton strolled from Curzon
Street
over to the Albany to call on his uncle, Lord Fermor, a genial
if somewhat rough mannered old bachelor, whom the outside world called
selfish because it derived no particular benefit from him, but who was
considered generous by Society as he fed the people who amused him A
doua zi la dousprezece i jumtate, lordul Henry Wotton porni agale din
strada Curzon spre Albany pentru a-i face o vizit unchiului su, lordul
Fermor, un burlac btrn i vesel, dei oarecum lipsit de maniere despre
care cei ce l cunoteau mai puin spuneau c este un egoist, cci nu
trgeau nici un folos de pe urma lui dar considerat generos de cei apropiai
deoarece le ddea de mncare celor care l amuzau.
Considering the co text (including the reference to Lord Fermor), it
becomes obvious that the noun Society does not refer here to the whole
body of individuals living as members of a community, but to one social class
only, that of the wealthy, prominent and fashionable persons (Webster:
1351); moreover, it is spelt with a capital letter. Consequently, involving the
emphasis that Lord Fermor was part of that social class and that he knew
almost all its remarkable representatives, the translators final choice was cei
apropiai in contrast with cei ce l cunoteau mai puin.
More examples of such connotations could be found in the fragment
from Typhoon, e. g. pitch, suck, tunnel: Her lurches had an appalling
helplessness; she pitched as if taking a header into a void, and seemed to
find a wall to hit every time At certain moments, the air streamed against
the ship as if sucked through a tunnel with a concentrated solid force of
impact that seemed to lift her clean out of the water and keep her up for an
instant with only a quiver running through her from end to end. Zbuciumul
lui [vasului] dovedea o neputin nspimnttoare: disprea n talazuri ca i
cum ar fi plonjat n gol i de fiecare dat prea c se izbete de un zidn
rstimpuri, curenii de aer loveau vasul de parc l-ar fi tras n jos printr-o
plnie uria cu o cumplit fora de impact care izbea vasul cu nverunare i
care prea c l ridic cu totul din ap i l ine astfel pre de o clip, strbtut
doar de un tremur de la un capt la altul. The verb pitch was translated by
disprea n talazuri, due to the impossibility of translating it by its first
dictionary meaning, i.e. to fall suddenly and heavily in a particular direction
(LDCE). Its synonyms, a se avnta/ azvrli/ arunca/ afunda/ prbui/ pica do

not collocate with the noun vas in order to describe the movement of the
ship. The elliptical comparative clause as if sucked through a tunnel was
interpreted in terms of the context, as the noun tunnel could not be translated
by tunel/ canal/ coridor/ eav/ galerie, none of them collocating with either
cureni de aer or cumplita for de impact; the final choice was made for the
Romanian equivalent to have the same effect on the reader. Consequently, in
order to preserve the stylistic effect of the verb suck, the Romanian variant
tras n jos printr-o plnie uria was the best choice; furthermore, the epithet
uria emphasises the contrast between the size of the ship and the
unleashed forces of nature the ship fought against.
The connotations derived from one of the secondary dictionary
meanings are also very frequent and difficult to render in the TL. For
example, the substantivized adjective the impertinent (in the fragment from
The Landscape Painter) was rendered by celor indiscrei, because it was
interpreted to have a connotation derived from the secondary dictionary
meaning, i.e. nepotrivit. The use of the adjective curioi in the published
version is also a good choice. The noun spots (in the fragment from What
Maisie Knew) was translated by its connotation, i.e. imperfeciuni, because it
was associated with brilliancy of a ladys complexion translated by strlucirea
obrazului unei doamne and with the structure the mothers character: The
father, who, though bespattered from head to foot, had made good his case,
was,[] appointed to keep her;it was not so much that the mothers
character had been more absolutely damaged as that the brilliancy of a
ladys complexion [] might be more regarded as showing the spots
Tatl, dei mprocat cu noroi din cap pn-n picioare, i pledase bine
cauza,[..] fu numit susintorul legal, nu att pentru faptul c reputaia mamei
a fost iremediabil compromis, ct pentru faptul c strlucirea obrazului unei
doamne [] ar putea fi privit mai mult ca o imperfeciune.
A very interesting example may be the syntagm of all the moods and
tenses of the ocean (in the fragment from The Landscape Painter):
I am enamoured of all the moods and tenses of the ocean Snt ndrgostit
de capriciile i toanele oceanului
This final choice was made because these connotations preserve the
stylistic effect of the hendyadis in the ST.
In studying the types of connotations and the ways of rendering them
in the TL, a lot of words were found in the source texts with different
connotations in the TTs in terms of the co- text. The structure mutually
entertained (in the fragment fom Jane Eyre) was rendered by simindu-ne
bine mpreun, because the transitive a distra pe cineva has different
connotations in the TL: Thus occupied, and mutually entertained, days
passed like hours, and weeks like days Avnd astfel de preocupri i
simindu-ne bine mpreun, zilele treceau ca orele, iar sptmnile ca zilele.
A very interesting example is with her full complement of limbs (in The
Landscape Painter) that cannot be rendered by cu braele ntregi, which
would miss the stylistic effect of the original. The variant n deplintatea
formelor ei would be wrong, and nainte de a fi mutilat would mean more
than the authors intention and would even alter the original: I used to hear
that her lover was fond of comparing her to Venus of Milo; and, indeed, if you
can imagine the mutilated goddess with her full complement of limbs []
you may obtain a vague notion of Miss Josephine Leary. Auzeam adesea
c iubitului ei i plcea foarte mult s-o compare cu statuia lui Venus din Milo;
i ntr-adevr, dac v-ai imagina-o pe zei avnd i braele ntregi [],
atunci v-ai face o idee vag despre nfiarea domnioarei Leary.

Consequently, this final choice is considered to match the original better
in terms of adequacy
In the same text, the structure of heroic proportions cannot be given a
literal translation, because the effect would be rather hilarious. More than
that, there is no reference to size, but it is her beauty that is meant,
comparison being drawn to the statue of Venus:
When he walked about with his betrothed it was half a matter of surprise
that he should have ventured to propose to a young lady of such heroic
proportions Cnd se plimba alturi de logodnica lui, era oarecum
surprinztor faptul c ndrznise s cear n cstorie o domnioar de o
asemenea frumusee statuar.
The contextual distribution of every lexical item is specific to each of the
two languages in contact. Such may be the case of the noun portions (in
What Maisie Knew) translated by cele doua jumti considering the
determiner used with its anaphoric function, as well as the fact that it does
not collocate with the verb a mpri. There is repetition in the published
version, besides the use of the verb a tia even if it is used in its
connotation:She was divided in two and the portions tossed impartially to the
disputants. Ea a fost mprit n dou, iar jumtile au fost aruncate fr
prtinire celor care i-o revendicau.
The Romanian equivalents of the noun simpleton have different
contextual distributions. In the fragment from Pride And Prejudice it was
translated by nerod, not by ntru, although, according to a semantic
translation, it would render the meaning of the original better (V.Breban:
ntru care pricepe greu). However, ntru/ prost/ bleg /imbecil have
different contextual distributions in Romanian: If I can perceive her regard for
him, he must be a simpleton indeed not to discover it too. Dac eu mi pot
da seama de admiraia ei pentru el, atunci el trebuie s fie chiar nerod s nu
observe acest lucru.
Another interesting example can be found in one of H. James titles, i.e.
papers, in The Aspern Papers, rendered by nsemnri not by documente,
although it is used with the meaning of a document establishing or verifying
identity, status, or the like: citizenship papers (Webster: 1044). It cannot be
translated as such because of the different contextual distribution: papers
refers to someones personal notes diary.
One of the major problems which a translator has to face is to use
appropriate collocations in the TLT. He has to overcome the danger that SL
interference may escape unnoticed and an unnatural collocation may occur
in the TT. Translating collocations requires the translators competence
because they provide powerful evidence of intentionality and text type
focus. They can point to the intended meaning, which is not made explicit by
other means. For example, the collocation odd justice (in What Maisie
Knew) was translated as acest mod de a face dreptate prea ciudat, not by
the collocation dreptate ciudat, which is not accepted in Romanian.
Moreover, it refers to the manner in which justice was done: This was odd
justice in the eyes of those who still blinked in the fierce light projected from
the tribunal a light in which neither parent figured in the least as a happy
example to youth and innocence. Acest mod de a face dreptate prea
ciudat n ochii celor care nc mai clipeau orbii de lumina necrutoare ce
venea dinspre tribunal lumina n care nici unul din prini nu aprea ctui
de puin ca un exemplu fericit pentru o fiin fraged i nevinovat.
There are TL collocations in which neither the primary nor the secondary
dictionary meanings of the SL noun can be used, and the translator has to

find a synonym accepted by the TL. For example, the noun congeniality in
the collocation congeniality of tastes, sentiments and principles (in Jane
Eyre) has to be rendered by potrivire to collocate with all the three nouns: de
gusturi, sentimente i principii: There was a reviving pleasure in this
intercourse, of a kind now tasted by me for the first time - the pleasure
arising from perfect congeniality of tastes, sentiments and principles. n
acest fel de prietenie, gseam o plcere care m nsufleea i pe care o
simeam pentru prima dat plcerea care izvora din potrivirea perfect de
gusturi, sentimente i principii.
An interesting example that may seem striking to the reader just because
it creates a special stylistic effect is the collocation a concentrated solid force
of impact (in Typhoon). It could not be rendered by a symmetrical collocation
in the TT, i.e. fora masiv compact/ fora solid de impact cumplit/ fora
concentrat de impact, because none of these structures is appropriate in
terms of collocability in Romanian. Therefore, it was translated as cumplita
for de impact in order to render the meaning of concentrated as well: At
certain moments the air streamed against the ship as if sucked through a
tunnel with a concentrated solid force of impact that seemed to lift her clean
out of the water [] n rstimpuri, curenii de aer loveau vasul de parc l-ar
fi tras n jos printr-o plnie uria cu o cumplit for de impact care izbea
vasul cu nverunare i care prea c l ridic cu totul din ap [].
Such rare and apparently unacceptable collocations are called marked
collocations. They strike the reader because they involve deliberate
confusion of collocational ranges to create new images. They may seem
untypical in the common language, but they are often used in literary prose
and poetry.
The differences in the collocational patterning of the SL and TL create
potential pitfalls and can be real traps for literary translators who sometimes
get quite engrossed in the source text and may produce the oddest
collocations in the target language for no justifiable reason (M.Baker 1992:
54). Translating collocations often involves a tension a difficult choice
between what is typical and what is accurate. Consequently, it is the
collocational patterning of a word that determines its different meanings.
According to the principle that translation conveys more or less than the
original (Croitoru 1996: 40), the TL equivalent epithet may not be sufficient
to render the semantic content and the stylistic effect of the SL word. For
example, the epithet fierce in the collocation fierce light (in What Maisie
Knew) was translated by necrutoare not by puternic/ orbitoare that would
mean less than fierce in the original.
Consequently, interpretation during the translating process concentrates
on finding the appropriate expression to convey a given meaning [] in a
given context, and involves the identification of relevant concepts and their
rewording in another language so that the SL and TL wordings may
correspond in their temporary meaning in a given speech performance
(Croitoru 1996 : 39).
Shifts (Catfords term) or transpositions (Vinay and Darbelnets) are
frequent translation procedures which involve changes in the grammar from
SL to TL. One of the most frequent cases is the use of a long syntagm to
render a noun. For example, the noun sweetness (in What Maisie Knew) was
translated as gustul dulce al succesului, because the TL lacks an equivalent
in such a context:
Attached, however, to the second pronouncement was a condition that
detracted, for Beale Farange, from its sweetness an order that he should

refund to his late wife the twenty-six hundred pounds down by her [] Cu
toate acestea, la a doua pronunare s-a adugat o clauz care i lua lui Beale
Farange din gustul dulce al succesului hotrre prin care trebuia s
restituie fostei sale soii cele dou mii ase sute de lire sterline, pltite de
ea[..].
For communicative purposes, in the published version it was translated
by s primeasc hotrrea cu mai putin entuziasm covering the whole
syntactic structure the predicate included. In the same fragment, the noun
sider was translated by a very long syntagm including an attributive clause,
i.e. cei care erau de partea unuia sau a celuilalt:
There had been sides before, and there were sides as much as ever; for
the sider too the prospect opened out, taking the pleasant form of a
superabundance of matter for desultory conversation Fusesera i nainte
pri adverse, dar acum erau unul mpotriva celuilalt mai mult ca niciodat /
Erau i acum, ca i nainte,prti adverse; iar celor care erau de partea unuia
sau a celuilalt li se ofereau noi prilejuri ce cptau forma placut a
numeroaselor/ ce se concretizau n numeroase subiecte pentru conversaii
ocazionale i inutile.
Another example is the noun wellwishers also rendered by an attributive
clause, because it could not be translated by any of the synonyms
susintori/ simpatizani/ partizani/ doritori de bine that have different
contextual distributions: That most popular with Locksleys wellwishers was
that he had backed out [] Cel mai frecvent comentariu printre cei care
erau de partea lui Locksley era ca el fusese cel care renunase []
The verbal adjective is most frequently rendered into Romanian by a
whole clause, usually an attributive clause. For example, reviving in the
collocation reviving pleasure (in Jane Eyre) was translated by the attributive
clause care m nsufleea: There was a reviving pleasure in this intercourse,
of a kind now tasted by me for the first time - the pleasure arising from
perfect congeniality of tastes, sentiments, and feelings. n acest fel de
prietenie, gseam o plcere care m nsufleea i pe care o simeam pentru
prima dat plcerea care izvora din potrivirea perfect de gusturi,
sentimente i principii.
In the published version, it was translated by the adjective mare
+attributive clause, i.e. o mare bucurie pe care o gustam ntia oar which is
considered to be a semantic loss.
2.5. Differences in the grammatical structures of the SL and TL may
often bring about some change in the information content of the message.
Two of the most frequent and most obvious changes are those taking the
form of addition (i.e. adding to the TT information that is not expressed in the
ST), or of omission (i.e. omitting information specified in the ST).
Here are some of the most frequent syntactic structures found in the texts
analysed and translated:
2.5.1. SL noun: a) TL noun +adjective (breezes aerul rcoros);
b) TL noun + det. + adj. (extravagance cheltuielile
mele extravagante):
a) And we, the weary pilgrims of the London pavement, were
beginning to think of the cloud shadows on the corn fields, and the
autumn breezes on the sea shore. Iar noi, istovii pelerini ai strzilor
Londrei, ncepeam s ne gndim la umbrele norilor deasupra lanurilor de
gru i la aerul rcoros de toamn la malul mrii.

b) And my extravagance now limited me to the prospect of spending the
autumn economically between my mothers cottage at Hampstead and my
own chambers in town. Iar cheltuielile mele extravagante nu-mi lsau
acum dect posibilitatea de a-mi petrece toamna ntr-un mod mai chibzuit
ntre csua din Hampstead a mamei i apartamentul meu din ora.
2.5.2. SL adj. + adj. TL adv. + adj. (a charm both potent and
permanent pururea irezistibil): I, too, in the gray, small, antique structure
[] found a charm both potent and permanent. i eu, la rndul meu,
gseam un farmec pururea irezistibil n csua aceea cenuie i veche [].
2.5.3. SL noun + verb + noun: a) TL verb + adv. (thought fitted
thought gandeam la fel );
b) TL verb (a avea )+ det. + noun (opinion met
opinion aveam aceleai preri ): Though fitted thought; opinion met
opinion; we coincided, in short, perfectly. Gndeam la fel; aveam aceleai
preri; pe scurt, ne nelegeam perfect.
2.5.4. SL noun + prep. + noun:
a) TL verb + direct object clause (claims to distinction
pretindeau c se deosebesc prin ceva: Both parties possessed
certain
claims to distinction . Ambele pri pretindeau c se deosebesc prin ceva
anume.
b) TL noun + adj. (the blackness of the clouds norii ntunecai;
effect of quietness efect linititor):
And on this dazzling sheet, spread under the blackness of the clouds
[], Captain MacWhirr could catch a desolate glimpse of a few tiny specks
black as ebony [] i pe aceast ntindere strlucitoare de sub norii
ntunecai [], cpitanul MacWhirr reui s deslueasc nite puncte mici,
rzlee, negre ca abanosul[].
And he heard that voice, forced and ringing feebly, but with a penetrating
effect of quietness in the enormous discord of noises, as if sent out from
some remote spot of peace[] i din nou auzi glasul acela slab, dar care
ncerca s se fac auzit, cu un puternic efect linititor n vacarmul acela
asurzitor, venind parc din vreun loc ndeprtat , dintr-o oaz de linite [].
c) TL noun + prep. + (det./ pron.) noun + prep. + noun (
[ remote] spot of peace loc [ ndeprtat] dintr-o /vreo oaz de linite ) (see
above).
Sometimes the TL grammatical structure is different in terms of
relevance. For example, the verb to find is irrelevant in the sentence She
seemed to find a wall to hit. Consequently, the translation was Prea c se
lovete de un zid (in Typhoon,see above).
The subtle choices in point of relevance may differ significantly from one
translator to another, which would affect the quality and accuracy of the
translation. On the other hand, failure to correctly render the SL structures
will result in very unnatural texts.
d) TL noun marked for the plural corresponding to the ST
singular. For example, the nouns in the structure wave and rock and cloud
are marked for the plural in the TL in order to preserve the stylistic effect of
the original: Never before have I seen such a pretty little coast never before
have I been so taken with wave and rock and cloud. Niciodat nu am mai
vzut un col de lume att de frumos pe rmul mrii, niciodat nu am mai
fost att de fascinat de valuri, de stnci i de nori.

The coordinating conjunction and in the ST is replaced by the preposition
de in the TT in order to give the TT sentence the same rhythm and musicality
of the ST one.
Therefore, the literary translator has to overcome the restrictions imposed
by certain features of the SL structures and has to make the TT sound
natural.
2.5.6. To conclude, the content of a message in the SL cannot always be
matched by an expression with exactly the same content and the same
structure in the TL. What must be expressed is a problem as difficult as that
of how it can be expressed. Following SL norms may involve insignificant
changes in the overall meaning. On the other hand, deviations from typical
TL patterns may result in a translation that will sound foreign. It is obvious
that the literary translator has to be competent in handling the SL patterns in
order to correctly render the message in the TL and to produce a TT which
will read naturally and smoothly
2.6. Practical applications

2.6.1. Translate into Romanian paying attention to the translation traps:
1. I didnt know that her husband was an adman.
2. He had very little spare time because he worked in admin.
3. I cannot come with you this weekend because I want to do some
admin.
4. I was amazed to hear his admission that it had been his fault. I knew
that the admission of guilt is always hard.
5. The admission of women to that club was something new in those
parts.
6. She was a bad cook by/ on her own admission.
7. From now on youll have free admission to all art galleries.
8. I was put out to see the note: No admittance after 3 p.m.
9. The detective hoped to gain admittance to the club in less than a
week.
10. We are sorry to let you know that we have advanced the date of our
meeting from Friday to Wednesday.
11. He told me that a more interesting project had been advanced by the
British delegation.
12. She was very anxious about her husbands advance to a higher
position.
13. There was hardly any hope for his advancement.
14. The company had big profits due to an advance on petrol.
15. He could pay the rent as he had got an advance on salary two days
before.
16. That was made possible due to the advancement given by the owner
to Janet.
2.6.2. Translate into English:
1. Se tie c ndeplinete funcia de consilier cu probleme interne. 2. Te
sftuiesc s fii mai atent n privina detaliilor. 3. Nu mi-a dat niciodat mcar
un sfat n aceast privin. 4. Dozele zilnice din acest medicament se
schimb numai la sfatul medicului. 5. V-am fi recunosctori daca ne-ai
informa n privina preurilor. 6. Schimbarea aceea l-a afectat foarte mult. 7.

Jane a afiat un aer de indiferen ca s m fac s cred c n-o intereseaz
aceste schimbri. 8. Imit accentul celor din sud. 9. S-a gndit c e mai bine
s simuleze c nu tie nimic. 10. Vestea l-a impresionat profund. 11. Aceasta
ntmplare i-a marcat definitiv sensibilitatea. 12. Vederea attor rnii a
impresionat-o pn la lacrimi. 13. Cei patru generali i-au fcut un plan de
atac. 14. Pn la urm i-a ajutat doar pentru impresie. 15. Suferea de o
boal de ochi i urma s fac o operaie complicat. 16. Este medic ntr-o
ar ndeprtat i studiaz bolile care i fac s sufere pe sraci. 17.
Pmntul suferea foarte mult de pe urma secetei. 18. Judectorul a stabilit/ a
aplicat pedeapsa cea mai dur. 19. Directorul a trebuit s aplice o pedeaps
sever pentru nclcarea acestei legi. 20. Guvernul a impus taxe destul
de mari.
2.6.3. Translate the following sentences into Romanian paying special
attention to the trap words:
1.
2.
3.
4.
I liked her ashen hair which suited her perfectly.

She got scared when she saw his ashen face and sunken eyes.
These colours do not match her ashy complexion.
Its just like in that fairy tale where the little girl follows the ashy path to
reach her grannies house.
5. To all his assurances, she couldnt believe him; she knew he used to
be a big liar.
6. He didnt keep his word though he had given them his assurance that
he would get ready in due time.
7. He was sorry to let them know that the insurance didnt cover the
damage.
8. He didnt have enough money to pay the insurance on his house; he
needed to borrow some from his father-in-law.
9. She said she had been working in insurance for a couple of months,
but she didnt like it and was looking our for another job.
10. I can assure you that he will make a good job of that.
11. She was happy because she had been assured a good position.
12. He didnt care about the coming changes, because he had assured his
position.
13. These arguments will ensure them the agreement of all.
14. I just wanted to ensure that my youngest son had locked up the
house.
15. He decided to insure his house against fire.
16. He kept us waiting for more than twenty minutes but he showed up at
last.
17. Then he signed all the papers and lastly the will he had made once
again.
18. He mentioned a lot of her qualities which he admired and last of all he
mentioned her composure of temper and cheerfulness of manner.
19. He remembered that his boss had attached too much importance to
that change.
20. She hoped that no blame would be attached to her brother for that
loss.
21. He was among the few politicians who had never been attacked by
journalists.
22. They realized they couldnt attack that problem which was connected
with the funds.

2.6.4. Translate into English paying special attention to the troublesome
words:
1. Atunci erau mprejurri favorabile care i puteau ajuta foarte mult.
2. Nu-i venea s cread c se ivise o ocazie propice s-i valorifice
talentul.
3. Era fericit c ntmplarea aceea de bun augur i schimbase viaa (n
bine).
4. A jurat c va rzbuna moartea vrului su dnd foc fermei.
5. n sfrit obinu satisfacie pentru umilinele pe care le-a ndurat timp
de doi ani.
6. Rudele celui care fusese omort cutau s se rzbune.
7. Soia l nelase iar el, drept rzbunare, i-a fcut o amant.
8. Spera c ntr-o bun zi se va rzbuna pe toi cei care i btuser joc
de el.
9. S-a pus cheza pentru/ a garantat ntregul proiect ca s obin
fondurile necesare.
10. Pn la urm a trebuit s-i recunoasc sincer/ s mrturiseasc
adevratele intenii.
11. mi pare ru c am garantat pentru el ca s obin mprumut de la
banc.
12. El este cel care va rspunde/ i va asuma responsabilitatea pentru
calitatea reparaiilor.
13. L-au ruinat numai cheltuielile extravagante ale soiei.
14. ntotdeauna sare n sus/ se supr foc dac vine vorba de relaiile ei
amoroase.
15. Este foarte suprat c rudele i cer muli bani pentru casa de la ar,
acum cnd este la strmtoare/ ntr-o situaie foarte delicat/ strns cu
ua.
16. Te duce fratele ei mai mic s vezi mprejurimile; cunoate inutul foarte
bine.
17. i duceau zilele de azi pe mine; tatl lor se spetea s ctige civa
bani.
18. Dup ce s-au certat el a ieit fr s spun unde se duce i asta le-a
ntrecut pe toate.
19. De-abia ieise din curte cnd a vzut c are pan de cauciuc i a
trebuit s dea maina napoi n garaj.
20. Guvernul s-a hotrt s sprijine universitile n aceast aciune.
21. n faa acestor probe, acuzatul i-a recunoscut greeala.
22. Mai bine s-ar retrage/ i-ar vedea de drum. Chiar nu-i d seama c-i
un plicticos?
23. A reuit s conving pe toat lumea pentru c a susinut-o soul ei.
24. Nici n-a vrut s se uite napoi.
25. De obicei ei i ajut pe copiii din rile napoiate/ nedezvoltate.
26. Mi-a prut ru cnd am vzut ct sunt de nefericii pentru c au un
copil ntrziat mintal.
27. Ori de cte ori privea n urm spre prima parte a tinereii i era ruine
de greelile pe care le fcuse.
28. Era nostim cu plria pus invers/ cu partea din spate n fa.
29. Nu crezi c s-a schimbat i merge tot napoi/ n jos/ spre mai ru?
30. A dovedit c tie totul la perfecie i a luat locul nti.
2.6.5. Give the paraphrases of the troublesome words and phrases
underlined and translate them into Romanian:

1. Susan wanted to take part in the action but balked when she heard the
conditions.
2. The bulk of the goods had been damaged.
3. How could they bulk out the figures in such a way?
4. We didnt know how to handle the situations with her, as she was such a
balky girl.
5. I was wondering what that bulky parcel could contain.
6. What happened with the World Trade Center was a barbaric act of
terrorism.
7. The people who were dancing were wearing such barbaric clothes.
8. A few days later he got acquainted with that savage barbarous tribe.
9. I couldnt understand what they were speaking; their dialect seemed so
barbarous to my ears.
10. He hoped he would feel well among those people but he got such a
barbarous treatment.
11. She assured him that all the people of her tribe were very kind, but he
was shocked by their barbarism.
12. Given the political context, everybody hopes that the barbarities of the
last war will not be repeated.
13. Our customer base will be pleased with our very good service.
14. His estimations of the farm profits were off base.
15. Some of the apparata were first installed on a trial basis.
16. They used to go for a bathe on Friday afternoons.
17. Now that she felt better she went out and looked at the fields which were
bathed in sunlight.
18. The old man was wondering what would become of his grandson now
that the kids father was dead.
19. After a trial, which seemed to be endless, the jury believed him to be
innocent.
20. To his amazement, I answered that I believed in Jesus.
21. That week he felt much better due to a benefic confluence of the planets.
22. I called him up that very night to tell him that I was so very grateful for
that beneficent act.
23. I wouldnt think of anything else those days. I was happy to lie in the sun,
to swim in the sea and to feel the beneficial effect of sunshine.
24. She was beside herself when she heard that she had won the
competition.
25. The kids were beside themselves with excitement because they didnt
know what had happened with their friend.
26. Besides being the lazybones of the family he is also a big liar.
2.6.6. Give the troublesome words corresponding to the words and
paraphrases underlined and translate them into Romanian:
1. I had known her mother to be a beautiful woman but with a bad
reputation so I was thinking that the girl took after her mother.
2. He tried hard to resist the gang but they beat him up.
3. I didnt feel like carrying on the talk with him, he was a nasty guy.
4. I was so sorry that these quarrels had cast a shadow on our
happiness.
5. They were sure that such incidents were only the result of the city
decay.
6. That year the bad quality of the crop was due to the plants disease.

7. Her hatred and the lack of any support destroyed all his hopes.
8. I wont have that idiot say that again.
9. Dont you dare do that again, you blockhead.
10. After his death his children realized that all those troubles had
destroyed his cheerful nature.
11. She wouldnt even hear of going there again; she didnt like him and
thought him to be a yokel / hayseed.
12. She had imagined him to be a man with very good manners, but she
came to know him a barbarian / clod / goop.
13. How could I carry on a talk with such a boring person?
14. Whenever he told me that fishy story he used to get me extremely
bored.
15. He was so drunk and they tried hard to lift him on the horse.
16. It was a promotional offer to advertize that new product.
17. I had always thought his words the necessary help for me to become
more confident which I needed most.
18. The old people living low are very anxious about the rise in food
prices.
19. They had used to speak with pride of his rich old family.
20. Such attitudes usually make progress slower and more difficult.
21. She had to force her way through the crowd of people to reach the
gate.
22. I told him not to rely on him because he used to go back on his word.
23. They were very poor and their father had to work very hard to turn an
honest penny.
24. Everything turned out bad, but it will be fine if we come to even results
by neither making a profit not losing money.
2.6.7. Build up sentences using the following troublesome words and phrases
and translate them into English:
1. nclcare (a unui angajament/ contract, etc.). 2. tulburare a ordinii
publice/ scandal. 3. trdare. 4. a fi gata s duc tot greul muncii. 5. pantaloni
bufani/ prini sub genunchi. 6. a i se tia respiraia. 7. a merge s ia o gur
de aer. 8. a-i trage sufletul/ dup un efort. 9. a ului pe cineva. 10. pn la
moarte/ ct voi mai tri. 11. a rsufla uurat. 12. a nu sufla o vorb. 13. a lua
foc/ a spumega de mnie. 14. a sta tot timpul cu ochii pe cineva. 15. a
desfunda un butoi de vin. 16. nu pot dect s. 17. pe care s nu-l cunosc. 18.
dect s, n afar de. 19. la dou strzi de aici. 20. sigur, bineneles.
21. nu m lua cu dar. 22. Mic-i fundul! 23. Nu te mai bga ! 24. Nu te
privete/ nu te amesteca/nu-i treaba ta!
2.6.8. Translate the following troublesome words and phrases and use them
in sentences of your own:
1. canal. 2. channel. 3. cannery. 4. candent. 5. candescent. 6 . candid.
7. candied. 8. canteen. 9. cantina. 10. cantle. 11. cantling. 12. canvas. 13.
canvass. 14. caper. 15. cut a caper. 16. capper. 17. a philosophical cast of
mind. 18. to cast the blame. on. 19. to cast accounts. 20. to cast away. 21. to
cast smth in smbs teeth. 22. to cast out. 23. to cast lots. 24. to cast in ones
lot with. 25. catch-up. 26. catchup. 27. censor. 28. censure. 29. censer. 30.
centennial. 31. certifiable. 32. certificat. 33. certified. 34. cessation. 35.
cession. 36. to chafe ones shoes.

2.6.9. Explain the following troublesome words and phrases and translate
them into Romanian:
1. The detective was going to run a check on the people who had
been at the ship launching.
2. They hadnt managed to keep / hold the disease in check and a lot
of people caught it being admitted into hospital.
3. On seeing his kid beaten up the man got in such a rage and the
policeman could hardly hold him in check.
4. The little girl asked me to check over her essay.
5. They wanted to put me up but I said that I had already checked in
at the hotel.
6. I was glad to check off a lot of things which I had already bought.
7. All the banks were closed and I had to cash a cheque at the Post
Office.
8. The doctor said I was not allowed to eat fat cheese; I had to eat
only chevret.
9. I liked her chevrette handbag very much; it felt so soft and was
very smart.
10. I thought it childish of him to behave like that under the
circumstances.
11. She stood in the doorway looking at us with a smile on his childlike
face.
12. We started to shiver with cold when we felt the chill wind.
13. She said that the second dish was stewed meat with chili.
14. When they arrived they were given the cold shoulder; the next day
they were thinking to leave for another resort because of the chilly
welcome.
15. The lad was very angry because he had taken it on the chin.
16. The men were smoking in the living-room, and the ladies were
chinning over a cup of coffee upstairs.
17. When he woke up after midnight he found himself alone in the
dark. The only thing he saw was a chink of light in the darkness of
the room.
18. After that incident they were trying all the time to seize upon any
chink in her armour.
19. She didnt want anyone to know that she was working at a Chinkie.
20. She had talked to him so many times, but at that moment she felt
that she had struck / touched a chord and hoped he would do
something to change for the better.
21. Five metres of phone cord is enough to make the connexion.
22. She had a terrible sore throat as she had undergone a very difficult
operation on the vocal cords.
23. He was so funny in his cords which he was wearing when he had
to work in the garden.
24. She was happy to tell her husband that he could come with her to
that cordial reception.
2.6.10. Give the paraphrases of the troublesome words and phrases
underlined and translate them into English. Use them in context:
1. cretin/ tmpit/ prost. 2. a cpia/ a nnebuni. 3. politicos/ curtenitor. 4. a
vorbi/ a se purta drgu/ politicos. 5. a tcea mlc/ a nu scoate o vorb/ a
refuza s vorbeasc. 6. a bloca roile unei maini. 7. tipic, clasic (caz de
corupie). 8. (informal) tipic ! 9. costum clasic. 10. cleric preot. 11. treab de
funcionar. 12. a avea program de tratament i consultaii. 13. a avea

pregtire medical/ n domeniul medicinii. 14. (examinare, gndire) la rece.
15. (literary) clerul. 16. nu te ntinde mai mult dect i este plapuma. 17.
(Am.E., informal) cusut cu a alb. 18. a mbrca. 19. (literary) a nvlui. 20.
student la colegiu. 21. student cu burs la Eton College. 22. coliziune,
tamponare, ciocnire. 23. a intra n conflict. 24. nelegere secret, complot.
25. de comedie. 26. nostim. 27. a inspira stim/ respect. 28. a deine (locuri
n Parlament). 29. a-i exprima admiraia pentru. 30. a nu corespunde
cerinelor.
2.6.11. Use the following troublesome words in sentences of your own and
translate them into Romanian:
commissar commissary, commissionaire commissioner, commode
commodious, commutable commutative, compeer compere, complected
completed, complement compliment, composer compositor, composite
compound, comprehensible comprehensive, compromis compromise,
compulsive compulsory, concede conceit.
2.6.12. Translate into English:
1. Jane era confidenta mea i i spuneam ntotdeauna toate secretele.
2. Luase n primire de la unchiul su i avea ncredere n profiturile mari
pe care le va avea compania.
3. Insistar s vin i el, iar cnd apru li se pru destul de ncurcat.
4. Rspunsurile lui mi s-au prut foarte confuze.
5. Putiul era nucit de ipetele i zgomotele de afar.
6. Ne-a dat cteva indicaii confuze care nu ne-au fost de prea mare
ajutor.
7. Lucram acolo de cteva sptmni i m bucuram de tot ceea ce
fceam pentru c era o munc plcut.
8. Ne nelegeam foarte bine; aveam afiniti cu el deoarece gndeam i
simeam la fel.
9. Numai civa biei tiau c are o malformaie congenital.
10. Cei mai muli tiau c cei doi s-au desprit pentru c el era un
mincinos incorigibil.
11. Nu mi-a plcut inuta lui deoarece nu era deloc potrivit cu poziia lui
social.
12. Se simea vinovat pentru c avea pe contiin faptul c i minise
familia.
13. n momentul acela privirea tatlui su l fcu s se simt vinovat.
14. ntotdeauna refuzase s fac vreun compromis; voia s aib contiina
curat.
15. Avea foarte multe datorii i a avut tupeul s cear iar bani.
16. Avea pe contiin faptul c nu se dusese acolo cnd l chemase.
17. A leinat dar dup cteva minute au reuit s-l fac s-i revin.
18. mi plac foarte mult romanele scrise n tehnica fluxului contiinei.
19. Era contient de faptul c era o mincinoas.
20. Se numra printre partenerii contiincioi cu care i plcea s fac
afaceri.
2.6.13. Translate and explain the troublesome words in the text below.
Consider the denotative and connotative meanings:

Who are her people? grumbled the old gentleman. Has she got
any?
Lord Henry shook his head.
American girls are as clever at concealing their parents as English
women are at concealing their past, he said, rising to go.
They are pork-packers, I suppose?
I hope so, Uncle George, for Dartmoor's sake. I am told that porkpacking is the most lucrative profession in America, after politics.
Is she pretty?
She behaves as if she was beautiful. Most American women do. It is
the secret of their charm.
Why can't these American women stay in their own country? They are
always telling us that it is the Paradise for women.
It is. That is the reason why, like Eve, they are so excessively anxious
to get out of it, said Lord Henry. Good-bye, Uncle George. I shall be late for
lunch, if I stop any longer. Thanks for giving me the information I wanted. I
always like to know everything about my new friends and nothing about my
old ones.
2.6.14. Comment on the troublesome traps in the fragment below in terms of
polysemy and synonymy:
He answered to every touch and thrill of the bow ... There was something
terribly enthralling in the exercise of influence. No other activity was like it. To
project one's soul into some gracious form, and let it tarry there for a
moment; to hear one's own intellectual views echoed back to one with all the
added music of passion and youth; to convey one's temperament into
another as though it were a subtle fluid or a strange perfume; there was a
real joy in that - perhaps the most satisfying joy left to us in an age so limited
and vulgar as our own, an age grossly carnal in its pleasures, and grossly
common in its aims ... He was a marvelous type, too, this lad, whom by so
curious a chance he had met in Basil's studio; or could be fashioned into a
marvelous type, at any rate. Grace was his, and the white purity of boyhood,
and beauty such as old Greek marbles kept for us. There was nothing that
one could not do with him. He could be made a Titan or a toy. What a pity it
was that such beauty was destined to fade! ... And Basil? From a
psychological point of view, how interesting he was!
2.6.15. Give paraphrases for the verb+preposition combinations and for the
set-phrases in the fragment below:
She could have married anybody she chose. Carlington was mad
after her. She was romantic, though. All the women of that family were. The
men were a poor lot, but, egad! the women were wonderful. Carlington went
on his knees to her. Told me so himself. She laughed at him, and there
wasn't a girl in London at the time who wasn't after him. And by the way,
Harry, talking about silly marriages, what is this humbug your father tells me
about Dartmoor wanting to marry an American? Aint English girls good
enough for him?
It is rather fashionable to marry Americans just now, Uncle George.
I'll back English women against the world, Harry, said Lord Fermor,
striking the table with his fist.
The betting is on the Americans.
They don't last, I am told, muttered his uncle.

A long engagement exhausts them, but they are capital at a
steeplechase. They take things flying. I don't think Dartmoor has a chance.
2.6.16.Translate, interpret and make comments in terms of equivalence and
adequacy:
So that was the story of Dorian Gray's parentage. Crudely as it had
been told to him, it had yet stirred him by its suggestion of a strange, almost
modern romance. A beautiful woman risking everything for a mad passion. A
few wild weeks of happiness cut short by a hideous, treacherous crime.
Months of voiceless agony, and then a child born in pain. The mother
snatched away by death, the boy left to solitude and the tyranny of an old
and loveless man. Yes; it was an interesting background. It posed the lad,
made him more perfect as it were. Behind every exquisite thing that existed,
there was something tragic. Worlds had to be in travail, that the meanest
flower might blow ... And how charming he had been at dinner the night
before, as, with startled eyes and lips parted in frightened pleasure, he had
sat opposite to him at the club, the red candle shades staining to a richer
rose the wakening wonder of his face. Talking to him was like playing upon
an exquisite violin.
(Oscar Wilde, The Picture of Dorian Gray in Elena Croitoru, Floriana
Popescu, Gabriela Dima, Culegere de texte pentru traducere. vol. I, Editura
Evrika, Brila, 1996: 29-32)
2.6.17. Explain the troublesome traps in the following excerpt. Make
comments in terms of denotation and connotation:
Meantime a month was gone. Diana and Mary were soon to leave
Moor House, and return to the far different life and scene which awaited
them, as governesses in a large, fashionable, south-of-England city, where
each held a situation in families by whose wealthy and haughty members
they were regarded only as humble dependants, and who neither knew nor
sought one of their innate excellences, and appreciated only their acquired
accomplishments as they appreciated the skill of their cook or the taste of
their waiting-woman. Mr. St. John had said nothing to me yet about the
employment he had promised to obtain for me: yet it became urgent that I
should have a vocation of some kind. One morning, being left alone with him
a few minutes in the parlour, I ventured to approach the window-recess which
his table, chair and desk consecrated as a kind of study; and I was going to
speak, though not very well knowing in what words to frame my inquiry - for it
is all times difficult to break the ice of reserve glassing over such natures as
his - when he saved me the trouble by being the first to commence a
dialogue.
2.6.18. Give paraphrases for the troublesome words in the fragment below:
Incommunicative as he was, some time elapsed before I had an
opportunity of gauging his mind. I first got an idea of its calibre when I heard
him preach in his own church at Morton. I wish I could describe that sermon:
but it is past my power. I cannot even render faithfully the effect it produced
on me.

It began calm - and indeed, as far as delivery and pitch of voice went,
it was calm to the end: an earnestly felt, yet strictly restrained zeal breathed
soon in the distinct accents, and prompted the nervous language. This grew
to force - compressed, condensed, controlled. The heart was thrilled, the
mind astonished, by the power of the preacher: neither were softened.
Throughout there was a strange bitterness; an absence of consolatory
gentleness; stern allusions to Calvinistic doctrines - election, predestination,
reprobation - were frequent; and each reference to these points sounded like
a sentence pronounced for doom.
2.6.19. Translate and make comments on the following excerpt in terms of
equivalence and adequacy:
Often, in the evening, when he sat at the window, his desk and papers
before him, he would cease reading or writing, rest his chin on his hand, and
deliver himself up to I know not what course of thought; but that it was
perturbed and exciting might be seen in the frequent flash and changeful
dilation of his eye.
I think, moreover, that nature was not to him that treasure of delight it
was to his sisters. He expressed once, and but once in my hearing, a strong
sense of the rugged charm of the hills, and an inborn affection for the dark
and hoary walls he called his home; but there was more of gloom than
pleasure in the tone and words in which the sentiment was manifested; and
never did he seem to roam the moors for the sake of their soothing silence never seek out or dwell upon the thousand peaceful delights they could yield.
2.6.20. Translate and comment the translation difficulties in terms of
polysemy and synonymy:
This was a society in which for the most part people were occupied
only with chatter, but the disunited couple had at last grounds for expecting a
time of high activity. They girded their loins, they felt as if the quarrel had only
begun. They felt indeed more married than ever, in as much as what
marriage had mainly suggested to them was the unbroken opportunity to
quarrel. There had been sides before, and there were sides as much as
ever; for the sider too the prospect opened out, taking the pleasant form of a
superabundance of matter for desultory conversation. The many friends of
the Faranges drew together to differ about them; contradiction grew young
again over teacups and cigars. Everybody was always assuring everybody of
something very shocking, and nobody would have been jolly if nobody had
been outrageous. The pair appeared to have a social attraction which failed
merely as regards each other; it was indeed a great deal to be able to say for
Ida that no one but Beale desired her blood, and for Beale that if he should
ever have his eyes scratched out it would be only by his wife.
2.6.21. Consider synonymy as revealed by the fragment below. Focus on the
translation difficulties:
a) The quiet twilight was still trembling on the topmost ridges of the heath;
and the view of London below me had sunk into a black gulf in the shadow of
the cloudy night, when I stood before the gate of my mother's cottage. I had
hardly rung the bell before the house door was opened violently; my worthy
Italian friend, Professor Pesca, appeared in the servant's place; and darted
out joyously to receive me, with a shrill foreign parody on an English cheer.

On his own account, and, I must be allowed to add, on mine also, the
Professor merits the honour of a formal introduction. Accident has made him
the starting-point of the strange family story which it is the purpose of these
pages to unfold.
I had first become acquainted with my Italian friend by meeting him at
certain great houses where he taught his own language and I taught drawing.
All I then knew of the history of his life was, that he had once held a situation
in the University of Padua; that he had left Italy for political reasons (the
nature of which he uniformly declined to mention to any one); and that he had
been for many years respectably established in London as a teacher of
languages.
(W. Collins, The Woman in White in Elena Croitoru, Floriana Popescu,
Gabriela Dima, Culegere de texte pentru traducere. vol. I, Editura Evrika,
Brila, 1996:25-27)
b) Veneau n sfrit nevoile mele. La drept vorbind, nu erau ale mele, ci ale
dreptii. n cas pentru mine aveam tot ce-mi trebuia, pentru c de lucru
mare nici n-aveam trebuin. Blidul, patul i narghileaua, aceste trei fericiri
nelipsite vieii, le dobndeam uor, n schimbul muncii mele Ce nu puteam
cpta lesne era dreptul de-a nu ine seama de fiina lui Dumnezeu, care-mi
cerea s nu mnnc cnd mi-era foame i s-l proslvesc, cu pntecul gol. E
drept c Dumnezeu sta , mofturos i neghiob, niciodat nu a cerut aa ceva
de la mine. Tata, popa i hogea se rosteau n numele lui. M ridicai mpotriva
lor i atunci m pedepsir, numai ca s-i fie pe plac Dumnezeului lor.
(Panait Istrati, Neranula, Editura Minerva, Bucureti 1984: 48-49)
c) Prea mult virtute otrvete inima, i inimile otrvite nu cunosc bucuria
jertfei. Aadar, napoiai-v la obiceiurile voastre. Eu m iu de ale mele.
Se napoiar i se simir foarte bine. Cel care nu se simea bine fui
eu. Prilej s fiu nc o dat singur i trist ca mai-nainte.
Mai era cineva care nu se simea bine: tata. i dase seama c
proverbul ce nate din pisic oareci mnnc nu se cam potrivea-n casa
lui. Astfel, ntia lui grij, dup isprava pgubitoare a Chirei i a lui Cosma, fu
s-i caute ei un brbat stranic. Ct despre noi, fcu ce-i sttu n putin: ne
ddu-n paz stpnirii. Strlucit viitor pentru trei rzvratii ce voiau s
purcead la rzboi mpotriva celor puternici!
ncruciai braele n faa imposibilului. Nu mai era chip s alin o
durere. Veneau npstuiii s povesteasc amarurile i s cear ajutorul lui
Ilie cel bun, i Ilie nu le putea da dect firimituri.
(Panait Istrati, Neranula, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1984: 52)
d) Ce drum curios! nchis, n valea mea, ca un pustnic, mi se prea c
asist la mersul nainte al omenirei. Sunt aproape 20 de ani de cnd n-am ieit
din ar. Ct schimbare! Pe drum, pe la gri, prin vagoane, numai lume
pripit. Trenuri nesfrite, locomotive monstruoase, cltorie otova, grab,
grab peste tot. Or ncotro i ntorci ochii, fabrici, fum, trud, parc o
ntrecere de activitate ar ndemna pe fiecare s ajung naintea vecinului
su. Hotrtor, n vremea noastr nu se mai poate judeca omenirea de pe
scaunul de acas.
Am intrat n Italia cu sentimentul complicat al omului ce se apropie de
o catastrof. mi fusese drag Italia, ca o carte frumoas, ca o statuie, pe

care o tii c st pururea alb ntr-un col de muzeu; iar acum mi era drag
ca un intirim, n pmntul cruia odihnea copilul meu; ca un loc de jale i
poate cine tie de speran. Deodat, liniile arhitecturei, n care se
oglindete geniul armonic al Renaterii, mi aprur, redndu-mi un fel de
linite imens, n care ideea morii fiului meu nu-mi mai rodea inima ca pn
acum.
e) Cnd trenul se opri n gar m simii ca istovit de puteri; m durea capul,
mi se tiaser picioarele. Cobori din vagon, nesigur dac triam sau visam.
Un hamal se inea dup mine, cu valiza n spinare. Cnd s ies pe peron, o
doamn mbrcat n negru mi veni ntru ntmpinare. ntr-o clip o
recunoscui, printr-o revelaie luntric, ca i cum o ateptam. Era Lydda
blond, nalt, cu ochii ei albatri, aa cum mi-o nchipuisem pe cnd o uram.
i ridic vlul negru de pe fa i, cu o nespus delicatee, mi srut mna.
Nu pot spune cum se petrecur lucrurile; numai atta tiu, c o amintire
vag, ca de parfum cunoscut, mi adie prin minte, parc a fi mai ntlnit-o
cndva sau parc o raz de simpatie de la fiul meu ar fi nvluit-o. M necau
lacrmile. Ea m lu binior de bra i m duse la o trsur; plti hamalul;
apoi plecarm.
(D. Zamfirescu, Lydda, Editura Porto-Franco, Galai, 1991:71)
References and Corpus
REFERENCES
1. Baker, M., 1992 In Other Words. A Coursebook On Translation, London and
New York: Routledge.
2. Banta, Andrei 1988 Translation-Oriented Text Analysis (TOTA), in Revue
Romaine de Linguistique, Cahiers de lingustique theorique et appliquee, 25,
No.2/1988, July- December, pp.103-116.
3. Banta, A. 1994 Names, Nicknames and Titles in Translation, in
Perspectives, Studies in Translatology, 1994 :1, University of Copenhagen:
Museum Tusculanum Press, pp.79-88.
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5. Banta, A., Nedelcu, C., Murar, I., Bratu, A., 2000 Dicionar romn-englez,
Bucureti: Editura Teora.
6. Bassnett, S., 1992 Translation Studies, London and New York: Routledge.
7. Bassnett-McGuire, S. 1991 Translation Studies Revised Edition, London and
New York: Routledge (1st impression 1980).
8. Bell, R. 1991, Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, London and
New York: Longman,
9. Breban, V., 1980 Dicionarul limbii romne moderne, Bucureti: Editura
tiinific i Enciclopedic.
10. Broeck, R. V. 1978 The Concept of Equivalence in Translation Theory: Some
Critical Reflections, in James S. Holmes, J. Lambert, and R. Van der Broeck
(eds), Literature and Translation, Acco: Leuven, Belgium.
11. Catford, J.C., 1969 A Linguistic Theory of Translation, London: Oxford
University Press.
12. Crisafulli, E. 1993 Culture and Text: Equivalence Revisited, in Studies In
Translatology, ed. by C. Dollerup, H. Gottlieb and V.H. Pedersen, University
of Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.
13. Croitoru, E., 1996 Interpretation and Translation, Galai: Porto-Franco.
14. Delabastita, D. 1991 A False Opposition in Translation Studies; Theoretical
versus/and Historical Approaches, in TARGET, International Journal of
Translation Studies, G. Toury and J. Lambert (eds.) Amsterdam-Philadelphia:
John Benjamins Publishing Company, 3:2, 1991, pp. 137-152.
15. Delisle, J. 1988 Translation: An Interpretive Approach, in P. Logan and M.
Creery (eds.), Ottawa and London: University of Ottawa Press.
16. Gentzler, E. 1993 Contemporary Translation Theories, London and New
York: Routledge.
17. Graur, Al. 1980, Despre traduceri in Romania Literar no.47, 1980.
18. Hartman, R.R.K. and Stork, F.C. 1972 Dictionary of Language and
Linguistics.
19. Hatim, B. and Mason, I. 1992 Discourse and the Translator, London and
New York: Longman.
20. Hatim, B. and Mason, I., 1992 Discourse and the Translator, Longman:
London and New York.
21. Hewson, L. and Martin J. 1991 Redefining Translation. The Variational
Approach, London and New York: Routledge.
22. Holmes, J.S. 1973-1984 On Matching and Making Maps; From a
Translators Notebook Delta, 16(4), pp. 67-82, apud E. Gentzler 1993, op. cit.
23. Holms, James S. 1998 The Future of Translation Studies: A Handful of
Theses, Translated: Paper on Literary Translation and Translation Studies,
Rodopi: Amsterdam 1981, pp.99-102, apud E. Gentzler, 1993 Contemporary
Translation Theories, London and New York,.
24. Jakobsen, A.L. 1993 Translation As Textual (Re)production, in Studies in
Translatology, University of. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, pp.
167-174.
25. Jakobsen, A.L., quoted in S. Bassnett-McGuire, 1991.

26. Jakobson, R. 1959 On Translation, Harvard University Press: Cambridge
Mass.
27. Jakobson, R., 1959 On Translation, Harvard Univ. Press: Cambridge, Mass.
28. Kohn, I. 1983 Virtutile compensatorii ale limbii romne n traducere,
Timisoara: Editura Facla.
29. Lambert, J. 1989 La Traduction, les langues et la comunication de masse;
Les ambiguits du discours international, in Target, 1(2), pp. 215-237.
30. Lefevere, A. 1975 Translating Poetry; Seven Strategies and Blueprint, Assen
and Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, apud S. Bassnett-McGuire, op. cit.
31. Levitchi, L. 1975 Indrumar pentru traducatorii din limba engleza in limba
romana, Bucuresti: Editura stiintifica si Enciclopedica.
32. Levitchi, L. 1986 Rolul traducerii in predarea limbilor straine, in Buletinul
Universitii din Galai, fasc.I, Stiinte sociale si umaniste, anul V, pp. 51-54.
33. Levitchi, L. 1993 Manualul traducatorului de limba engleza, Bucuresti:
Editura Teora.
34. Meetham, A.R. and Hudson, R.A. 1969, Enciclopedia in Linguistics, Oxford:
Information and Control, Pergamon.
35. Neubert, A. 1986 Translatorische Relativitat, in M. Snell-Hrnby (ed),
Ubersetzungswissenschaft-eine Neuorientierung: Zur Intergrierung von
Theorie und Pracxis, Tubingen: Franke Verlag.
36. Newmark, P. 1988 A Textbook on Translation, Prentice Hall International
(UK) Ltd, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
37. Newmark, P. 1988 Approaches to Translation, Prentice Hall International
English Language Teaching, Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd, Oxford:
Pergamon Press, 1988 (1st impression 1981).
38. Nida, E. 1976 A. Framework for the Analysis and Evaluation of Theories of
Translation, in R. Brislin (ed.), Translation: Application and Research, New
York: Gardner Press, Inc., pp. 47-91.
39. Nida, E. 2001 Contexts in Translating, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John
Benjamins Publishing Company.
40. Nida, E. A. and Taber, C. R. 1969 The Theory and Practice of Translation,
Brill: Leiden.
41. Norris, C. and Benjamin, A. 1988 What is Deconstruction? Academy
Editions, London, quoted after R. Bell 1991, op. cit.
42. Reiss, K. and Vermeer, H. 1984 Grundlegung einer Allgemeinen
Translationstheorie, Tubingen: Niemeyer, quoted in A.L. Jakobsen 1993, op.
cit.
43. Reiss, K. and Vermeer, H., 1984 Grundlegung einer Allgemeinen
Translationstheorie, Tubingen: Niemeyer, quoted in A. L. Jakobsen 1983.
44. Snell-Hornby, Mary 1988, Translation Studies; An Integrated Approach,
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
45. Steiner, G. 1975 After Babel; Aspects Of Language and Translation, Oxford:
Oxford Univ. Press.
46. Toury, G. 1980 In Search of A Theory of Translation, Tel Aviv, The Porter
Institute for Poetics and Semiotics, Tel Aviv University, quoted in D.
Delabatista 1991 op. cit.
47. Vinay J.-P., Darbelnet, J., 1995 Comparative Stylistics of French and
English: A Methodology for Translation, translated and edited by Juan C.
Sager and M. J. Hamel, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
48. Wills, W. 1989 Towards a Multifacet Concept of Translation Behaviour, in
Target I (2), pp. 129-50.
49. Wilss, W. 1982 The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, Gunter
Narr: Tbingen.

CORPUS
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2. Austen, J., 1968 Mndrie i prejudecat, trad. Al. Petrea, Bucureti: Editura
pentru literatur,.
3. Austen, J., 1970 Mndrie i prejudecat, trad. A. Almgeanu, Bucureti:
Editura Eminescu.
4. Brnte, Ch., 1996 Jane Eyre, London: Penguin Classics.
5. Brnte, Ch., 1970 Jane Eyre, trad. P.B. Marian, D. Mazilu, Bucureti: Editura
Minerva,.
6. Brnte, Ch., 1996 Jane Eyre, trad. P. Marian, Bucureti: Societatea Domaco
S.R.L..
7. Collins, W., 1988The Woman in White, London: Penguin Classics.
8. Conrad, J., 1986 Typhoon, London: Penguin Classics.
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traducere, vol. I, Brila: Editura. Evrika!.
10. Croitoru, E., Popescu, F., Dima, G., 2004 English Through Translations,
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London: Penguin Books Ltd.
12. James, H., 1994 The Aspern Papers, London: Penguin Books Ltd.
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16. Wilde, O., 1985 The Picture of Dorian Grey, London: Penguin Classics.

Theory of Translation

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Theory of Translation

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CONTENTS

Chapter 1 - About translation

1.1. The meanings of the word translation

1.2. Theories corresponding to the meanings of the

1.3. Background views on translation

1.4. Translation and the cultural equation

1.5. Translation as conversion

1.6. The translator

1.7. "Equivalence" in translation

1.7.1. Equivalence and adequacy in Translation

Chapter 2 - Traps in translating literary texts

2.6. Practical applications

Chapter 1 About translation

Chapter 1 About translation

1.2. Theories corresponding to the meanings of the word

- interpreting and translating style and register;

1.3. Background views on translation

Chapter 1 About translation

empirical description of translations, and with larger corpuses of translations in

Chapter 1 About translation

In the nineteenth century, the dominant metaphors involved property and

Chapter 1 About translation

1.4. Translation and the cultural equation

potential translation difficulties which tend to catch his attention, especially

1.5. Translation as conversion

Chapter 1 About translation

"resemblance in difference". In order to approximately reach it, Steiner (1975)

1.6. The translator

Chapter 1 About translation

Chapter 1 About translation

Consequently, the TO's competence is measured by his ability to

Therefore, it is by undertaking the dynamic contextual analysis (DCA)

1.7. "Equivalence" in translation

Chapter 1 About translation

Chapter 1 About translation

communication across cultural boundaries, the main criteria being

1.7.1. Equivalence and Adequacy in Translation

Chapter 1 About translation

Membrii comitetului au dirijat discuia ctre nenelegerile

Chapter 1 About translation

9. M-am gndit c nu se cade s spun ceea ce aveam eu pe suflet, c ar

Chapter 1 About translation

i cinstit i detept Dac ar fi venit la mine i-ai fi spus i ar fi ajuns i el

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 - Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

2.6. Practical applications

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

I liked her ashen hair which suited her perfectly.

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts

Chapter 2 Traps in translating literary texts