SDDM February 2015

STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
FEBRUARY 2015
UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual
February 2015
FOREWORD
The UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual (SDDM) has been developed to provide the
Structures Design Division staff and consultants with UDOT policies, procedures, practices and
technical criteria. The SDDM consists of the written manual, working standards, structures
design drawings, sample sheets, checklists and design memoranda. The information presented
in the SDDM is expected to help fulfill UDOTs mission of providing a safe and efficient
transportation system. The SDDM has two major segments:
Administrative.
The chapters present in house responsibilities, requirements,
procedures and practices.
Technical. The chapters provide structural engineers with the Departments typical
structural design criteria, guidelines, policies and practices on all structural elements.
Structural engineers are expected to meet all criteria presented in the SDDM. Exercise sound
engineering judgment when conditions arise that are not specifically covered in the SDDM.
The SDDM has been prepared based on the 6th Edition of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Structures Design and Detailing Manual was developed by the Structures Design Division
with assistance from the consulting firms of Roy Jorgensen Associates, Inc., and H. Boyle
Engineering, Inc., and Professor Dennis Mertz of the University of Delaware.
The SDDM Review Committee included:
Carmen Swanwick
Chief Structural Engineer
Cheryl Hersh Simmons
Structures Design Manager
Joshua Sletten
Bridge Management Engineer
In addition, representatives from the Structures Design Division and consultants provided review
and comment on the SDDM and the structures design drawings, working standard sheets and
sample sheets.
February 2015
REVISION PROCESS
The SDDM provides current policies and procedures for use in structural design projects. To
ensure that the SDDM remains up to date and appropriately reflects changes in UDOTs needs
and requirements, the contents will be updated on a periodic basis.
The Structures Design Division is responsible for evaluating changes in the structural
engineering literature (e.g., updates to the AASHTO LRFD Specifications, the issuance of new
relevant publications, revisions to federal regulations) and for ensuring that the changes are
appropriately addressed through the issuance of revisions to the SDDM. It is important that
users of the SDDM inform UDOT of any inconsistencies, errors, need for clarification or new
ideas to support the goal of providing the best and most up to date information practical. Send
comments and proposed revisions to the Structures Design Manager using the Structural
Review Comment Resolution Form.
To propose a revision to the Structures Design and Detailing Manual, complete and return the
Structural Review Comment Resolution Form to:
Utah Department of Transportation
4501 South 2700 West
PO Box 148470
Salt Lake City, UT 84114-8470
E-mail: structuremanuals@utah.gov (include Structures Design and Detailing Manual in
subject line)
Ensure that the submission addresses the following (attach additional sheets as necessary):
Applicable SDDM section number(s)

Proposed revision
Justification for revision
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February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 ........................ ORGANIZATION, TERMINOLOGY AND REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
Chapter 2 ................. ADMINISTRATIVE GUIDELINES, REQUIREMENTS AND PROCEDURES
Chapter 3 ...................................................................... DESIGN MEMORANDA AND REPORTS
Chapter 4 ................ CONTRACT DOCUMENTS, PLANS, SPECIFICATIONS AND ESTIMATES
Chapter 5 .......................................................................................................... DESIGN QUALITY
Chapter 6 ......................................................................................... CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT
Chapter 7 .................................................................................................................... RESERVED
Chapter 10 ............................................................................................... PRELIMINARY DESIGN
Chapter 11 .................................................................................... LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS
Chapter 12 ........................................................... STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
Chapter 13 ....................................................................................................................... SEISMIC
Chapter 14 ........................................................................................ CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Chapter 15 ................................................................................................. STEEL STRUCTURES
Chapter 16 ........................................................................................................... BRIDGE DECKS
Chapter 17 ............................................................................................................ FOUNDATIONS
Chapter 18 ...................................................................................................... SUBSTRUCTURES
Chapter 19 ....................................................................... EXPANSION JOINTS AND BEARINGS
Chapter 20 ............................................................... ACCELERATED BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
Chapter 21 .......................... BRIDGE PRESERVATION AND REHABILITATION OR WIDENING
Chapter 22 .............................................................................. MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES
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STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
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ORGANI
ZATI
ON,
TERMI
NOLOGY
AND REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1
RESPONSIBILITIES .................................................................................................... 1-1

1.1.1
Division Vision/Mission ..................................................................................... 1-2

1.1.1.1
1.1.1.2
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
Chief Structural Engineer ................................................................................. 1-2

Bridge Management Division............................................................................ 1-3
Project Delivery Division ................................................................................... 1-3
1.1.4.1
1.1.4.2
1.2
Structures Design Division .............................................................. 1-3

Geotechnical Design Division ......................................................... 1-6
DEFINITIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................................ 1-8

1.2.1
1.2.2
1.3
Vision .............................................................................................. 1-2

Mission............................................................................................ 1-2
Definitions ......................................................................................................... 1-8

Acronyms ......................................................................................................... 1-16
STRUCTURAL DESIGN LITERATURE (NATIONAL) ................................................ 1-20

1.3.1
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.................................................. 1-20

1.3.1.1
1.3.1.2
1.3.2
AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design .................... 1-21
1.3.2.1
1.3.2.2
1.3.3
Description ...................................................................................... 1-22

Application ...................................................................................... 1-22
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design............................ 1-23

1.3.5.1
1.3.5.2
1.3.6
Description ...................................................................................... 1-22

Application ...................................................................................... 1-22
FHWA Seismic Retrofitting Manual for Highway Bridges ................................. 1-22

1.3.4.1
1.3.4.2
1.3.5
Description ...................................................................................... 1-21

Application ...................................................................................... 1-21
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges ................................... 1-22

1.3.3.1
1.3.3.2
1.3.4
Description ...................................................................................... 1-20

Application ...................................................................................... 1-21
Description ...................................................................................... 1-23

Application ...................................................................................... 1-23
AASHTO/American Welding Society D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge Welding Code......... 1-23
Organization, Terminology and Reference Documents
1-i
1.3.6.1
1.3.6.2
1.3.7
Description ...................................................................................... 1-23

Application ...................................................................................... 1-23
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Distribution of Loads for Highway Bridges . 1-24
1.3.8.1
1.3.8.2
1.3.9
Description ...................................................................................... 1-23

Application ...................................................................................... 1-23
AASHTO LRFD Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges .......... 1-23
1.3.7.1
1.3.7.2
1.3.8
February 2015
Description ...................................................................................... 1-24

Application ...................................................................................... 1-24
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications......................................... 1-24

1.3.9.1
1.3.9.2
Description ...................................................................................... 1-24

Application ...................................................................................... 1-24
1.3.10 AASHTO Guide Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works ........................... 1-24
1.3.10.1
1.3.10.2
Description ...................................................................................... 1-24

Application ...................................................................................... 1-25
1.3.11 AASHTO LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design Specifications .................... 1-25
1.3.11.1
1.3.11.2
Description ...................................................................................... 1-25

Application ...................................................................................... 1-25
1.3.12 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway

Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals .............................................................. 1-25
1.3.12.1
1.3.12.2
Description ...................................................................................... 1-25

Application ...................................................................................... 1-25
1.3.13 AASHTO Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision

Design of Highway Bridges .............................................................................. 1-25
1.3.13.1
1.3.13.2
Description ...................................................................................... 1-25

Application ...................................................................................... 1-26
1.3.14 American Institute of Steel Construction Steel Construction Manual ............... 1-26
1.3.14.1
1.3.14.2
Description ...................................................................................... 1-26

Application ...................................................................................... 1-26
1.3.15 American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association

Manual for Railway Engineering ....................................................................... 1-26
1.3.15.1
1.3.15.2
Description ...................................................................................... 1-26

Application ...................................................................................... 1-26
1.3.16 Additional Structural Design Publications ......................................................... 1-27

1-ii
1.4
February 2015
UDOT DOCUMENTS ................................................................................................... 1-28

1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4
1.4.5
1.4.6
1.4.7
1.4.8
UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction ....................................................... 1-28

UDOT Roadway Design Manual of Instruction ................................................. 1-29
UDOT Roadway Drainage Manual of Instruction ............................................. 1-29
UDOT Environmental Process Manual of Instruction ....................................... 1-29
Specifications ................................................................................................... 1-30
Materials ........................................................................................................... 1-30
UDOT Steel and Concrete Construction Manual.............................................. 1-30
UDOT Construction Manual of Instruction ........................................................ 1-31
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 ORGANIZATION CHART ................................................................................ 1-1
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February 2015
February 2015
Chapter 1
ORGANIZATION, TERMINOLOGY
AND REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
This chapter presents an overview of the responsibilities of the Structures Division, and
presents acronyms and definitions of key words commonly used throughout the UDOT
Structures Design and Detailing Manual (SDDM).
1.1
RESPONSIBILITIES
In general, the Structures Division focuses on project delivery and the responsible management
of the in service bridge inventory. Figure 1.1 presents the organization of the Structures
Division.
Figure 1.1 ORGANIZATION CHART

1-1
1.1.1
February 2015
Division Vision/Mission
1.1.1.1
Vision
The Project Delivery Division produces safe, high quality and economical structural designs for
preservation, rehabilitation and replacement projects through efficient, timely communication,
innovation, technical expertise and professionalism.
The Bridge Management Division provides data to support structure project prioritization for
preservation, rehabilitation and replacement, and emergency services to ensure the safety of
the traveling public.
1.1.1.2
Mission
The Project Delivery Division provides structural engineering services, manages structure
design and construction, and establishes and maintains structural design criteria and standards
to ensure a safe, economical and reliable transportation system.
The Bridge Management Division inspects, monitors, reports and effectively manages the
structure inventory for a safe, reliable transportation system.
1.1.2
Chief Structural Engineer
The Chief Structural Engineer establishes overall Department practices, and supervises the
activities, schedules, quality, deliverables, etc., of the Bridge Management Division and Project
Delivery Division. The responsibilities of the Chief Structural Engineer are to:
1-2
Report to the Director on the Structures Divisions progress in meeting the Departments
Strategic Direction and Performance Measures
Develop work programs for bridge projects for inclusion in the Statewide Transportation
Improvement Program (STIP) of projects
Ensure compliance with all federal polices, regulations, requirements, etc., related to
structures and geotechnical engineering
Monitor and evaluate the Divisions bridge inspection program, load rating program and
emergency response plan
Coordinate with the Systems Planning and Programming Division on the STIP process
and Bridge Management System (BMS)
Chair the Bridge Management Team (BMT) to develop the bridge program of projects for
the in service bridge inventory
Monitor and evaluate the Divisions coordination with the Regions to perform routine,
safety and preservation maintenance activities
Monitor and evaluate the Divisions coordination with the local governments on structure
related activities (e.g., bridge inspection, project delivery, emergency maintenance)
Participate in professional organizations related to bridge design, including the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and Transportation
Research Board (TRB), to represent UDOTs interests and concerns
February 2015
Oversee the development of:
New and revised structure drawings (sample sheets, working standards,

structure design drawings)
Revisions to the SDDM
Structural specifications (in a participation role) for the UDOT Standard

Specifications
Represent the Department in all litigation related to structural issues
Determine the Divisions appropriate participation in public hearings and public
informational meetings for projects with significant structural designs
Remain abreast of the key issues on individual bridge projects
Determine the Divisions course of action for any special studies, reports, etc., upon
request from the Directors office, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), AASHTO,
etc.
Serve as the Divisions focal point for coordination with FHWA, the Directors office, etc.
Participate in the consultant selection process
1.1.3
Bridge Management Division
The UDOT Bridge Management Manual (BMM) presents the responsibilities of the Bridge
Management Division.
1.1.4
Project Delivery Division
The Project Delivery Division is the Structures Divisions focal point for the preparation of all in
house structural designs. The Project Delivery Division has the day to day responsibility to
develop structural projects from project inception to advertisement. The Project Delivery
Division performs the designs, conducts structural analyses of the proposed structures,
prepares the bridge plans and computes quantities and cost estimates for bridge projects.
The Project Delivery Division also supervises all designs performed by consultants for
structures and geotechnical work and enforces the QC/QA Procedures in Chapter 5.
1.1.4.1
Structures Design Division
The Structures Design Division is responsible for developing structure design criteria for all
structures within projects.
1.1.4.1.1
The Structures Design Manager is responsible for the overall administrative/management/

engineering activities associated with design activities. The Structures Design Manager
establishes overall Department structural policies, practices and criteria, and manages the
Structures Design Divisions coordination with other divisions.
1-3
February 2015
The responsibilities of the Structures Design Manager are to:
Manage the development of all in house structural designs

Monitor consultant designed projects, and review and approve project deliverables
Develop and revise all Structures Design Division forms used in project development
Coordinate with the Project Development Division to update, when needed, the Project
Delivery Network
Update and enforce the Structures Division Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA)
procedures
Review and approve all QC/QA documents
Review and approve all Division reports generated during project development
Serve on the BMT to develop the bridge program of projects for the in service bridge
inventory
Assign the structures design lead, designers and drafters to advance the project through
the project delivery process
Coordinate with the Bridge Management Division staff to update the bridge record for all
projects
Coordinate with the Regions during project development
Approve any deviations from structural design policies, practices or criteria
Approve manhour and cost estimates for in house and consultant designs
Provide technical support and approval for structural designs for projects on local
government facilities that are funded by state and/or federal funds
Sign structural design plans before advertisement
Manage the Division's manuals, specifications, special provisions and drawings
Review and approve permit projects
Participate in structure related research projects
Manage the Divisions activities in the field construction of structural elements, including:
Reviewing and approving construction working drawings
Performing periodic field construction inspections
Reviewing and commenting on construction change orders when requested
Refer to Section 6.2.2.1 for the Structures Design Manager responsibilities during construction.
1.1.4.1.2
Structures Project Engineer
The Structures Project Engineer coordinates with the Project Manager on projects with
structures when the design is performed by consultants. The responsibilities of the Structures
Project Engineer are to:
1-4
Ensure that project development meets the requirements of the Project Delivery Network
Work with the Structures Design Team to meet all project requirements related to project
development, schedules, budgets, QC/QA, structural design, permits, coordination with
other divisions, etc.
Serve as the interface between the Project Manager, Structures Design Manager and
Structures Design Team during project development
February 2015
Provide technical support for structural designs for bridge projects on local government
facilities that are funded by state and/or federal dollars
Perform and manage for design and oversight reviews
Participate in consultant selection process
Refer to Section 6.2.2.3 for the Structures Project Engineer responsibilities during construction.
1.1.4.1.3
Structures Construction Engineer
The Structures Construction Engineer serves as the Structures Divisions focal point to ensure
that the Division fulfills the responsibilities during the construction of structural elements (e.g.,
working drawings, construction inspections, change orders, value engineering (VE) proposals).
The responsibilities of the Structures Construction Engineer are to:
Coordinate with the Bridge Management Division to ensure that all construction related
data is recorded in the bridge record
Review and comment on special provisions
Coordinate with the Construction Division and Region construction staff during project
development and construction
Review construction submittals
Coordinate with the Standards and Specifications Section to make revisions to the
UDOT Standard Specifications for structural items
Support maintenance
Participate as a panel member on the new product evaluation committee
Perform peer reviews of atypical designs
Perform constructability reviews as requested
Provide project specific training and develop construction checklists as requested
Attend District Engineers and Materials meetings
Refer to Section 6.2.2.2 for the Structures Construction Engineer responsibilities during
construction.
1.1.4.1.4
Structures Design Team
The Structures Design Team includes the:
Lead Design Engineer

Senior Design Engineer
Design Engineer
Engineering Technician
The specific responsibilities of the Structures Design Team are to prepare in house structural
designs for highway bridge projects to:
1-5
February 2015
Determine applicable loads to the bridge

Design all structural elements (e.g., superstructures, substructures, foundations) based
on policies, practices, criteria, etc.
Design all structural elements to meet the Departments seismic performance criteria
Coordinate with other divisions to develop the geometric design, hydraulic design and
geotechnical design of the structure
Attend field reviews
Attend project meetings
Meet the project schedule and manhour estimates
Prepare the contract documents for structural items, special provisions, construction
quantities and cost estimates for structural items
Remain abreast of the state of the art in bridge design through review of AASHTO, TRB,
FHWA, etc., publications, and investigate the use of new bridge design techniques
Provide technical support for structural designs for bridge projects on local government
facilities that are funded by state and/or federal dollars
In coordination with the Construction Division, review construction working drawings
In coordination with the Construction Division, review VE proposals from contractors
Review and comment on construction change orders when requested by the
Construction Division
1.1.4.2
Geotechnical Design Division
The Geotechnical Design Division is responsible for all geotechnical requirements for both
roadway and bridge projects. For structural items, the Divisions responsibilities are to:
Develop a subsurface exploration plan

Identify the proposed boring locations and recommended foundation type
Conduct the field exploration to gather the geotechnical data
Prepare and/or review the Geotechnical Report (based on the geotechnical subsurface
exploration data, preliminary bridge plans, and loads computed by the structural
engineer), which provides the necessary geotechnical parameters for the structural
engineer to perform the detailed foundation design
Perform the laboratory testing for soils and rock (e.g., classification, moisture content)
In coordination with the structural engineer, select and design retaining walls (e.g.,
estimate of settlement, global stability)
Perform design reviews and/or oversight reviews
Assist the Construction Division to:
Prepare pile driving criteria
Review pile and drilled shaft installation plans
Determine acceptance of as built drilled shafts and piles
For roadway projects, the Geotechnical Design Divisions responsibilities are to:
1-6
Perform site surveys as needed in the project area

Conduct field investigations (i.e., insitu field tests, gathering samples for laboratory
analysis)
February 2015
Identify geotechnical properties and parameters for embankment design

Recommend subgrade treatments for pavement section support
Gather geotechnical data to determine the stability of fill and cut earth slopes and of rock
cuts
Recommend slope stabilization methods
Work with the Construction Division and the Region construction staff to address
geotechnical issues that arise during construction
1.1.4.2.1
Geotechnical Design Manager
The Geotechnical Design Manager is responsible for the overall administrative/management/

engineering activities of the Geotechnical Design Division. The Geotechnical Design Manager
establishes overall Department geotechnical policies, practices and criteria, and manages the
Divisions coordination with other divisions.
The responsibilities of the Geotechnical Design Manager are to:
Develop work programs for geotechnical activities based on project schedules

Direct the use of the available manpower within the Geotechnical Design Division
Participate in professional organizations related to geotechnical engineering (AASHTO,
TRB) to represent the Departments interests and concerns
Oversee the development and maintenance of:
Standard specifications related to geotechnical items
Special provisions related to geotechnical items
Geotechnical engineering criteria
The UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction

Represent the Department in all litigation related to geotechnical issues
Remain abreast of the key geotechnical issues on individual projects
Approve Geotechnical Reports
Approve geotechnical designs
Determine the need for geotechnical contractors and consultants, and review and
approve project deliverables
Direct and oversee the implementation of various design, consultant review, research
and development and related projects
Manage project budgets, timelines and procedures
Manage consultant geotechnical contracts
1.1.4.2.2
Geotechnical Design Team
The Geotechnical Design Team serves as the focal point for all project specific activities
performed by the Geotechnical Design Division. The responsibilities of the Geotechnical Design
Team are to:
Plan the geotechnical work to meet specific project needs

Direct the field investigation unit in the subsurface investigations
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February 2015
Attend and monitor on site the work of the drilling crews

Direct and monitor the work of Geotechnical Testing
Perform the geotechnical engineering evaluation, analysis and design based on the
UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction for the following:
Bridge foundations
Earth retaining systems
Seismic design
Pavement subgrade
Roadway slopes and embankments
Geosynthetics
In addition to the above geotechnical responsibilities in preconstruction, the Geotechnical

Design Team is the primary point of contact between the Region field construction personnel
and the Geotechnical Design Division. In this capacity, the Team serves as technical advisors
to the Resident Engineer (RE) on geotechnical issues related to the:
Review of plans and specifications

Interpretation of special provisions
Response to requests for information (RFI)
Review of change orders
Preparation of reports/documentation
Development and interpretation of instrumentation
Verification of deep and shallow foundation capacity
Construction problems/issues
1.1.4.2.3
Geotechnical Testing
Geotechnical Testing is responsible for conducting all necessary laboratory tests to identify the
engineering properties needed by the project geotechnical engineers to conduct the engineering
analyses and design. Chapter 4, Geotechnical Testing, of the UDOT Geotechnical Manual of
Instruction discusses the lab testing responsibilities for Geotechnical Testing.
The drilling crews are responsible for all in house subsurface geotechnical investigations.
1.2
1.2.1
DEFINITIONS AND ACRONYMS

Definitions
1.
Accelerated Bridge Construction Communication Plan.

between all parties involved during a bridge move.
2.
Anchored Walls (Soil Nails or Rock Anchors). Retaining walls consisting of horizontal
soil reinforcing elements drilled into an existing fill to stabilize the soil and connected to a
1-8
A plan to maintain contact
February 2015
facing material to retain the soil. Anchored walls are typically constructed from the top
down.
3.
Auxiliary Waterway Openings. Relief openings provided for streams in floodplains

through the roadway embankment in addition to the primary bridge waterway openings.
4.
Average Annual Daily Traffic. The total volume of traffic passing a point or segment of a
highway facility in both directions for one year, divided by the number of days in the
year.
5.
Average Daily Traffic. The total volume of traffic during a given time period, greater than
one day and less than one year, divided by the number of days in that time period.
6.
Average Daily Truck Traffic. The total number of trucks passing a point or segment of a
highway facility in both directions during a given time period divided by the number of
days in that time period.
7.
Base Flood. The flood having a 1% chance of being exceeded in any given year (i.e.,
the 100 year event) or a 63% chance of being exceeded over a 100 year period.
8.
Base Floodplain. The area subject to flooding by the base flood.
9.
Bridge. A structure including supports erected over a depression or an obstruction, such

as water, highway or railway, and having a track or passageway for carrying traffic or
other moving loads, and having a bridge length of more than 20 ft.
10.
Bridge Backwater. The incremental increase in water surface elevation upstream of a

highway facility.
11.
Bridge Components. A segregation of the bridge into three primary components

deck, superstructure and substructure.
12.
Bridge Elements. A further segregation of the bridge components into discrete elements
(e.g., prestressed concrete girders, expansion joints, bents, piles).
13.
Bridge File. Electronic directory of all bridge records located on an independent server.
Informally known as the bridge inventory.
14.
Bridge Folder. A tangible folder containing hard copies of inspection reports, plan sets,
sketches and other pertinent bridge information.
15.
Bridge Inventory. Database of inspection information specifically used in the bridge

management system. Does not contain plans, etc.
16.
Bridge Management Software. Interface for database of bridge inventory and condition
data specifically used in the bridge management system. Does not contain plans, etc.
17.
Bridge Move Plan. A plan indicating a timeline for all bridge movement activities,
itemizing potential threats to the movement schedule and identifying actions needed if
an event disrupts the schedule of the bridge move.
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February 2015
18.
Bridge Preservation. Actions or strategies that prevent, delay or reduce deterioration of

bridges or bridge elements, restore the function of existing bridges, keep bridges in good
condition and extend bridge life. Preservation actions can be preventive or condition
driven.
19.
Bridge Record. Electronic file of all bridge documents for a single bridge.
20.
Bridge Rehabilitation. Major work required to restore the structural integrity of a bridge
and work necessary to correct major safety deficiencies.
21.
Bridge Replacement. Total replacement of a bridge with a new facility constructed in the
same general traffic corridor. The replacement structure must meet the current
geometric, material and structural standards required for the types and volume of
projected traffic on the facility over the design life.
22.
Bridge Roadway Width. The clear width measured at right angles to the longitudinal
centerline of the bridge between the bottom of curbs or, for multiple heights of curbs,
between the bottoms of the lower risers or, if curbs are not present, between the inner
faces of parapet or railing.
23.
Bridge Staging Area. Area in which a new bridge is constructed.
24.
Bridge Temporary Works. Any structure used to provide temporary support to a bridge
or bridge component.
25.
Bridge Waterway Openings. The openings beneath the bridge intended to pass the
stream flow under the design conditions.
26.
Check Flood. A flood used to check the bridge waterway opening to accommodate a
lesser design flood to judge whether a significant flood hazard, due to a flood larger than
the proposed design discharge, has been overlooked.
27.
Clearance Sign. A sign either attached to the structure or on the roadway before the
structure warning vehicles of the allowable vertical clearance under the structure.
28.
Condition Rating. An overall assessment of the physical condition of the deck, the
superstructure and the substructure of a bridge or culvert. General condition (NBI)
ratings range from 0 (failed condition) to 9 (excellent condition).
29.
Construction Manager/General Contractor. A modified design build process in which the

owner holds the contract for both the design consultant and the contractor.
30.
Cross Slope. The slope in the cross section view of the travel lanes, expressed as a
percent or ratio, based on the change in horizontal compared to the change in vertical.
31.
Crossing Angle. The angle measured to the right while looking station ahead between
the survey or control line of the structure alignment and the survey or control line of the
feature crossed; if the alignment involves a horizontal curve, the angle is measured to a
line tangent to the curve at the point of intersection.
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February 2015
32.
Deck. The riding surface of the bridge.
33.
Design Flood Frequency. The flood frequency selected for determining the necessary
size of the bridge waterway opening.
34.
Design Hourly Volume. Typically, the 30th highest hourly volume for the future year used
for design, expressed in vehicles per hour.
35.
Design Speed. The maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified
section of highway.
36.
Design Bid Build. The traditional contracting method in which UDOT develops a
complete plan set before soliciting bids.
37.
Design Build. A contracting method in which UDOT hires a contractor to develop and
execute all project plans.
38.
Engineer of Record. The licensed professional engineer who develops the overall
structural design and the structural design criteria for the structure, and is responsible for
the preparation of the structural engineering documents and who prepares and submits
stamped drawings as required.
39.
Federal Aid Highway. Highways on the federal aid highway system (the National
Highway System and the Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and
Defense Highways) and all other public roads not classified as local roads or rural minor
collectors.
40.
Flood Frequency. The number of times a flood of a given magnitude can be expected to
occur on average over a long period of time.
41.
Foundation. The supporting rock or soil and bridge elements that are in direct contact
with, and transmit loads to, the supporting rock or soil; includes piles, drilled shafts,
spread footings and pile caps.
42.
Fracture Critical Bridge. A bridge containing a fracture critical member. A bridge that
does not contain redundant supporting elements.
43.
Fracture Critical Member. A steel member in tension, or with a tension element, whose
failure would likely result in a total or partial bridge collapse.
44.
Freeboard. The clearance between the water surface elevation based on the design
flood and the low chord of the superstructure.
45.
Heavy Lifter. The firm employed by the contractor to provide heavy lifting equipment,
operation and engineering.
46.
I-Drive. Contains the bridge file and the bridge management system files.
1-11
February 2015
47.
Inventory Level Rating (LRFR). Generally corresponds to the rating at the design level
of reliability for new bridges in the LRFD Specifications, but reflects the existing bridge
and material conditions with regard to deterioration and loss of section.
48.
Inventory Rating (LFR). Load ratings based on the inventory level allow comparisons
with the capacity for new structures and, therefore, results in a live load that can safely
utilize an existing structure for an indefinite period of time.
49.
K-Values for Vertical Curves. The horizontal distance needed to produce a 1% change
in longitudinal gradient.
50.
Legal Level Rating (LRFR). This second level rating provides a single safe load capacity
(for a given truck configuration) applicable to AASHTO and state legal loads. Live load
factors are selected based on the truck traffic conditions at the site. Strength is the
primary limit state for load rating; service limit states are selectively applied. Use the
results of the load rating for legal loads as a basis for decision making related to load
posting or bridge strengthening.
51.
Load Rating. The determination of the live load carrying capacity of a bridge. Bridges
are rated at two different stress levels referred to as Inventory Rating and Operating
Rating.
52.
Longitudinal Grade. The rate of roadway slope expressed as a percent between two
adjacent vertical points of intersection (VPI). Upgrades in the direction of stationing are
identified as positive (+). Downgrades are identified as negative ().
53.
Maximum Allowable Backwater. The maximum amount of backwater that is acceptable

based on state and federal laws and on UDOT policies.
54.
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall. Retaining walls consisting of horizontal soil

reinforcing elements connected to a facing material to retain the soil, constructed from
the bottom up.
55.
Median. On a multilane facility, the area (or distance) between the inside edges of the
two traveled ways. Note that the median width includes the two inside (or left)
shoulders.
56.
Micropiles.
structures.
57.
National Highway System. Consists of roadways important to the nations economy,

defense and mobility. The National Highway System includes the following subsystem
of roadways interstate, other principal arterials, strategic highway network, major
strategic highway network connectors and intermodal connectors.
58.
Normal Crown. The typical cross section on a tangent section of roadway (i.e., no
superelevation).
1-12
Small diameter reinforced piles that are drilled and grouted to support
February 2015
59.
100 Year Flood. A flood volume (or discharge) level that has a 1% chance of being
exceeded in any given year or a 63% chance of being exceeded over a 100 year period.
60.
Operating (In Service) Load Ratings. Routine load rating completed after design and
incorporating any changes in condition noted in the inspection reports.
61.
Operating Level Rating (LRFR). Maximum load level to which a structure may be
subjected. Generally corresponds to the rating at the operating level of reliability in past
load rating practice.
62.
Operating Rating (LFR). Load ratings based on the operating level generally describe
the maximum permissible live load to which the structure may be subjected. Allowing
unlimited numbers of vehicles to use the bridge at operating level may shorten the life of
the bridge.
63.
Overpass. A grade separation where a highway passes over an intersecting highway or

railroad.
64.
Overtopping Flood. The flood event that will overtop the elevation of the bridge or
roadway approaches.
65.
Peak Discharge (or Peak Flow). The maximum rate of water flow passing a given point
during or after a rainfall event or snow melt. The peak discharge for a 100 year flood is
expressed as Q100.
66.
Permit Level Rating (LRFR). Permit load rating checks the safety and serviceability of
bridges in the review of permit applications for the passage of vehicles above the legally
established weight limitations.
67.
Permit Load Ratings. Special request load rating of an existing bridge for a permit load
and incorporating any changes in condition noted in the inspection reports.
68.
Plans. Approved contract drawings showing the location, type, dimensions and details
of the specified work.
69.
Prebid Meeting. A meeting held to show contractors the proposed project details and
solicit input before bidding.
70.
Preconstruction Meeting. A meeting held with the selected contractor to coordinate

contract items necessary for the successful completion of the project.
71.
Profile Grade Point (Finished Grade). The line at which the profile grade is measured on
the pavement.
72.
Recurrence Interval (Return Period). For a given discharge, the number of years
between occurrences of that discharge. For example, the recurrence interval for a 100
year flood discharge is 100 years.
73.
Regulatory Floodway. The floodplain area that is reserved in an open manner by

federal, state or local requirements (i.e., unconfined or unobstructed either horizontally
1-13
February 2015
or vertically) to provide for the discharge of the base flood so that the cumulative
increase in water surface elevation is no more than a designated amount as established
by the Federal Emergency Management Agency for administering the National Flood
Insurance Program.
74.
Roadway. The portion of a highway, including shoulders, for vehicular use. A divided
highway includes two roadways.
75.
Scour Critical. A bridge with a foundation element that has been determined to be
unstable for the observed or evaluated scour conditions; that threatens substructure
elements; and that places one or more elements in danger of failure.
76.
Scour. Erosion of streambed or bank material due to flowing water; often considered as
being localized around bents and abutments of bridges.
77.
Self Propelled Modular Transporter. Self propelled multi-axle platform vehicle with self
leveling capabilities, able to move in any direction and place loads within millimeters.
78.
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Axle Line. A row of paired wheels (4 wheels or 2
axles) positioned along a line across the narrowest dimension of an individual SPMT
unit.
79.
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Axle Load. The amount of force exerted by each
axle (2 wheels) of the SPMTs.
80.
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Blocking. The apparatus between the top platform
of the SPMTs and the bottom of the new bridge.
81.
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Carrier Beam. Part of the SPMT blocking; the
carrier beam is positioned perpendicular to the girders if the SPMTs are positioned
parallel to the girders.
82.
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Support Point.

supports the new bridge.
83.
Skew Angle. The acute angle between a line normal to the structure control line and the
centerline of support of the structure as measured at the intersection of the control line
and centerline of support.
84.
Special Provisions. A unique specification or a modification or revision to the UDOT

Standard Specifications applicable to an individual contract.
85.
Specifications. The compilation of provisions and requirements for the performance of

the prescribed work.
86.
Standard Drawings. Detailed drawings approved for repetitive use.
87.
Standard Specifications. Specifications approved for general application and repetitive

use.
1-14
Point where the SPMT blocking
February 2015
88.
State Highway. A public road owned by a state agency.
89.
Structure Length. The overall length of a bridge measured along the line of survey
stationing back to back of backwalls of abutments, if present; otherwise, end to end of
the bridge floor. In no case, less than the total clear opening of the structure.
90.
Substructure.
The system of elements that support the superstructure.
The
substructure transfers the loads to the earth and retains material behind the supports.
Substructure elements include abutments, bents, footings, piles, wingwalls, backwalls,
etc.
91.
Superelevation. The amount of cross slope provided on a horizontal curve to

counterbalance, in combination with the side friction, the centrifugal force of a vehicle
traversing the curve.
92.
Superelevation Transition Length. The distance needed to transition the roadway from a
normal crown section to the design superelevation rate. Superelevation transition length
is the sum of the tangent runout and superelevation runoff distances.
93.
Superstructure. The system of elements that spans the feature being crossed. The
superstructure rests on the substructure. The superstructure includes the deck,
parapets and girders or other support elements (e.g., trusses, arches, box girders).
94.
Supplemental Specifications. Approved additions and revisions to the UDOT Standard

Specifications.
95.
Thalweg. The path of deepest flow in a waterway.
96.
Traveled Way. The portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of
shoulders and auxiliary lanes.
97.
Truck Percentage. The percentage of trucks in the total traffic volume on a facility.
98.
Truck. A heavy vehicle engaged primarily in the transport of goods and materials, or in
the delivery of services other than public transportation. For geometric design and
capacity analyses, trucks are defined as vehicles with six or more tires.
99.
Tunnel. An enclosed roadway with vehicle access that is restricted to portals regardless
of type of structure or the method of tunnel construction.
100.
Twenty Year Average Daily Traffic. For new construction and reconstruction projects,
the projected future traffic volume most often used in project design.
101.
Underpass. A grade separation where a highway passes under an intersecting highway

or railroad.
102.
Value Engineering. A function oriented technique that can be an effective management

tool for achieving improved design, construction and cost effectiveness in various project
elements.
1-15
1.2.2
A&D
AADT
AASHTO
ABC
ABET
ACI
ADA
ADT
ADTT
AISC
AISI
AITC
ANSI
API
AREMA
ASCE
ASD
ASTM
ATC
AWS
BL
BMM
BMS
BMT
BNFS
BR
BSA
CADD
CAPWAP
CE
CFR
CG
CID
CIP
CMGC
CPT
CR
CRSI
CT
CV
DB
DBB
DBE
DBFM
DC
DD
1-16
February 2015
Acronyms
UDOT Acceptance and Documentation Guide
Average Annual Daily Traffic
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
Accelerated Bridge Construction
Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology
American Concrete Institute
Americans with Disabilities Act
Average Daily Traffic
Average Daily Truck Traffic
American Institute of Steel Construction
American Iron and Steel Institute
American Institute of Timber Construction
American National Standards Institute
American Petroleum Institute
American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association
American Society of Civil Engineers
Allowable Stress Design
American Society for Testing and Materials
Alternate Technical Concept
American Welding Society
Blast Load
UDOT Bridge Management Manual
Bridge Management System
Bridge Management Team
Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railroad
Braking Force
Bridge Staging Area
Computer Aided Drafting Design
Case Pile Wave Analysis Program
Centrifugal Force
Code of Federal Regulations
Center of Gravity
Charge Identification Number
Cast-in-Place
Construction Manager/General Contractor
Cone Penetration Test
Creep
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute
Truck Collision
Vessel Collision
Design Build
Design Bid Build
Disadvantaged Business Enterprise
Design Build Finance Maintain
Component Dead Load
Downdrag
DE
DHV
DL
DP
DW
EDA
EEO
EH
EIT
EL
EOR
ePM
ESA
EQ
ERE
ERFC
ERS
ES
ET
EV
FCM
FDC
FE
FEM
FEMA
FHWA
FR
FRC
FRP
FTA
FWS
FY
GPR
GRAMA
GRS
HDPE
HLMR
HMWM
HPS
IC
ICBO
ICE
IF
IM
IMDL
IR
L
LFD
February 2015
District Engineer
Design Hourly Volume
Dead Load
Dye Penetrant Testing
Dead Weight
Elastic Dynamic Analysis
Equal Employment Opportunity
Horizontal Earth Pressure
Engineer in Training
Locked in Forces
Engineer of Record (or designee)
electronic Project Manager
Equivalent Static Analysis
Earthquake Load
Earthquake Resisting Elements
Early Release for Construction
Earthquake Resisting Systems
Earth Surcharge
Eddy Current Testing
Vertical Earth Pressure
Fracture Critical Member
Field Design Change
Field Engineer
Finite Element Method
Federal Emergency Management Agency
Federal Highway Administration
Friction
Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Fiber Reinforced Polymer
Federal Transit Administration
Future Wearing Surface
Fiscal Year
Ground Penetrating Radar
Government Records Access Management Act
Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil
High Density Polyethylene
High Load Multirotational
High Molecular Weight Methacrylate
High Performance Steel
Ice Load
International Conference of Building Officials
Independent Cost Estimate
Induction Field
Dynamic Load Allowance
Dead Load Dynamic Load Factor
Impulse Response
Superelevation Runoff Length
Load Factor Design
1-17
LFR
LL
LMC
LRFD
LRFD Specifications
LRFR
LS
LSDC
M&P
MAP-21
MASH
MCFT
MMC
MOI
MOT
MSE
MT
MUTCD
NC
NCEES
NCHRP
NDC
NDT
NEPA
NFIP
NHI
NHS
NICET
NSBA
NTP
P3
PCA
PCI
PDA
PDBS
PE
PIM
PIN
PL
PPC
PS
PS&E
PT
PTFE
PTI
PVC
QC/QA
RE
1-18
February 2015
Load Factor Rating

Live Load
Latex Modified Concrete
Load and Resistance Factor Design
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
Load and Resistance Factor Rating
Live Load Surcharge
Low Slump High Density Concrete
Measurement and Payment
Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act
AASHTO Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware
Modified Compression Field Theory
Microsilica Modified Concrete
Manual of Instruction
Maintenance of Traffic
Mechanically Stabilized Earth
Magnetic Particle Testing
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
Normal Crown
National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying
National Cooperative Highway Research Program
Notice of Design Change
Nondestructive Testing
National Environmental Policy Act
National Flood Insurance Program
National Highway Institute
National Highway System
National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies
National Steel Bridge Alliance
Notice to Proceed
Public/Private Partnerships
Portland Cement Association
Prestressed/Precast Concrete Institute
Pile Driving Analyzer
Project Development Business System
Professional Engineer
Public Involvement Manager
Project Identification Number
Pedestrian Load
Polyester Polymer Concrete
Secondary Forces from Post-Tensioning
Plans, Specifications and Estimate
Dye Penetrant Testing
Polytetrafluoroethylene
Post-Tensioning Institute
Polyvinyl Chloride
Quality Control/Quality Assurance
Resident Engineer
RFC
RFI
RFP
RFQ
ROW
RT
S&E
S&L
SD
SDC
SDDM
SDSR
SE
SH
SHRP
SHV
SI
SPMT
SRM
SS
SSR
STIP
STP
STRAHNET
SUE
SW
TG
TOC
TP
TR
TRB
TS&L
TSR
TU
UDOT
UIT
UPRR
US
USDA
USGS
UT
VE
VECP
VMS
VPI
WA
WL
WS
February 2015
Released for Construction

Request for Information
Request for Proposals
Request for Qualifications
Right of Way
Radiographic Testing
Scope and Estimate
Situation and Layout
Structure Design Drawings
Seismic Design Category
Seismic Design Strategy Report
Differential Settlement
Shrinkage
Strategic Highway Research Program
Specialized Hauling Vehicle
Systeme International dunites
Self Propelled Modular Transporter
FHWA Seismic Retrofitting Manual for Highway Bridges
Sample Sheets
Seismic Strategy Report
Statewide Transportation Improvement Program
Surface Transportation Program
Strategic Highway Network
Subsurface Utility Exploration
Structures and Walls
Temperature Gradient
Traffic Operations Center
Travel Path
Tangent Runout
Transportation Research Board
Type, Selection and Layout
Type Selection Report
Uniform Temperature
Utah Department of Transportation
Ultrasonic Impact Treatment
United Pacific Railroad
Ultraseismic
United States Department of Agriculture
United States Geological Survey
Ultrasonic Testing
Value Engineering
Value Engineering Change Proposal
Variable Message Sign
Vertical Points of Intersection
Water Load
Wind on Live Load
Wind Load on Structure
1-19
WSDOT
WWR
1.3
February 2015
Washington State Department of Transportation

Welded Wire Reinforcement
STRUCTURAL DESIGN LITERATURE (National)
This section discusses selected major national publications available in the structural design
literature. It provides 1) a brief discussion on each publication and 2) the UDOT application of
the publication. Use the latest edition of the publication, including all interim revisions.
1.3.1
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
1.3.1.1
1.3.1.1.1
Description
General
The LRFD Specifications serve as the national standard for bridge design. The LRFD
Specifications establish minimum requirements consistent with current nationwide practices that
apply to common bridges and other structures such as retaining walls and culverts; long span
structures can require additional design provisions.
1.3.1.1.2
LRFD Methodology
The LRFD Specifications present a load and resistance factor design (LRFD) methodology for
the structural design, which replaces the load factor design and allowable stress methodologies
of the previous AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. Basically, the LRFD
methodology requires that bridge components be designed to satisfy four sets of limit states:
strength, service, fatigue and fracture, and extreme event. Through load and resistance factors
derived through the use of statistical analyses, the strength provisions of the LRFD
Specifications now reflect a uniform level of safety for all structural elements, components and
systems.
1.3.1.1.3
Status
The information in the LRFD Specifications supersedes, partially or completely, several former
AASHTO structural design publications, which AASHTO no longer maintains:
1-20
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges

AASHTO Division 1A, Seismic Design of the Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Fracture Critical Nonredundant Steel Bridge Members
AASHTO Guide Specifications Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Superstructures
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete
Bridges
February 2015
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Fatigue Design of Steel Bridges

AASHTO Standard Specifications for Alternate Load Factor Design Procedures for Steel
Beam Bridges Using Braced Compact Sections
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Strength Design of Truss Bridges
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers
Although superseded, some of the publications contain background information or other

presentations that are useful to a structural engineer.
1.3.1.2
Application
Use the LRFD Specifications as amended by the SDDM as the mandatory document for the
structural design of bridges and other structures. The SDDM is based upon the 6th Edition of
the LRFD Specifications. Exceptions to this policy are appropriate for:
Existing elements for bridge widening and bridge rehabilitation projects (including
seismic retrofits) where strengthening is not involved
Structural elements for which no LRFD provisions are available (e.g., signs, signals,
lighting)
Other applications as approved by the Structures Design Manager
The SDDM presents UDOTs application of the LRFD Specifications to structural design.
1.3.2
1.3.2.1
AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design

Description
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design are an alternative set of
provisions for the seismic design of bridges. The major difference between the seismic
provisions in the LRFD Specifications is the methodology used for examining seismic demands.
Because the methodology focuses on displacement, the AASHTO Guide Specifications for
LRFD Seismic Bridge Design are often referred to as displacement based. By contrast, the
seismic provisions in the LRFD Specifications are force based.
1.3.2.2
Application
Use the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design for the seismic design
of bridges as discussed in Chapter 13 of the SDDM. Do not use the seismic design guidelines
in the LRFD Specifications for the seismic design of bridges.
1-21
1.3.3
February 2015
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
1.3.3.1
Description
AASHTO first published the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges in the late
1920s with annual interim revisions and, until the adoption of the LRFD Specifications, served
as the national standard for the design of bridges. The final version of the AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges is based on the ASD and LFD methodologies. AASHTO
maintained the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges through 2000 and
published the final comprehensive 17th edition in 2002.
1.3.3.2
Application
See Chapter 21 for the use of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges on
bridge widening and rehabilitation projects.
1.3.4
FHWA Seismic Retrofitting Manual for Highway Bridges
1.3.4.1
Description
The FHWA Seismic Retrofitting Manual for Highway Bridges (SRM) is based primarily on
research conducted during the development of the 1983 FHWA guidelines by the Applied
Technology Council, current Caltrans Bridge Design Aids and research conducted at the
University of California at San Diego and elsewhere. The SRM offers procedures for evaluating
and upgrading the seismic resistance of existing bridges. Specifically, the SRM contains:
A preliminary screening process to identify and prioritize bridges that need to be

evaluated for seismic retrofitting
A methodology for quantitatively evaluating the seismic capacity of an existing bridge
and determining the overall effectiveness of alternative seismic retrofitting measures
Retrofit measures and design requirements for increasing the seismic resistance of
existing bridges
The SRM does not prescribe requirements dictating when and how bridges require a retrofit.
1.3.4.2
Application
Use the FHWA Seismic Retrofitting Manual for Highway Bridges for retrofitting bridges when
required by the Structures Design Manager.
1-22
1.3.5
1.3.5.1
February 2015
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design

Description
AASHTO published the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design as a
supplement to the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges.
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design present specifications for the
design of bearings to seismically isolate the superstructure from the substructure of bridges.
1.3.5.2
Application
Use the current edition of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design, where
applicable, in conjunction with the current AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic
Bridge Design.
1.3.6
1.3.6.1
AASHTO/American Welding Society D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge Welding Code

Description
The AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge Welding Code presents current criteria for the welding
of structural steel in bridges. The Code supersedes the AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Welding of Structural Steel Highway Bridges.
1.3.6.2
Application
Use the AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge Welding Code for the design and construction of
structural steel highway bridges. However, for items not specifically addressed in D1.5, such as
welding on existing structures, welding on reinforcing steel and welding for tubular structures,
refer to the current edition of AWS D1.1 and AWS D1.4.
1.3.7
1.3.7.1
AASHTO LRFD Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges

Description
The AASHTO LRFD Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges apply to bridges
intended to carry primarily pedestrian traffic and/or bicycle traffic. The document is based on
the LRFD design methodology.
1.3.7.2
Application
Use the AASHTO LRFD Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges for the design of
pedestrian bridges in conjunction with the LRFD Specifications.
1-23
1.3.8
1.3.8.1
February 2015
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Distribution of Loads for Highway

Bridges
Description
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Distribution of Loads for Highway Bridges provide more
refined live load distribution factors than the S-over factors of the AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges. Although the refined equations appear similar, the
equations are not the same as the equations provided in the LRFD Specifications.
1.3.8.2
Application
The use of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Distribution of Loads for Highway Bridges is
permitted for non LRFD applications. Do not use the publication with the LRFD Specifications.
Only use the publication when refined live load distribution factors are required for load rating
using the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges.
1.3.9
1.3.9.1
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications

Description
The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications are a companion document to the
LRFD Specifications. The publication presents testing and acceptance criteria, material
references and recommended guidelines for construction loads.
1.3.9.2
Application
The UDOT Standard Specifications reference the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction
Specifications in many locations for the construction of structural elements. Use other
provisions in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications to supplement the UDOT
Standard Specifications as appropriate.
1.3.10
1.3.10.1
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works

Description
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works present recommended
specifications for falsework, formwork and related temporary construction used to build bridge
structures. The publication is useful to falsework designers, contractors, inspectors and
structural engineers.
1-24
1.3.10.2
February 2015
Application
Use the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works to supplement the UDOT
Standard Specifications for applicable bridge temporary works, except as superseded by the
contract documents.
1.3.11
1.3.11.1
AASHTO LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design Specifications

Description
The AASHTO LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design Specifications address the design of
movable bridges using the LRFD Specifications. The document provides guidance for the
structural design and machinery design of swing, bascule and vertical lift spans.
1.3.11.2
Application
Use the AASHTO LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design Specifications for the design of
movable bridges.
1.3.12
1.3.12.1
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway

Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals
Description
The AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires
and Traffic Signals present structural design criteria for the supports of various roadside
appurtenances. The publication presents specific criteria and methodologies for evaluating
dead load, live load, ice load and wind load.
1.3.12.2
Application
Use the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,
Luminaires and Traffic Signals for the design of signs, luminaires and traffic signals.
1.3.13
1.3.13.1
AASHTO Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision

Design of Highway Bridges
Description
The AASHTO Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway
Bridges includes information relative to designing bridges to resist damage from vessel
collisions. As feasible, the publication is based on probabilistic principles. The LRFD
Specifications contain only the load section of the document. The AASHTO Guide Specification
1-25
February 2015
and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges contains considerably more
information.
1.3.13.2
Application
Use the AASHTO Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway
Bridges for the design of vulnerable bridges when required by the Structures Design Manager.
1.3.14
1.3.14.1
American Institute of Steel Construction Steel Construction Manual

Description
The AISC Steel Construction Manual provides dimensions, properties and general design
guidance for structural steel for various applications. The publication contains AISC allowable
stress design and load and resistance factor design method criteria for steel buildings.
However, the properties of the rolled structural shapes are useful for designing bridge
structures.
1.3.14.2
Application
Use the AISC Steel Construction Manual for dimensional properties of standard steel shapes.
Use the specifications only where the publication addresses items not in the LRFD
Specifications and with the approval of the Structures Design Manager.
1.3.15
1.3.15.1
American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association

Manual for Railway Engineering
Description
The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering provides detailed structural specifications for the
design of railroad bridges. The AREMA specifications have approximately the same status for
railroad bridges as the LRFD Specifications have for highway bridges; i.e., the structural design
of railroad bridges must meet the AREMA requirements.
1.3.15.2
Application
Occasionally, UDOT is responsible for the structural design of railroad bridges. Use the
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering for the design of structures carrying rail traffic;
however, for seismic design of railroad bridges over UDOT roads, see Chapter 13 of the SDDM.
In addition, the AREMA specifications contain requirements for the geometric design of railroad
tracks passing beneath a bridge.
1-26
1.3.16
February 2015
Additional Structural Design Publications
The structural design literature contains many additional publications that can be useful on a
case by case basis. Verify the adequacy of any member proportions, details or practices in the
publications to ensure consistency with the LRFD Specifications. The following briefly describes
several of the structural design publications:
1.
American Concrete Institute 318-05 Building Code Requirements for Structural

Concrete. Addresses the proper design and construction of buildings of structural
concrete. Although intended for building design, structural engineers find the document
useful because the publication provides more detail on aspects of concrete design that
are less typical in bridges.
2.
American Concrete Institute Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge

Structures. Contains information on various concrete bridge types, loads, load factors,
service and ultimate load design, prestressed concrete, substructure and superstructure
elements, precast concrete and reinforcing details.
3.
American Institute of Timber Construction Timber Construction Manual. Provides criteria

for the design of timber structures, including bridges, for both sawn and laminated
timber.
4.
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute Handbook.

Requirements for Reinforced Concrete.
5.
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute Manual of Standard Practice. Explains generally

accepted industry practices for estimating, detailing, fabricating and placing reinforcing
bars and bar supports.
6.
International Conference of Building Officials International Building Code.

criteria for the design of buildings.
7.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program 343 Manuals for Design of Bridge
Foundations.
Provides additional information on the application of the LRFD
Specifications to foundations.
8.
National Steel Bridge Alliance National Steel Bridge Alliance Collaboration Standards.
A series of documents addressing topics related to steel bridge design, including
analysis, fabrication, plan presentation, shop drawing presentation, shop drawing review,
constructability, quality control and standard details.
9.
National Steel Bridge Alliance Steel Bridge Design Handbook. Addresses many aspects
of structural steel materials, fabrication, economy and design and includes LRFD
examples; the general computational procedure is helpful to structural engineers using
the LRFD Specifications.
10.
Portland Cement Association Notes on ACI 318-02 Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete with Design Applications. Assists the structural engineer in the
proper application of the ACI 318-02 design standard, which is the predecessor to ACI
Meets the ACI Building Code
Provides
1-27
February 2015
318-05. Numerous design examples illustrate the application of the provisions of ACI
318-02.
11.
Prestressed/Precast Concrete Institute Bridge Design Manual. Includes both preliminary

and final design information for standard girders and precast, prestressed concrete
products used for transportation structures. The document contains background,
strategies for economy, fabrication techniques, evaluation of loads, load tables, design
theory and numerous complete design examples. The publication explains and
amplifies the application of both the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges and the LRFD Specifications.
12.
Prestressed/Precast Concrete Institute Design Handbook. Includes information on the

analysis and design of precast and/or prestressed concrete products in addition to a
discussion on handling, connections and tolerances for prestressed products. The PCI
Design Handbook contains general design information, specifications and standard
practices.
13.
Post-Tensioning Institute Post-Tensioned Box Girder Bridge Manual.

Contains
information on economics, design parameters, analysis and detailing, installation,
prestressing steel specifications, post-tensioning tendons, systems and sources.
14.
Post-Tensioning Institute Post-Tensioning Manual. Discusses the application of posttensioning to many types of concrete structures, including concrete bridges. Also
discusses types of post-tensioning systems, specifications and the analysis, design and
construction of post-tensioned structures.
15.
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Timber Bridge Manual.

Addresses all aspects of traditional timber bridge construction plus the latest
developments in laminated deck systems using adhesives or prestressing forces.
1.4
UDOT DOCUMENTS
UDOT publications in addition to the SDDM could apply to a structures design project.
1.4.1
UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction
The UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction presents criteria for geotechnical investigations
and designs, including:
1-28
Field investigations (e.g., subsurface exploration, soil sampling)

Geotechnical laboratory testing
Embankments/slopes (e.g., settlement, slope stability)
Foundations for structures
Retaining walls (e.g., global stability) and other earth retaining systems
Geotechnical support during construction
February 2015
The purpose of the UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction is to:
1.4.2
Outline the roles and interaction of the Geotechnical Design Division and of consultant
geotechnical engineers
Identify standard procedures, practices, manuals, specifications, computer software,
etc., for use in geotechnical work
Establish standards for presentation of geotechnical information, including reports, test
hole logs and laboratory test results
UDOT Roadway Design Manual of Instruction
The UDOT Roadway Design Manual of Instruction provides procedures and methods for
developing and documenting improvements to the roadway network. The UDOT Roadway
Design Manual of Instruction provides recommended values for critical roadway design
dimensions, which includes values for the FHWA 13 controlling criteria (e.g., roadway width,
horizontal alignment, stopping sight distance). The UDOT Roadway Design Manual of
Instruction documents criteria for several bridge design elements, including:
1.4.3
Bridge width
Vertical clearances
Horizontal and vertical alignment
Clear zones for bridge underpasses
UDOT Roadway Drainage Manual of Instruction
The UDOT Roadway Drainage Manual of Instruction documents practices and procedures for
the hydraulic and hydrologic design of drainage appurtenances on the highway network,
including hydrologic methods (e.g., Rational Method, United States Geological Survey (USGS),
design flood frequency, culvert hydraulics, storm drainage systems and roadside channels. The
UDOT Roadway Drainage Manual of Instruction documents drainage criteria for several
hydraulic elements that impact bridges, including:
1.4.4
Bridge waterway openings

Bridge scour
Bridge deck drainage
Streambank protection
Stream channels
UDOT Environmental Process Manual of Instruction
The UDOT Environmental Process Manual of Instruction provides guidance for the preparation
of environmental analyses and documentation. The UDOT Environmental Process Manual of
Instruction documents practices and procedures for compliance with the National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA) and many other federal and state environmental regulations. Several topics
1-29
February 2015
in the UDOT Environmental Process Manual of Instruction relate to the development of bridge
projects:
1.4.5
Roles and responsibilities of Region and Central environmental staff

Environmental documentation (e.g., categorical exclusions, environmental assessments,
environmental impact statements)
Public/resource agency involvement
Environmental permits (e.g., Section 404, Section 401)
Mitigation commitments
Specifications
The specifications present the work methods, materials and acceptance of work for the
construction of road, traffic and bridge projects. Refer to Section 4.3 for a description of various
types of specifications.
1.4.6
Materials
The certification and quality control acceptance of construction materials is a critical element to
ensure the performance and durability of the various highway elements. Several documents are
available to ensure the use of quality materials in highway construction, including:
UDOT Materials Manual for Instruction Part 8

UDOT Minimum Sampling and Testing Requirements
UDOT Quality Management Plans
UDOT Standard Specifications
UDOT Steel and Concrete Construction Manual
Verify that the bridge design and contract documents are consistent with the provisions in the
listed documents.
1.4.7
UDOT Steel and Concrete Construction Manual
The UDOT Steel and Concrete Construction Manual is a mandatory part of the contract
documents where the contractor furnishes or rehabilitates fabricated steel or concrete. The
UDOT Steel and Concrete Construction Manual is an extension of the latest editions of the:
1-30
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications

AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code
AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code Steel
AWS D1.2 Structural Welding Code Aluminum
AWS D1.3 Structural Welding Code Sheet Steel
AWS D1.4 Structural Welding Code Reinforcing Steel
AWS D1.6 Structural Welding Code Stainless Steel
February 2015
The UDOT Steel and Concrete Construction Manual provides standard techniques and methods
of inspection.
1.4.8
UDOT Construction Manual of Instruction
The UDOT Construction Manual of Instruction provides guidance to personnel that inspect and
administer the contract provisions, and establishes specific responsibilities of the RE regarding
contract administration and construction engineering management. The UDOT Construction
Manual of Instruction is an administrative guide and reference describing acceptable methods
and procedures for the preparation of records and reports in the administration and construction
of projects under UDOTs supervision.
1-31
1-32
February 2015
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
ADMI
NI
STRATI
VE GUI
DELI
NES,
REMENTS AND PROCEDURES
REQUI
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1
SDDM SIGNIFICANCE AND APPLICATION .............................................................. 2-1

2.1.1
2.1.2
2.2
POLICY ........................................................................................................................2-2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
2.2.7
2.2.8
2.3
Document Priority ........................................................................................ 2-1

Approach ...................................................................................................... 2-1
UDOT Structures Division Policies............................................................... 2-2

Administrative Rule R930-7-9 Utilities on Highway Structures .................... 2-3
Guide Signs on Bridges ............................................................................... 2-3
UDOT Aesthetics Policy ............................................................................... 2-3
UDOT Monument and City Logo Policy ....................................................... 2-3
UDOT Experimental Features and Evaluation of New Products Policy ....... 2-3
UDOT Standard Specifications .................................................................... 2-4
UDOT Standard Drawings ........................................................................... 2-4
DESIGN EXCEPTIONS/WAIVERS/DEVIATIONS....................................................... 2-4

2.3.1
2.3.2
Design Exception/Waiver/Deviation from Standards ................................... 2-4

Structural Design Criteria Deviation ............................................................. 2-4
2.4
BRIDGE RECORD INFORMATION ............................................................................ 2-5
2.5
BUY AMERICA GUIDELINE ....................................................................................... 2-5
2.6
BRIDGE DESIGN LIFE ................................................................................................ 2-6
2.7
BRIDGE TREATMENT DESIGN DIRECTION............................................................. 2-6

2.7.1
2.7.2
2.7.3
Bridge Treatments Pavement Preservation Projects............................... 2-6

Bridge Treatments Pavement Rehabilitation Projects............................... 2-7
Asphalt Application Guidelines .................................................................... 2-8
2.8
UTILITY ATTACHMENT REQUIREMENTS ................................................................ 2-9
2.9
OVERHEAD SIGN STRUCTURE GUIDE SIGN REQUIREMENTS ............................ 2-11
2.10
CULVERT HEADWALL REQUIREMENTS ................................................................. 2-11
2.11
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE ACCESS REQUIREMENTS ............................. 2-11
2.12
PUBLIC ACCESS DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ........................................................... 2-12
2.13
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT TOOLS........................................................................... 2-12

2.13.1
2.13.2
Electronic Program Management................................................................. 2-12

ProjectWise .................................................................................................. 2-12
Administrative Guidelines, Requirements and Procedures
2-i
2.13.3
2.13.4
2.14
February 2015
Project Delivery Network .............................................................................. 2-12

Digital Signature ........................................................................................... 2-13
STRUCTURE NUMBER .............................................................................................. 2-13

2.14.1
2.14.2
2.14.3
Structure Number Assignment ..................................................................... 2-13

Structure Number Placement ....................................................................... 2-15
Structure Drawing Number .......................................................................... 2-16
2.15
STRUCTURE NAME ................................................................................................... 2-18
2.16
STRUCTURES DIVISION ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES ................................... 2-18

2.16.1
Design Bid Build ........................................................................................... 2-18

2.16.1.1
2.16.1.2
2.16.2
Design Build ................................................................................................. 2-18

2.16.2.1
2.16.2.2
2.16.3
Description ................................................................................. 2-24

Structures Division Involvement ................................................. 2-24
Emergency Project Delivery ......................................................................... 2-24

2.16.8.1
2-ii
Description ................................................................................. 2-23

Local Government Project NonUDOT Advertisement ............................... 2-24

2.16.7.1
2.16.7.2
2.16.8
Description ................................................................................. 2-21

Local Government Project UDOT Advertisement ..................................... 2-23

2.16.6.1
2.16.6.2
2.16.7
Description ................................................................................. 2-21

Permit Project .............................................................................................. 2-21

2.16.5.1
2.16.5.2
2.16.6
Description ................................................................................. 2-20

Public/Private Partnerships .......................................................................... 2-21

2.16.4.1
2.16.4.2
2.16.5
Description ................................................................................. 2-18

Construction Manager/General Contractor .................................................. 2-20

2.16.3.1
2.16.3.2
2.16.4
Description ................................................................................. 2-18

Description ................................................................................. 2-24
2.16.8.2
2.16.9
Maintenance Project Delivery ...................................................................... 2-24

2.16.9.1
2.16.9.2
2.17
February 2015
Description ................................................................................. 2-24

PROJECT DOCUMENT REQUIREMENTS................................................................. 2-25

2.17.1
2.17.2
2.17.3
2.17.4
2.17.5
2.17.6
2.17.7
2.17.8
2.17.9
2.17.10
2.17.11
2.17.12
2.17.13
2.17.14
2.17.15
2.17.16
2.17.17
2.17.18
2.17.19
2.17.20
2.17.21
2.17.22
2.17.23
Structure Plans ............................................................................................ 2-25

Structure Special Provisions ........................................................................ 2-25
Engineer's Estimate ..................................................................................... 2-26
Measurement and Payment ......................................................................... 2-26
Acceptance and Documentation .................................................................. 2-26
Structure Design Calculations ...................................................................... 2-26
Load Rating Package ................................................................................... 2-26
Structure Type Selection Report .................................................................. 2-26
Seismic Design Strategy Report .................................................................. 2-27
Geotechnical Report .................................................................................... 2-27
Hydraulics Report ........................................................................................ 2-27
Other Reports or Memoranda ...................................................................... 2-28
QC Cover Sheets ......................................................................................... 2-28
Project QA Audit .......................................................................................... 2-28
Structural Review Comment Resolution Form ............................................. 2-29
Milestone Review Comment Resolution Form ............................................. 2-29
Structural Review Completion Plan in Hand (Stage 3) Review................. 2-29
Structural Review Completion PS&E (Stage 4) Review............................ 2-29
Alternate QC/QA Procedures Acceptance ................................................... 2-30
Situation and Layout Acceptance ................................................................ 2-30
Final Structure Acceptance .......................................................................... 2-30
Structural Design Criteria Deviation ............................................................. 2-31
Structural Documentation Template ............................................................ 2-31
2.18
COMPUTER SOFTWARE ........................................................................................... 2-31
2.19
RAILROAD AGREEMENTS ........................................................................................ 2-31
2.20
RESEARCH ................................................................................................................. 2-32
2.21
MATERIALS ................................................................................................................ 2-32
2.22
CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................................................ 2-32
2.23
STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SERVICES POOL ......... 2-33
2-iii
February 2015
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 STRUCTURE NUMBER ASSIGNMENT ...................................................... 2-14
Figure 2.2 STRUCTURE NUMBER LOCATION ............................................................ 2-15
Figure 2.3 STRUCTURE DRAWING NUMBER ............................................................. 2-17
2-iv
February 2015
Chapter 2
ADMINISTRATIVE GUIDELINES,
REQUIREMENTS AND PROCEDURES
The Structures Division establishes, oversees, enforces, adheres to and is responsible for a
wide range of administrative policies, procedures, requirements and guidelines. This chapter
discusses each of the administrative guidelines, requirements and procedures.
2.1
SDDM SIGNIFICANCE AND APPLICATION
The SDDM applies to all projects that include structures in which UDOT is involved. The
projects include UDOT projects, local government projects using federal funds, state funded
projects, maintenance projects and permit projects.
The SDDM establishes the structures design criteria and supplements the current LRFD
Specifications.
2.1.1
Document Priority
Document priority is as follows:
2.1.2
Design build (DB) project design criteria (where applicable)

Bridge design memoranda
SDDM
BMM
LRFD Specifications
All other reference publications
Approach
The following describes the basic approach for Part II of the SDDM:
1.
Theory. The SDDM is not a structural design theory resource or a research document;
the SDDM provides limited background information to describe the Structures Division
structures design criteria and application.
2.
Example Problems. Where beneficial to explain the intended application, the SDDM
provides a few example problems or calculations demonstrating the proper procedure for
selected design applications. For example, an example problem is useful where there
has been a large variation in solutions contrary to expectations. The design examples or
calculations illustrate the specific structural design criteria, practices and procedures for
the indicated applications.
2-1
February 2015
3.
Details. Where beneficial, the SDDM provides design details for the various structural
design elements.
4.
AASHTO Coordination. The SDDM is a supplement to the LRFD Specifications that:
5.
Does not duplicate information in the LRFD Specifications, unless necessary for
clarity
Elaborates on specific articles of the LRFD Specifications
Presents interpretative information, where needed
Modifies sections from the LRFD Specifications where UDOT has adopted a
different practice
Indicates UDOTs practice where the LRFD Specifications present multiple
options
Presents structures design applications used in Utah that are not included in the
LRFD Specifications
Structures Drawings. Where beneficial to explain typical details and requirements, the
following are provided:
Working standards (WS) sheets

Sample sheets (SS)
Structures design (SD) drawings
The structures drawings illustrate specific details, standard details, typical proportioning
guidelines and structural design criteria. Although published separately, the structures
drawings are considered part of the SDDM. See Section 4.2 for additional information.
2.2
2.2.1
POLICY
UDOT Structures Division Policies
The Structures Division is responsible for three UDOT policies:

1.
UDOT Policy 08C-01 Minimum Design Loads, Structures. Defines the minimum
design loads for the design of new state and local government bridges.
2.
UDOT Policy 08C-02 Structural Capacity of Existing Structures. Provides guidance for
the evaluation of the structural capacity of existing state and local government structures
not designed to current standards or of structures that have deteriorated.
3.
UDOT Policy 08C1-02 Geotechnical Engineering. Defines the design standards for
geotechnical and geological engineering.
The policies are updated annually. Refer to the website for policy details and specifics.
2-2
2.2.2
February 2015
Administrative Rule R930-7-9 Utilities on Highway Structures
The installation of utility facilities on highway structures can adversely impact the integrity and
capacity of the structure, the safe operation of traffic, the maintenance efficiency and the
aesthetic appeal of the structure. Do not install utility facilities on highway structures except in
extreme cases. For extreme cases, refer to Section 2.8 for utility attachment requirements.
2.2.3
Guide Signs on Bridges
Guide signs cannot be attached to bridges. Guide signs require a stand alone cantilever or
overhead sign structure. If proposed work on an existing bridge requires the removal of an
existing guide sign, the replacement guide sign must be attached to a stand alone cantilever or
overhead sign structure. If impractical due to extenuating circumstances and the guide sign
cannot be attached to a stand alone cantilever or overhead sign structure, obtain approval from
the Structures Design Manager following the procedures outlined in Section 2.9.
2.2.4
UDOT Aesthetics Policy
Reference:
LRFD Article 2.5.5
See UDOT Policy 08C-03 Project Aesthetics and Landscaping Plan Development and Review
for policies on aesthetics.
Projects involving structures are subject to an aesthetics review by the Aesthetics Committee.
Coordinate with the Region Landscape Architect to determine the appropriate aesthetics
requirements.
Refer to the aesthetics policy for requirements and guidelines on placing signs/logos/names on
bridges that are requested by local agencies during the design stage of the project. See
Section 2.2.5.
See Section 10.8.4 for more information on aesthetics.
2.2.5
UDOT Monument and City Logo Policy
See UDOT Policy 08A-02 Placement of Monument Features and City Logo Panels on State
Highways for policies on the placement of monuments and logos on state highways.
2.2.6
UDOT Experimental Features and Evaluation of New Products Policy
See Sections 2.20 and 2.21 and refer to UDOT Policy 07B-03 Experimental Features and
Evaluation of New Products for more information regarding experimental features and the new
products evaluation process for inclusion in projects.
2-3
2.2.7
February 2015
The Structures Design Division has responsibility or shares responsibility for over 30 standard
specifications. The Geotechnical Design Division has responsibility or shares responsibility for
over 30 standard specifications. Refer to the contact list for the current version of the UDOT
Standard Specifications and UDOT Standard Drawings on the website for more information.
2.2.8
UDOT Standard Drawings
The Structures Division owns the structures and walls (SW) series standard drawings and
supports other disciplines by providing structural design criteria, design and review as needed.
Refer to the contact list for the current version of the UDOT Standard Specifications and UDOT
Standard Drawings on the website for more information.
2.3
2.3.1
DESIGN EXCEPTIONS/WAIVERS/DEVIATIONS
Design Exception/Waiver/Deviation from Standards
All projects advertised through the UDOT system, whether funded with federal aid or other
independent funding, must meet UDOT design standards. A request for a design exception and
design waiver or a deviation from standards is appropriate when the request adds value to the
project. Added value is subjective, but the request must be supported by and based on rational
engineering principles. The Regions and the Central Preconstruction Engineer approve design
exceptions, design waivers and deviations from standards on a case by case basis.
For structure related elements, the Central Preconstruction Engineer coordinates with the
Structures Design Manager for input on design exceptions, waivers and deviations. The Design
Exception and Design Waiver form and the Deviation from UDOT Standards form can be found
on the website.
2.3.2
Structural Design Criteria Deviation
Request approval for structural design criteria deviations when approval from the Structures
Design Manager is required or the structural design criteria or requirements in the SDDM or the
LRFD Specifications are presented in one of the following contexts:
Shall
Mandatory
Required
Use the following procedure to request a structural design criteria deviation:

1.
2-4
Documentation. The structural engineer prepares the justification for the structural
design criteria deviation at the earliest possible stage of the project. Use the Structural
February 2015
Design Criteria Deviation Request template to document justification for the deviation
request. Coordinate with the Structures Design Manger when developing the request.
In the justification, identify the structural design criteria or requirements that are not met
and discuss items such as the following:
2.
Site constraints
Safety considerations
Construction costs
Construction logistics
Product availability
Environmental impacts
Right of way impacts
Approval. Complete the Structural Design Criteria Deviation Acceptance form and
submit the form with the Structural Design Criteria Deviation Request to the Structures
Design Manager for review. The Structures Design Manager approves all proposed
deviations in writing.
The Structural Design Criteria Deviation Request template and Structural Design Criteria
Deviation Acceptance form can be found on the website.
2.4
BRIDGE RECORD INFORMATION
Requests for bridge record information can be made through the UDOT website or through the
Government Records and Access Management Act (GRAMA) process. Bridge record
information includes any documents (e.g., calculations, reports, plans, photographs) related to a
bridge. The individual requesting bridge record information assumes all responsibility and
liability.
2.5
BUY AMERICA GUIDELINE
23 CFR Part 635.410 presents the Buy America provisions for federal aid projects. The
provisions require that manufacturing processes for steel and iron products and any coatings
occur in the United States. Use of a minimal amount of foreign material is permitted when the
cost does not exceed 0.1% of the total contract price or $2500, whichever is greater. Refer to
the UDOT Standard Specifications.
The structural engineer must determine if a proposed detail or material does not meet the Buy
America provisions. A design waiver must be obtained from FHWA during the preconstruction
stage and before advertising. The waiver process typically takes a minimum of six months.
The contractor is responsible for tracking where the exemption is used.
2-5
2.6
February 2015
BRIDGE DESIGN LIFE
The 75 year design life defined in LRFD Article 1.2 is relevant only for the strength and fatigue
limit states. The 75 year design life is not relevant to the service limit states, which are intended
to address durability and longevity of the bridge.
The live load model for the strength limit states, including the notional load, load factors and
multiple presence factors, represent the traffic distribution from 1992 (hence, HL-93) statistically
projected over 75 years to produce safe bridges as quantified by the selected reliability index.
Thus, if bridges are properly maintained, meaning no loss of resistance, bridges can safely carry
loads for 75 years based upon the traffic of 1992. No traffic growth, either in volume or weight,
was included in the development of the live load model. However, the assumption is that the
HL-93 notional live load model is adequately safe today due to conservative assumptions in
1992.
The finite life resistance (the number of cycles due to truck traffic over the design life of the
bridge) is also based on 75 years. Most bridges are designed for infinite life, but the few bridges
with lower truck traffic volumes are designed for finite life based upon the average daily truck
traffic (ADTT) summed over 75 years.
The service limit states are not calibrated to achieve uniform reliability as are the strength limit
states. Deterioration data was not available to perform the calibration. Instead, the service limit
states are calibrated to achieve member proportions based upon past successful practice.
Durability is a function of design, construction and maintenance. The use of superior materials
(e.g., coated reinforcing, improved concrete mixes), additional cover and deck protection
treatments can also improve bridge serviceability.
2.7
2.7.1
BRIDGE TREATMENT DESIGN DIRECTION

Bridge Treatments Pavement Preservation Projects
The Structures Division participates in pavement preservation projects based on the scope of
the project:
2-6
Refer to the guidelines for pavement preservation projects if there is a bridge within the
project limits.
If the bridge does not have an existing asphalt overlay, do not perform any work on the
bridge (i.e., skip bridge).
If the bridge has an existing asphalt overlay:
Evaluate the integrity of the existing asphalt on bridge (cores recommended)
If substrate is in good condition as determined by the pavement engineer:

+
Rotomill and replace asphalt 1 in. on deck and approach slab
+
Coordinate with the Structures Division
+
Provide taper on roadway, as necessary; profile and cross slope
adjustments could be required
February 2015
2.7.2
Do not place any additional material weight on bridge; material placed

cannot exceed material removed
If substrate is not adequate as determined by the pavement engineer, do not
perform any work on the bridge or:
+
Remove asphalt to deck and approach slab, install waterproofing
membrane and replace asphalt 2-in. minimum and 3-in. maximum,
provide taper on roadway, as necessary; profile and cross slope
adjustments could be required
+
Coordinate with the Structures Division
+
Do not place any additional material weight on bridge; material placed
cannot exceed material removed
Bridge Treatments Pavement Rehabilitation Projects
Refer to guidelines for pavement rehabilitation projects.

within a rehabilitation project include:
Bridge preservation requirements
Bridge asphalt overlay (only applies to bridges with an existing asphalt overlay);
allowable work based on the pavement evaluation is as follows:
Remove asphalt to deck and approach slab
Pothole patch concrete deck and approach slab
Install waterproofing membrane
Replace asphalt; 2-in. minimum and 3-in. maximum thickness
Provide taper on roadway, as necessary; profile and cross slope adjustments

could be required
Do not place any additional material weight on bridge; material placed cannot
exceed material removed
Bridge overlays (nonasphalt):
Sound concrete deck and approach slab
Pothole patch concrete deck and approach slab
Apply overlay system; for example, thin bonded polymer overlay or polyester
concrete overlay
Provide taper on roadway, as necessary; profile and cross slope adjustments

could be required
Bridge deck hydrodemolition and overlay
Bridge joint closure, repair or replacement
Bridge approach slab jacking
Concrete repair and sealing:

+
Superstructure
Parapet concrete repair and sealing
Beam end repair
End diaphragm placement
+
Substructure
Abutment concrete repair and sealing
Bent concrete repair and sealing
2-7
February 2015
Miscellaneous items
Spot painting structural steel
Bearing replacement
The Structures Division supplements funding for work items beyond deck and approach slab
treatments.
2.7.3
Asphalt Application Guidelines
The Bridge Management Division inspects and maintains nearly 2000 bridges on the state
highway system. Most of the bridges have a reinforced concrete deck. Approximately 1030
currently have an asphalt overlay on top of the concrete deck. An asphalt overlay on a bridge
deck is not a preferred treatment for the following reasons:
1.
Trapping Water. Asphalt traps moisture between the overlay and the surface of the
concrete. Asphalt is a pervious material. Water penetrates the asphalt and traps the
water on top of the membrane. Combined with salt, the presence of water rapidly
increases the rate of deterioration and corrosion in the reinforcing in the bridge deck.
2.
Membranes. Waterproofing membranes do not always perform as intended. A properly

installed waterproofing membrane can block the chloride and water infusion into the
bridge deck. However, once the overlay is installed, the membrane cannot be inspected
or repaired. Instead of protecting the bridge deck, a failed membrane actually serves as
a catalyst for rapid deterioration of the bridge deck.
3.
Dead Load. Asphalt adds load to the bridge. Bridges typically carry 3 in. of asphalt.
Installing more than 3 in. of asphalt reduces the capacity to carry live load (trucks). In
some cases, the reduction in capacity requires that the bridge be posted for loads less
than the legal amount.
4.
Inspection. Asphalt prevents proper visual inspection of the bridge deck. Bridge deck
condition is inspected and assessed every two years. However, a bridge deck overlaid
with asphalt cannot be visually assessed and, therefore, timely rehabilitation of the deck
cannot be planned. Improper inspection often leads to a reduced service life for the
bridge and requires more expensive treatments to maintain the bridge.
5.
Service Life. Asphalt does not provide a desirable service life. Asphalt is typically
expected to last between 7 and 10 years. To properly maintain over 2000 bridges in the
state, providing a treatment on a single bridge rarely occurs more often than once every
15 years.
6.
Bridge Parapets. Asphalt greater than 3-in. thick can create an unsafe height for the
bridge parapet. The height of the top of the parapet with respect to the driving surface is
the most important factor in preventing vehicles from rolling over the parapet.
Do not apply an initial asphalt overlay to a new bridge. Older bridges, depending on the bridge
condition, could be good candidates for an asphalt overlay and waterproofing membrane.
Designed properly and installed correctly, an asphalt overlay and waterproofing membrane can
2-8
February 2015
adequately protect the bridge deck, provide a smooth riding surface, help adjust profile
irregularities and align the maintenance cycle of the bridge with that of the adjoining roadway.
Use the following recommendations when considering a bridge deck for an asphalt overlay and
waterproofing membrane:
2.8
Consider only bridge decks that have an existing asphalt overlay and where the
adjoining roadway pavement is asphalt.
Core the existing asphalt to determine the thickness and integrity of the lower layers.
Evaluate the cores and the underside of the deck (assess if the membrane is
functioning).
Determine if a partial removal and replacement (mill and fill) of the asphalt is acceptable.
Do not add weight to the bridge.
Limit the maximum overlay thickness to 3 in.
Allow for proper drainage of the bridge deck (raise catch basins when necessary).
Allow for adequate movement and drainage at the bridge joints (provide an acceptable
joint) to maintain integrity and function of the original joint.
UTILITY ATTACHMENT REQUIREMENTS
Do not place utilities on structures unless no reasonable alternative exists. Utilities placed on
structures require the approval of the Region Director and the Structures Design Manager.
Attachment of natural gas utility lines will not be permitted to bridge structures that serve
vehicular traffic or crosses over vehicular or pedestrian traffic.
When no other option is viable based on the requirements in Administrative Rule R930-7-9,
approval must be obtained by the Structures Design Manager following the procedures outlined
in Section 2.3. Submit the following items to the Structures Design Manager for review:
Project memorandum: Provide and address the following:
Project scope of work
Map of project limits
Utility location
Structures impacted
Utility owner and stakeholders

Structure design attachment details with situation and layout
Detailed cost estimate to attach the utility to the structure
Alternative utility layout for the option when not attached to the structure
Alternative cost estimate for the option when the utility is not attached to the structure
Geotechnical boring logs and geotechnical analyses to support costs if required
Providing the above information does not constitute approval. Do not proceed with any work
until receiving formal approval.
2-9
February 2015
If approved by the Structures Design Manager, attach utilities on the structure as follows:
Coordinate with the utility owner and meet all utility owner requirements.
Provide individual sleeved casings, conduits or ducts as appropriate.
Typically, place utilities in the first interior bay; conceal utilities from view (locate above
girder bottom flange); attaching utilities to the visible exterior of the superstructure is not
permitted.
Lay out all utility pipes, etc., on a straight line for the full length of the bridge structure.
Place all utilities that carry liquids inside a casing that extends the entire length of the
structure for a distance of 10 ft beyond the ends of the approach slabs. When carrying
pressurized utilities, design the casing to carry full service pressure to provide a
satisfactory containment in case the utility is damaged or leaks.
Accommodate pipes that pass through abutment walls, diaphragms and other structural
members.
Paint visible pipes and pipe sleeves to match the color of adjacent structural members.
Attach utility supports to girder webs. Use roller or cradle type supports that adequately
support the pipe, sleeve or conduit and that accommodate longitudinal thermal
expansion and contraction.
Do not allow manholes or access openings for utilities in bridge decks, webs, bottom
slabs or abutment diaphragms.
Do not use field welding on steel girders. Field drilling on concrete girders and steel
girders at approved locations is permitted.
Use attachments with permanent type, approved epoxy resin anchors. Attachment
hardware must be galvanized or stainless steel. Some epoxies creep when subjected to
permanent tension loads; therefore, use appropriate bonding materials.
Do not allow a utility attachment that impairs inspection and maintenance activities.
Do not allow a utility attachment that reduces the vertical clearance or freeboard.
Do not locate attachments on the upstream side of the bridge because, during floods,
trees and other drift occasionally strike the girders.
Do not allow bolting through the deck.
For final approval authority for attachments to historic bridges, coordinate with the
Environmental Services Division and other stakeholders identified in the environmental
document.
Do not permit a utility installation that interferes with the contractor constructing the
bridge.
Do not allow a utility attachment design that discharges the pipe product into the stream
or river in the event of a pipe failure.
Do not allow the use of bridge members to resist forces caused by moving fluids.
Provide an expansion deflection device where the conduit or casing crosses a bridge
expansion joint.
Locate trenching in the vicinity of existing bents or abutments a sufficient distance from
footings to prevent undercutting of existing footings or to prevent disturbing foundation
soils for future foundations.
The Structures Division must review the general layout and structure attachment details for
acceptance. Refer to Administrative Rule R930-7-9 Utilities on Highway Structures for more
information on attaching utilities to bridge structures.
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2.9
February 2015
OVERHEAD SIGN STRUCTURE GUIDE SIGN REQUIREMENTS
The Traffic and Safety Division manages the guide sign panels that are placed on the overhead
sign structures. If a sign panel must be replaced on an existing overhead sign structure, provide
a sign panel no larger than the existing sign panel with maximum height and width dimensions
equal to the existing sign panel. Locate the centroid of the new sign panel in the exact location
on the overhead sign structure as on the existing sign panel.
If the new sign panel does not meet the stated requirements, the existing overhead sign
structure and foundation cannot be reused. Deviation from this requirement requires a
structural design criteria deviation. See Section 2.3.2. Include a structural design analysis to
validate the structural integrity due to the change in conditions with the request. Refer to
Section 22.2 for overhead structure design requirements.
2.10
CULVERT HEADWALL REQUIREMENTS
Provide a concrete headwall on all culverts 36 in. or greater. Pipes less than 36 in. in diameter
do not typically require concrete headwalls. Refer to Section 22.1.
2.11
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE ACCESS REQUIREMENTS
Make all bridge superstructures, expansion joints, backwalls, enclosed compartments and
bearings accessible for long term inspection by arms length, direct viewing. Make expansion
joints accessible for direct viewing from the underside of the joint. For expansion joints at
abutments, provide inspector access between the end diaphragm and the backwall to allow
inspection of the backwall and the underside of the expansion joint by arms length, direct
viewing. Make open framed superstructures accessible with walkways and ladders or by use of
a snooper truck.
Box girders with an inside depth of 5 ft or more require access through the box girder for interior
inspection. In all box girders, provide an opening that is at least 3 ft by 3 ft, has a hinged metal
door that swings out from the box girder and has a removal bolt for locking. Minimize the weight
of the door to facilitate opening by inspection personnel. Where required, provide a method of
ladder support for inspection access.
Consider providing lighting in box girders during the scoping stage of the project. Document the
evaluation in the Structures Type Selection Report (TSR).
See Chapter 3 of the BMM for an in-depth discussion on bridge inspection.
2-11
2.12
February 2015
PUBLIC ACCESS DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Prevent public access to closed areas such as between full height concrete diaphragms and
backwalls on seat type abutments. Use a chain link type fence between the exterior girders and
wingwalls with an access gate that has a removal bolt for locking. Do not inhibit the normal
expansion and contraction movement of the structure with the detail used.
2.13
2.13.1
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT TOOLS

Electronic Program Management
The ePM system allows employees, local government agencies and consultants to access
information on planning, funding, scheduling and staffing of design projects. The ePM system is
a tool to assist Project Managers through the project development process.
The Bridge Program Manager initiates a project through screen 300 in ePM, which assigns the
project a Project Identification Number (PIN). This establishes initial funding, project location
and project description. After the STIP process is completed, a project is funded and moved
into scoping status within ePM. The Structures Design Manager works with the appropriate
Region to establish a schedule in MS Project, which inputs the critical dates into ePM. At this
point, the committed advertising date is set in ePM. As the project progresses through design
and construction, ePM is used to enter staff time, to track expenditures and estimated costs and
to monitor the status of the project.
On a programmatic level, ePM is used to track current program balances, project balances,
history of funding adjustments and funding types.
Additionally, the location and date in ePM is used by the GIS Division to map projects at various
stages, which allows planners to combine projects in close proximity and provide information to
interested parties on current and future projects.
For additional guidance on the ePM system, refer to the website.
2.13.2
ProjectWise
Use ProjectWise as required by the Project Development Division. Refer to the website for
more information regarding the document posting requirements, attributes and document
naming conventions.
2.13.3
Project Delivery Network
The Project Delivery Network outlines the stages, activities and tasks necessary for developing
projects for advertising. The Project Delivery Network describes the project development
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February 2015
sequence for the structure design process, identifies the deliverables from each activity and task
and describes the coordination between the structural engineer and other design disciplines.
For additional information on the project development process, refer to the Project Delivery
Network guidance on the website, the UDOT Project Manager Guide and the UDOT Local
Government Guide.
2.13.4
Digital Signature
A digital signature is any electronic means that indicates that a person adopts the contents of an
electronic document. All plan sets require a digital signature to validate acceptance. Refer to
Section 4.2.10.
2.14
2.14.1
STRUCTURE NUMBER
Structure Number Assignment
The Structures Division assigns a unique structure number to each permanent structure for
which plans are prepared. The structure number is the primary means of identification for the
structure and never changes throughout the structure life.
Request a new structure number or drawing number through the website. Figure 2.1 describes
the process for the structure number assignment.
When a structure is replaced, a new structure number is assigned to the new structure. The
records of the demolished structure remain in the bridge inventory for historical purposes;
therefore, the structure number of a demolished structure is never reused.
When a structure is repaired or modified, the structure retains the existing structure number,
and a new structure drawing number is requested to differentiate the new plan set from the
original plan set.
Refer to Section 3.4.4 of the BMM for structure type designations for both state owned
structures and structures owned by local governments.
Obtain a structure number for retaining walls that meet the following requirements:
Any retaining wall 3 ft or greater (maximum exposed face)

Any retaining wall regardless of height that could affect the integrity of a structure (e.g.,
retaining wall supporting an adjacent building)
Any retaining/noise wall that exceeds the parameters in the UDOT Standard Drawings
(SW series)
2-13
Structure
Type
Description
February 2015
Letter
Designation
Notes
Bridge
Timber superstructure
Does not include timber decks
Bridge
Structural steel superstructure
Includes steel arches and trusses
Bridge
CIP or precast concrete

superstructure without prestressing
Typically includes rigid frames

and monolithic concrete T-beams
Bridge
Prestressed (either pretensioned or

post-tensioned) concrete
superstructure
Includes voided slabs and box

beams with prestressing
Culvert
Concrete three-sided or box culvert

included in the scope of buried
structures (LRFD Section 12)
Overhead
sign
Overhead span type (single or

double mast), cantilever (including
dual) or butterfly sign
Headwall
Concrete headwall
Retaining wall
Retaining wall
Miscellaneous
Structures not characterized by any

other description
Typically carry water and have

earth fill cover
Includes concrete arch culverts
and many pedestrian
undercrossings
Does not include roadside signs
Includes overhead VMS
structures
Includes roadside VMS
structures
Only used for culverts that do not
receive a structure number
Rockery sloped walls (0.4H:1.0V
or steeper) are not assigned a
structure number and are limited
to 3 ft of exposed face
Includes flexible culverts (e.g.,
structural plate or corrugated
metal pipe)
Includes pipe arrays, vaults and
various drainage structures
Includes tunnels
Figure 2.1 STRUCTURE NUMBER ASSIGNMENT
When a project includes several retaining walls, all retaining walls of the same type (e.g.,
concrete cantilever, mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) single stage, MSE two stage, MSE
block) are grouped together to assign a structure number. The grouped retaining walls use the
same general structure number (e.g., R-123) provided that a letter designation is added to the
end of the structure number to distinguish each individual retaining wall (e.g., R-123A, R-123B).
Use one plan set for all retaining walls grouped under a single structure number. Provide a
location plan showing all retaining walls covered by the general structure number (e.g., R-123)
on the first sheet of the plan set (e.g., general notes, quantities) followed by the details of each
individual retaining wall.
Similarly, when a project includes several overhead sign structures, overhead sign structures of
the same type (e.g., single cantilever, double cantilever, single mast span, double mast span,
variable message sign (VMS) span, VMS cantilever) are grouped together to assign a structure
number. The overhead sign structures use the same general structure number (e.g., G-123),
provided that a letter designation is added to the end of the structure number to distinguish each
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February 2015
individual overhead sign structure (e.g., G-123A, G-123B). Organize overhead sign structure
plans the same as retaining wall plans.
Any barrier that retains more pavement and earth than Standard Drawing BA 3A1 does not
require a structure number, but design calculations and plans must be submitted for review.
2.14.2
Structure Number Placement
The structure number (not the drawing number, when different) is placed on the constructed
structure either by permanently casting the number into a structural concrete member or by
another method as detailed in the plans.
Place the structure number on the structure according to Figure 2.2.
Structure Type
Attachment
Comments
Bridge
Right approach
parapet
Cast into concrete
Two way bridges

require structure
number placement at
two locations
Concrete drainage
structure (includes threesided precast structures)
Top and exposed

face of headwall
(two places, each
headwall)
Cast into concrete
Center on headwall
facing away from box
opening
Pedestrian bridge
Support adjacent to
outside shoulder
Cast into concrete
Overhead sign structure
Near top of
foundation
Cast into concrete
Retaining wall
At the beginning of
the wall and at
500-ft intervals
Cast into concrete
Visible to inspectors
on the ground in front
of the wall or on top
of the coping
Concrete arch drainage
Headwall or end
beam
Cast into concrete
Center on headwall
facing away from
drainage opening
Structural steel multiplate

arch
Top of headwall or
end beam/coping
Cast into concrete
Center on headwall
facing away from
drainage opening
Note:
Location
Cast the structure number into the bridge element. Do not use the structure drawing number if
different than structure number.
Figure 2.2 STRUCTURE NUMBER LOCATION
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February 2015
Refer to WS sheets for the exact size and location of the structure number on a bridge. Use the
WS sheets as a guide for the size of the structure number on other structure types.
Structural supports for high mast lighting, traffic signals, camera poles, etc., though designed as
structures, are not given a structure number by the Structures Division. The structural supports
are numbered and inventoried by the Traffic and Safety Division, which also applies to
standardized structures constructed according to the UDOT Standard Drawings.
2.14.3
Structure Drawing Number
The Structures Division assigns to each structure plan set a unique structure drawing number.
The structure drawing number is the primary means of identifying the structure plan set. The
structural engineer requests the structure drawing number through the website.
For new structures, the structure drawing number is the structure number.
For a modification of an existing structure, the structure drawing number modifies the existing
structure number:
For bridge and box culvert widenings, the structure drawing number adds a W to the end
of the existing structure number. (Examples: C-123W; E-1234W).
For a bridge rehabilitation, the structure drawing number adds R to the end of the
existing structure number. When a bridge is rehabilitated multiple times, the structure
drawing number adds Rn to the end of the existing structure number, where n is the
number of times the bridge has been rehabilitated. (Examples: Original plans = C-123;
1st rehabilitation project = C-123R; 2nd rehabilitation project = C-123R2; 3rd rehabilitation
project = C-123R3).
For the extension of an existing box culvert, the structure drawing number adds En
before the structure type designation of the existing structure number, where n is the
number of times the box culvert has been extended. (Examples E1E-1234. E2E-1234).
For projects that include the rehabilitation or preservation of multiple bridges with similar
details, details of all bridges can be combined into one multiple bridge plan set with one
structure drawing number. In this case, the structure drawing number is M-nnn, where
M denotes a plan set that includes details for multiple structures and nnn is a unique
three digit number.
The use of a multiple bridge plan set is limited to bridges with work items that use generic
details and limited bridge specific details. Work items that can be part of a multiple structure
plan set include the following:
2-16
Concrete repair and sealing (e.g., deck, parapets, girders, substructure elements, slope
protection)
Deck pothole patching and waterproofing membranes and overlays
Joint seals
Parapet modification or replacement
Expansion joint repair, closure or replacement
Structural steel painting
February 2015
Bearing maintenance
Diaphragm modification
Work items that must use a single structure plan set include the following:
Structural member modification initiated to increase the load capacity (repairs initiated to
address deterioration that could also increase capacity can be addressed in a multiple
structure plan set)
Structural member replacement (e.g., deck, girders)
Bridge widening
Include all structural work for a specific bridge in a single plan set. If there are structural work
items for a bridge that require a single structure plan set and other work items for the same
structure that could be part of a multiple structure plan set, include all work items in the single
structure plan set.
Refer to the summary in Figure 2.3.
Type
Structure
Number
Structure Drawing Number

Modification
Example
New bridge
C-123
N/A
C-123
Bridge widening
C-123
Add W after
number
C-123W
Bridge
rehabilitation
C-123
Add Rn after
number
C-123R,
C-123R2,
C-123R3, etc.
Box culvert
widening
E-1234
Add W after
number
E-1234W
Box culvert
extension
E-1234
Add En before type

designation
E1E-1234,
E2E-1234, etc.
Overhead sign
structure
G-123A,
G-123B,
etc.
Combine individual
signs of the same
type on the same
project into one
plan set
G-123
Rehabilitation or
preservation of
multiple bridges in
one plan set
Various
M-nnn
M-123
Comment
n = the number of
times rehabilitated
n = the number of
times extended
nnn = unique three

digit number
Figure 2.3 STRUCTURE DRAWING NUMBER
2-17
2.15
February 2015
STRUCTURE NAME
The structure name is a description of the bridge crossing and includes the name of the feature
carried and the feature crossed. A few examples of structure names include US 40 over Silver
Creek and UPRR, 10600 South over I-15, I-70 over the Colorado River. The structure name
provides a clear description of the bridge. In some cases, the structure name must be
abbreviated to fit within the title block of the plan sheets.
2.16
STRUCTURES DIVISION ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
UDOT uses a variety of project delivery methods, depending upon the project type, local vs
state, funding source, etc. This section discusses the roles and responsibilities of the Structures
Division for each method of project delivery, where the project includes structural elements. For
example, the discussion references the application of QC/QA to each project delivery method.
2.16.1
2.16.1.1
Design Bid Build

Description
DBB is a project delivery method in which the agency or owner contracts with separate entities
for the design and construction of a project. DBB has three main sequential stages the
design stage, the bidding stage and the construction stage.
2.16.1.2
Structures Division Involvement
All projects advertised through the UDOT system follow the Project Delivery Network.
The design reviewer and oversight reviewer roles are consistent with the design quality
processes and procedures defined in Chapter 5.
2.16.2
2.16.2.1
Design Build
Description
DB is a contracting method in which a single contract is awarded to provide design and

construction services. In this method of project delivery, contractors and consultant design firms
form an integrated team and assume the responsibility for design and construction. DB allows
the overlap of design and construction activities, often resulting in faster project delivery. The
project is often segregated into packages or segments, allowing construction to begin on
portions of the project while other elements are still being designed.
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2.16.2.2
February 2015
The SDDM references several areas when approval from the Structures Design Manager is
required. In a DB project, the Structures Design Manager is the Structures Division
representative and not the Structures Design Manager for the design builder.
During the procurement stage, the Structures Division representative provides the structures
baseline requirements and defines the structures project specific elements or use on the project
and provides Requests for Proposals (RFP) document review. The lead structures engineer for
the Program Manager is responsible for developing structure concept plans, specifications and
estimates and for reviewing the RFP for compatibility within the project. Any changes to the
RFP require approval from the Structures Division representative.
Design submittals depend on the approved quality management plan provided by the design
builder. In most cases, design submittals occur at 30%, 60%, 100%, early released for
construction (ERFC) and released for construction (RFC). The 60% design submittal can be
either formal or informal. An informal submittal is treated as an over the shoulder review without
formal comments.
The Structures Division provides or assigns design and oversight reviewers.
The design reviewer provides a detailed review of the submittal package for conformance with
the contract requirements, the SDDM, the BMM and AASHTO requirements. The design
reviewer also considers errors, omissions and constructability. The design reviewer works with
the design builder and the Structures Division representative to verify that all comments are
addressed and all end of project submittals are provided. The design reviewer attends project
team meetings through the design stage of the project.
The design reviewer role can be performed by the Program Managers lead structural engineer,
a structural engineer contract employee through a work task order or a consultant structural
engineer selected using a direct select or a Structures Division representative. The difference in
selection methods between the work task order and a direct select is based on anticipated
contract value. The design reviewer cannot be part of the DB team.
The oversight reviewer provides a cursory review of the design submittal package for
conformance with the contract requirements, the SDDM, the BMM and AASHTO requirements.
The oversight review also considers errors, omissions and constructability. The oversight
reviewer reviews the review comments provided by the design reviewer to ensure applicability
and adherence to the project requirements. Attendance at project team meetings is determined
on a project by project basis, depending on the scope of work.
The oversight reviewer role can be performed by a structural engineer contract employee
through a work task order, a consultant structural engineer selected using a direct select or a
Structures Division representative. The difference in selection methods between the work task
order and a direct select is based on anticipated contract value.
The design reviewer and oversight reviewer roles are consistent with the design quality
processes and procedures defined for a DBB project. Refer to Chapter 5.
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February 2015
The Structures Division representative attends project team meetings including all review
comment resolution meetings and provides a Department perspective on the applicability of
review comments. The Structures Division representative notifies the Program Manager,
Project Manager and RE that the structure plans are approved to be released for construction
and provides technical support during construction.
2.16.3
2.16.3.1
Construction Manager/General Contractor

Description
CMGC is a modified DB process in which the owner holds the contract for both the design
consultant and the contractor. The option is available to select bid-build at the end of the design
stage if the negotiated price for construction is not acceptable to the owner. The option places
the owner in charge of project decisions and keeps the cost savings with the owner.
CMGC goals are to deliver projects quicker than the traditional method, to provide better budget
controls and to develop a close partnership between the owner, the designer and the contractor.
CMGC can be a suitable method for projects that are complicated and can benefit from a
collaborative effort during the project scoping stage.
CMGC allows identification and mitigation of high risk elements in the design stage. The risk
sharing approach reduces contractor risk and results in lower bid prices. The design consultant
develops partial design plans and specifications to advertise for the CMGC services. The
contractor submits a guaranteed maximum price to provide construction input into design,
manage the construction contract and construct the project. The contractor works with the
design consultant to ensure innovation, cost savings and reduced delivery time.
2.16.3.2
The SDDM references several areas where approval from the Structures Design Manager is
required for certain aspects of structures design. A CMGC project is consistent with a DBB
project, which follows the Project Delivery Network. The Structures Design Manager is the
UDOT Structures Design Manager.
During the project scoping stage, a Structures Division representative participates in scoping the
project, provides the structures design criteria, helps develop the RFP and participates in
selecting the design consultant (if not an internal design) and the contractor.
The design submittals and review process for a CMGC project are consistent with the design
quality processes and procedures for a DBB project. Refer to Chapter 5. The major difference
is the ability to tailor a design to the contractors approach and divide the plan set into early
procurement and phasing packages.
2-20
2.16.4
February 2015
Public/Private Partnerships
2.16.4.1
Description
P3 is a type of project that includes financing and/or maintenance provided by private entities.
Although primarily awarded as DB projects, both CMGC and DBB contracts are permitted. DB
P3 projects with maintenance are often referred to as design build finance maintain (DBFM). P3
projects create a contract between private entities (e.g., toll facilities, developers, contractors) to
provide financing plus other elements identified in the contract. Other elements can include
design, construction and maintenance for the project. Not all P3 projects provide both financing
and maintenance. The financing repayment terms can be based on tolls or other measures
defined in the project RFP. P3 is most often associated with construction and operation of toll
roads, but P3 use has expanded into nontoll facilities.
2.16.4.2
The Structures Division involvement in a P3 project follows the same procedure as outlined for a
DB project.
2.16.5
Permit Project
2.16.5.1
Description
An encroachment permit allows certain time limited construction, installation and repair activities
to occur within the state right of way in conformity with state and federal law.
A structural/geotechnical review is required before issuing a permit that authorizes any activity
that:
Could directly impact the function of a state bridge facility (e.g., bridge widening, culvert
extension) (Activity 1)
Could indirectly impact the function of a bridge facility (e.g., retaining walls supporting
the roadway, culverts crossing beneath roadways) (Activity 2)
Does not impact or permanently impact structures, but has structural components (e.g.,
a toe wall at the edge of a trail) (Activity 3)
Impedes upon UDOT ROW (e.g., a new pedestrian bridge over a state roadway)
(Activity 4)
If any permitting activity that requires a structural/geotechnical review occurs, the following
requirements apply:
The design must meet SDDM and BMM requirements including the Structures QC/QA
Procedures in Chapter 5.
The design must be reviewed by the Structures Division including the Geotechnical
Design Division.
2-21
February 2015
For Activities 1 and 4:
The design must be performed by a designer prequalified on the Structural

Design and Management Support Services Pool.
Construction management and inspection services must follow the UDOT

construction management and inspection services procedures (e.g., sampling,
testing, documentation, as built plans).
For Activities 2 and 3:
Construction management and inspection services can be by permit inspectors

as appropriate.
Executed facility maintenance agreements are required between UDOT and the requester.
2.16.5.2
Structural permit project reviews are coordinated at a Region level. If a permit request involves
designing, modifying or impacting a structure within or adjacent to the state ROW, the Region
Permit Officer provides the Structures Project Engineer with the plans, shop drawings and other
supporting documents to complete the review.
The Structures Project Engineer or designee reviews the documents for consistency with
Department specification requirements and examines how the permit work affects state
facilities. The documents are returned to the Region Permit Officer either approved or noted to
revise and resubmit. If the review comments require revisions to the documents, the Region
Permit Officer returns the documents to the requester stating to revise, update and resubmit for
approval. When all comments have been addressed, the Structures Project Engineer sends a
Structures Division memorandum to the Region Permit Officer granting approval to issue the
permit.
Three types of impacts are typically encountered:
1.
Installation of a New Facility Next to a Structure. The design reviewer reviews the plans
to ensure that the permanent installation does not negatively impact the existing
structure and that the construction does not threaten the structural integrity.
2.
Modification of an Existing UDOT Structure. Modifications can range from modifying

slope protection to culvert extensions and bridge widenings. The design reviewer
ensures that the design is performed and checked according to UDOT design
requirements, that the plans are complete and accurate relative to the work being
performed and, when necessary, that a structure number has been requested.
3.
Installation of a New Structure Over a State Roadway. The design reviewer ensures
that the design is performed and checked according to UDOT design requirements, that
the plans are complete and accurate relative to the work being performed and, when
necessary, that a structure number has been requested.
Design reviews on permit projects are limited to internal Structures Division staff. The
Structures Project Engineer tracks all permit project reviews performed by the Structures
Division.
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2.16.6
2.16.6.1
February 2015
Local Government Project UDOT Advertisement

Description
Local government agencies implement planning and programming activities for improvements
and maintenance activities for local streets and roads. The local government agency applies for
funds through the appropriate programming authority when they need federal or state
assistance. FHWA has authorized UDOT, through a stewardship agreement, to provide
oversight on all local projects using federal aid.
2.16.6.2
The Structures Division performs design reviews and oversight reviews on local government
agency projects with federal aid.
During the consultant selection process, the Structures Division representative helps develop
the Request for Qualifications (RFQ) and assists in the selection process when requested by
the Region.
The design review and oversight review roles used on a local government project are identical
to the roles on DBB projects with minor differences. When setting up the project, the Project
Manager can choose which network is used to deliver the project the Project Delivery
Network or the local government Project Delivery Network. If the local government network is
chosen, the design review submittals are 30%, 60% and 90%. Typically, a 60% structure
review is not required unless a unique project element exists. If the 60% review is required,
only redlined plan comments are provided.
The design review and oversight review roles can be performed by a structural engineer
contract employee through a work task order or a consultant structural engineer selected using
a direct select, depending on the contract value, or a Structures Division representative. If a
Structures Division representative is used in the design review role, the oversight review is not
required.
The local government is responsible for any project costs that exceed the funded amount. To
limit the project cost, the Structures Divisions first choice is to conduct the design review and/or
oversight review role in house when work loads allow.
The Structures Division representative attends project team meetings and comment resolution
meetings, provides a Department perspective on the applicability of comments and technical
support during construction, and notifies the Structures Design Manager when all required
documentation has been provided and the plan package is ready for final structure acceptance.
See Chapter 7 of the BMM for more discussion on local government projects.
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2.16.7
2.16.7.1
February 2015
Local Government Project NonUDOT Advertisement

Description
Local government agencies deliver structure projects on local routes that are agency funded or
for which alternative funding is provided by grants, developers or other means. Federal funding
requirements do not apply to the project delivery process.
2.16.7.2
The Structures Division has no ownership or oversight responsibilities for the project. However,
the Bridge Management Division must inspect and report the bridge condition to FHWA.
Therefore, the Structures Division encourages local government agencies to use the SDDM to
establish structural design criteria, follow the plan development requirements and follow the
Structures QC/QA Procedures to ensure quality within the design.
See Chapters 3 and 7 of the BMM for more information on bridge inspection requirements and
local government coordination.
2.16.8
2.16.8.1
Emergency Project Delivery

Description
An emergency project is the result of an unforeseen event that affects a structure. Examples
include a bridge hit by an oversized vehicle, scour due to flooding or damage due to an
earthquake.
2.16.8.2
The Structures Design Division develops the bid contract documents similar to a DBB project.
Advertisement is based on the BMM and not the Project Delivery Network when the contract
value is under $500,000.
See Section 2.4.6 of the BMM and Chapter 5 of the BMM for more information on emergency
projects.
2.16.9
2.16.9.1
Maintenance Project Delivery

Description
The Maintenance Division is responsible for completing routine maintenance and responsive
maintenance activities. See Chapter 6 of the BMM. Depending on the complexity of the
maintenance activity, the work can be performed by internal crews or through procurement of a
contractor.
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2.16.9.2
February 2015
Routine maintenance tasks do not usually require the assistance of the Structures Division.
However, responsive maintenance activities often require Structures Division support to
evaluate and develop solutions that do not affect structural integrity.
An issue could be identified by bridge inspectors during bridge inspection or by the maintenance
shed during routine site visits. When an issue is identified, the Structures Division works with
the maintenance personnel to determine if the issue needs to be monitored or addressed. If the
issue needs to be addressed, further discussions ensue regarding the timing of the repair and
whether the repair is considered a permanent solution or a temporary solution.
If the repair is a permanent solution, the Structures Construction Engineer works with
maintenance personnel to develop the repair and costs. Through the collaborative process, the
repair approach is determined and the level of detail required is determined to clearly convey
the concept. The work performed is documented and placed in the structure record. When the
repair is performed through procurement of a contractor, the Structures Construction Engineer
develops plans according to standard Structures Division practices and follows QC checking
and audit procedures. The development of the plans often involves direct coordination with
contractors. The project does not follow the Project Delivery Network.
If the repair is a temporary solution, the Structures Division works with the maintenance
personnel to develop the temporary repair approach. In most cases, plans are not developed.
A more permanent solution will be developed and addressed in a future project.
2.17
PROJECT DOCUMENT REQUIREMENTS
2.17.1
Structure Plans
Submit structure plans by structure drawing number.

Name the file:
PIN_Structure Dwg #_Plans_Adv_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_F-345_Plans_Adv_20141215.pdf
2.17.2
Structure Special Provisions
Provide a Word version and a .pdf for each structure related special provision within a project.
Name the file:
PIN_Structure Dwg #_Special Provision #_Special Provision Name_YYYYMMDD.pdf
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February 2015
Example:
11223_F-345_03139S_Concrete Bridge Deck Removal_20141215.pdf
2.17.3
Engineer's Estimate
Refer to the ProjectWise attributing on the website for the naming convention.
2.17.4
Measurement and Payment
2.17.5
Acceptance and Documentation
2.17.6
Structure Design Calculations
Organize the structure design calculations by element (e.g., deck, girder, diaphragm, seismic)
from superstructure to substructure. Include the designer and checker initials on each page of
the calculations and number the pages according to the section. Provide a calculation cover
sheet at the beginning of each element section. Submit the structure design calculations as a
single .pdf. Include all computer program input and output files to support the design
calculations.
Name the file:
PIN_Structure Dwg #_Calcs_Adv_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_F-345_Calcs_Adv_20141215.pdf
2.17.7
Load Rating Package
Refer to Chapter 4 of the BMM. Use the electronic file naming convention for the load rating
package, except add the PIN_ to the beginning of the file name.
2.17.8
Structure Type Selection Report
Use the Structure TSR template on the website to develop project alternatives. The Structures
Design Manager signs the Structure TSR during the plan in hand stage.
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February 2015
Name the file:

PIN_Structure Dwg #_Report_Report Name_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_F-345_Report_TSR_20141215.pdf
2.17.9
Use the SDSR template on the website to develop the preliminary and final structure design
seismic strategy. The Structures Design Manager signs the SDSR during the plans,
specifications and estimate (PS&E) stage.
Name the file:
PIN_Structure Dwg #_Report_Report Name_Stage_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_F-345_Report_SDSR_PIH_20141215.pdf
2.17.10 Geotechnical Report

The Geotechnical Report is a required structure deliverable. Refer to the UDOT Geotechnical
Manual of Instruction for layout and report requirements.
If the Geotechnical Report addresses a single structure, name the file:
PIN_Structure Dwg #_Report_Geotech_Final_YYYYMMDD.pdf.
Example:
11223_F-345_Report_Geotech_Final_20141215.pdf
If the Geotechnical Report addresses several structures on a project, name the file:
PIN_Project Name_Report_Geotech_Final_YYYYMMDD.pdf.
Example:
112233_I-215_4700South_to_SR-201_Report_Geotech_Final_20141215.pdf
2.17.11 Hydraulics Report

The Hydraulics Report is a required structure deliverable. Refer to the UDOT Drainage Manual
of Instruction for layout and report requirements.
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February 2015
If the Hydraulics Report addresses a single structure, name the file:

PIN_Structure Dwg #_Report_Hydraulics_Final_YYYYMMDD.pdf.
Example:
11223_F-345_Report_Hydraulics_Final_20141215.pdf
If the Hydraulics Report addresses several structures on a project, name the file:
PIN_Project Name_Report_Hydraulics_Final_YYYYMMDD.pdf.
Example:
112233_I-215_4700South_to_SR-201_Report_Hydraulics_Final_20141215.pdf
2.17.12 Other Reports or Memoranda

Projects often require additional reports or memoranda to address specific issues.
Name the file:
PIN_Structure Dwg #_Memo_Subject_Stage_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_F-345_Memo_Bearing Stiffener_PS&E_20141215.pdf
2.17.13 QC Cover Sheets

Combine all QC cover sheets into one file and organize the sheets by date which, preferably,
corresponds to the design stages.
Name the file:
PIN_Structure Dwg #_Review_QC_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_F-345_Review_QC_20141215.pdf
2.17.14 Project QA Audit

Combine all Project QA Audit forms into one file and organize the form by date which,
preferably, corresponds to the design stages.
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February 2015
Name the file:

PIN_Review_QA_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_Review_QA_20141215.pdf
2.17.15 Structural Review Comment Resolution Form

Complete and submit the Structural Review Comment Resolution Form to document structural
reviews.
Name the file:
PIN_Project Name_Review_Form Name_YYYYMMDD.pdf.
Example:
112233_I-215_4700South_to_SR-201_Review_STR_CRF_20141215.pdf
2.17.16 Milestone Review Comment Resolution Form

2.17.17 Structural Review Completion Plan in Hand (Stage 3) Review

Complete and submit the Structural Review Completion Plan in Hand (Stage 3) Review form
to document completion of the structural review.
Name the file:
PIN_Review_Form Name_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_Review_PIH_REV_20121215.pdf
2.17.18 Structural Review Completion PS&E (Stage 4) Review

Complete and submit the Structural Review Completion PS&E (Stage 4) Review form to
document completion of the structural review.
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February 2015
Name the file:

PIN_Review_Form Name_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_Review_PSE_REV_20121215.pdf
2.17.19 Alternate QC/QA Procedures Acceptance

The Structures Division prefers that all designs be performed following the Structures Division
QC/QA Procedures. If an alternative QC/QA procedure is requested, complete and submit the
Alternate QC/QA Procedures Acceptance form during the scoping stage of the project.
Name the file:
PIN_Acceptance_Form Name_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_Acceptance_ALT_ACC_20141215.pdf
2.17.20 Situation and Layout Acceptance

The Structures Design Manager accepts the structures design approach and situation and
layout at the plan in hand stage of the project.
Name the file:
PIN_Acceptance_Structure Dwg #_Form Name_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_Acceptance_F-345_S&L_ACC_20141215.pdf
2.17.21 Final Structure Acceptance

The Structures Design Manager accepts the final structure design before advertising the project.
Name the file:
PIN_Acceptance_Structure Dwg #_Form Name_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_Acceptance_F-345_Final_ACC_20141215.pdf
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February 2015
2.17.22 Structural Design Criteria Deviation

A structural design criteria deviation is required for all deviations from defined structures design
criteria and procedures. See Section 2.3.2. Requests for approval must be submitted at the
scoping stage of the project.
Name the file:
PIN_Structure Dwg #_Form Name_YYYYMMDD.pdf
Example:
11223_F-345_DEV_ACC_20141215.pdf
2.17.23 Structural Documentation Template

Refer to the Structural Documentation Email (3S6) template on the website for the submittal
outline and requirements.
Refer to the Structural Documentation Email (5S1) template on the website for the submittal
outline and requirements.
2.18
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Document the program name and version number used in all designs.
Document any errors in the software identified during the design and checking process. If an
error is discovered, submit a brief memorandum to UDOT describing the error, the significance
of the error, the program name and the program version.
UDOT evaluates the memorandum, confirms the findings and, where necessary, initiates
remedial action to correct any design deficiencies in previously designed and constructed
structures that used the software.
Designers are responsible for the accuracy of all computer software used for design.
2.19
RAILROAD AGREEMENTS
Where construction of a project requires the use of Railroad properties or adjustments to

Railroad facilities, an agreement is necessary between UDOT and the Railroad. The Region
Utility and Railroad Coordinator prepares the agreement with the Railroad.
Refer to the Project Delivery Network for required exhibits and information to support the
agreement process. Include the Railroad Notes and Clearance sheet in all structure plan sets
that involve Railroads.
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February 2015
To prevent a project involving the Railroad from becoming unduly delayed, anticipate a
minimum six month review period from the Railroad.
2.20
RESEARCH
The Structures Division strives to be innovative in finding solutions to structures related

challenges. The Structures Design Division and the Geotechnical Design Division actively
participate in the local and national research efforts.
If the Department does not have a specification for a product and the Structures Division desires
to evaluate a new product for use on structures, the Structures Division coordinates with the
Research Division to evaluate the product. The Research Division performs a background
evaluation, executes a research project, and helps implement the product into a project. Refer
to UDOT Policy 07B-03 Experimental Features and Evaluation of New Products for more
information.
The Structures Design Manager, Bridge Management Engineer, Geotechnical Design Manager
or designee participates in research projects.
2.21
MATERIALS
Product acceptance is performed on a project basis according to the acceptance criteria defined
in the project specifications.
If the Department has a specification for a particular product, a supplier for that product may
submit the product to the Materials Division for evaluation. The product is evaluated against the
specification and by a new product evaluation panel. If the product is approved, the product is
added to the approved product list. The Materials Division maintains the approved product list.
Inclusion on the approved product list constitutes acknowledgment that the material meets
specification criteria, streamlining the documentation that is submitted for that item during
construction; the acknowledgement is not an indication of performance.
The Structures Construction Engineer participates on the new product evaluation panel.
2.22
CONSTRUCTION
The Structures Division supports projects through construction. On consultant designed

projects, construction support services are included in the contract and tracked through the
Project Delivery Network. The Engineer of Record (EOR) attends the project prebid meeting if
part of the project and the preconstruction meeting, and addresses structure questions and
requests throughout construction.
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February 2015
The Structures Construction Engineer, Structures Design Manager or EOR performs just in time
training on structure projects that have unique or new features.
Refer to Chapter 6 for more discussion.
2.23
STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SERVICES POOL
The Structural Design and Management Support Services Pool is for as needed services, based
on the intermittent needs of the Structures Division for support. The Structures Design Manager
directs the services and establishes the duration based on the support need. Selection can be
made through an on-call work task order or a pool direct select.
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STRUCTURES DESI
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DESI
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FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1
STRUCTURES DIVISION MEMORANDA ................................................................... 3-1

3.1.1
3.1.2
Concept Report ................................................................................................ 3-1

Site Visit ........................................................................................................... 3-2
3.2
STRUCTURE SCOPE AND ESTIMATE REPORT...................................................... 3-2
3.3
STRUCTURE TYPE SELECTION REPORT ............................................................... 3-2
3.4
SEISMIC DESIGN STRATEGY REPORT ................................................................... 3-3
3.5
GEOTECHNICAL REPORT ........................................................................................ 3-3
3.6
HYDRAULICS REPORT .............................................................................................. 3-3
LIST OF FIGURES
Design Memoranda and Reports
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February 2015
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February 2015
Chapter 3
DESIGN MEMORANDA AND REPORTS
Design memoranda and reports document decisions made during the planning and design
process. Use the templates provided on the website as guidance in developing the design
reports; deviations from the templates require approval of the Structures Design Manager.
Comply with the requirements defined in Chapter 5 and the Structures QC/QA Procedures for
the documents before distribution.
3.1
STRUCTURES DIVISION MEMORANDA
Structures Division memoranda are used as a tool to clarify, convey and document information
more formally than an email but, for example, with less detail than a Structure Scope and
Estimate (S&E) Report. A memorandum is never used to pursue funding. Funding requests
require a Structure S&E Report.
Use a memorandum to document issues or concerns in the project file or structures record as a
response to a Region request or to document a site visit. When a memorandum is used to
summarize structure specific recommendations resulting from requests initiated by the Region
or other divisions, summarize the request, recommendations, options, costs and any
assumptions within the memorandum. Copy the Bridge Management Engineer on all structure
specific memoranda. Place a copy of the memorandum in the structures project folder in
ProjectWise or in the structures record as appropriate.
The following sections identify two specific uses of Structures Division memoranda.
3.1.1
Concept Report
During the Regions project concept stage, the Structures Division uses a Structures Division
memorandum to communicate structure design concepts for inclusion by the Project Manager in
the structures summary in the Regions Concept Report. Document project objectives, existing
information, assumptions and structure recommendations for all structures (e.g., bridges, box
culverts, walls, sign structures) within the project limits. Include a cost estimate; see Section
4.4. Coordinate with the Geotechnical Design Division during development of recommendations
and include costs associated with the geotechnical investigation. Coordinate with the
Hydraulics Section, as necessary, during development of recommendations and include costs
associated with additional studies or permit requirements.
If the Concept Report affects an existing structure, place a copy of the memorandum in the
structure record and include the Bridge Management Engineer when the memorandum is sent
to the Region.
3-1
3.1.2
February 2015
Site Visit
Document observations from field visits in a memorandum to the project file or in the structure
record, as appropriate. Include information to convey the purpose of the visit, suggested
actions, recommendations and conclusions.
3.2
STRUCTURE SCOPE AND ESTIMATE REPORT
The Structure S&E Report is used for planning purposes and to identify funding needs for the
Structures Division bridge rehabilitation/replacement program and bridge preservation program.
See Chapter 2 of the BMM for a thorough discussion on Structures Division planning and
programming. The Structure S&E Report defines the project objective and provides relevant
background information for the structure. Develop an assessment and recommendations based
on the bridge deficiencies and needs relative to the defined objective. Note special
considerations to identify critical unknowns and potential project challenges.
Focus the cost estimate on the quantifiable items for each discipline and on the costs
associated with design engineering, construction engineering and contingencies. Refer to
Section 4.4 to develop the cost estimate. Determine reasonable construction sequencing to
identify proposed activities, durations of activities, feasible work windows to perform work and
traffic control phasing. Construction sequencing can impact the unit costs or need for an
increased contingency percentage. Document all assumptions to support the scope, schedule
and budget refinements that must be considered when the project progresses into the design
stage.
The Bridge Management Team (BMT) approves the Structure S&E Report before inclusion in
the program. See Chapter 2 of the BMM for additional details.
3.3
STRUCTURE TYPE SELECTION REPORT
The Structure Type Selection Report (TSR) presents the results of a feasibility type study and
the selection evaluation criteria. The Structure TSR expands upon the information developed in
the Structure S&E Report. Describe the existing structure and determine bridge layout and
geometry for new bridge/widening design. Determine treatments for rehabilitation and
preservation projects. Discuss the proposed work alternatives and refine the cost estimate
based on the available information. Identify the recommended alternative and include a
justification and total cost for the preferred alternative.
The Structures Design Manager approves the Structure TSR at the plan in hand stage of the
Project Delivery Network.
3-2
3.4
February 2015
SEISMIC DESIGN STRATEGY REPORT
The Seismic Design Strategy Report (SDSR) documents the structure seismic design approach.
Provide a brief description of the basis for the seismic criteria and design specifications.
Provide a general structure description and define the seismic level of performance. Describe
the structure design seismic behavior including the global design strategy, the earthquake
resisting system (ERS) and the earthquake resisting elements (ERE). Provide the seismic
results and expected performance.
The Structures Design Manager reviews the Seismic Design Strategy Report (Preliminary) at
the plan in hand stage of the Project Delivery Network for conformance. Once the bridge design
is complete, the Seismic Design Strategy Report is updated with the seismic results. The
Structures Design Manager approves the Seismic Design Strategy Report (Final) when
approving the final structures documentation package.
Chapter 13 discusses seismic design in detail.
3.5
GEOTECHNICAL REPORT
The Geotechnical Report provides the general purpose of the geotechnical investigation and
describes the scope of work. Refer to all pertinent reports and previous investigations.
Describe any existing facilities and document all findings including site conditions, surface
drainage, geology, faulting and seismicity, soil materials, geohydrologic conditions and climatic
conditions. Summarize all laboratory and field testing and the physical relationship to the plan
and profile of the planned work. Describe the proposed structures and recommendations for
foundation design and analysis.
The geotechnical engineer completes the analysis and prepares the report. Refer to the UDOT
Geotechnical Manual of Instruction for report requirements.
Refer to Section 10.7 for design interaction between disciplines for developing the Geotechnical
Report.
3.6
HYDRAULICS REPORT
The Hydraulics Report summarizes the hydrologic and hydraulic design. The Hydraulics Report
provides the following structure related information:
Water surface elevation for the design and base flood

Suggested low chord elevation
Necessary structure waterway opening dimensions, skew angle and bottom of channel
elevation
Hydraulic scour analysis results
Flow velocities
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February 2015
Any necessary channel and abutment protection measures
The hydraulics engineer performs the analysis and prepares the Hydraulics Report. Refer to
the UDOT Drainage Manual of Instruction for additional details and required content.
Refer to Section 10.6 for design interaction between disciplines for developing the Hydraulics
Report.
3-4
STRUCTURES DESI
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CONTRACTDOCUMENTS,PLANS,
FI
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MATES
SPECI
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1
CONTRACT DOCUMENTS ......................................................................................... 4-1
4.2
PLANS ....................................................................................................................... 4-2

4.2.1
4.2.2
CADD Standards ........................................................................................... 4-2

Plan Sheet Requirements.............................................................................. 4-3
4.2.2.1
4.2.2.2
4.2.2.3
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6
4.2.7
4.2.8
4.2.9
4.2.10
4.2.11
4.2.12
4.2.13
4.3
Plan Sheet Numbering .................................................................................. 4-4

Plan Sheet Sequence .................................................................................... 4-4
Reinforcing Callouts ...................................................................................... 4-4
Dimensioning ................................................................................................. 4-6
Units of Measurement ................................................................................... 4-7
Scales
..................................................................................................... 4-7
Plan Sheet Abbreviations .............................................................................. 4-7
Digital Signature ............................................................................................ 4-7
Structure Design Drawings ............................................................................ 4-8
Existing Structures Plans............................................................................... 4-8
As Built Drawings .......................................................................................... 4-8
SPECIFICATIONS ....................................................................................................... 4-8

4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
UDOT Standard Specifications...................................................................... 4-8

Supplemental Specifications ......................................................................... 4-9
Special Provisions ......................................................................................... 4-9
4.3.3.1
4.3.3.2
4.4
Sample Sheets ............................................................................ 4-3

Working Standards ...................................................................... 4-4
Checklists .................................................................................... 4-4
Types of Special Provisions ......................................................... 4-9

Preparing Special Provisions ....................................................... 4-10
ESTIMATE ................................................................................................................... 4-11

4.4.1
Engineers Estimates ..................................................................................... 4-11

4.4.1.1
4.4.1.2
4.4.1.3
4.4.2
Contingencies ................................................................................................ 4-11

4.4.2.1
4.4.2.2
4.4.2.3
4.4.2.4
4.4.3
Concept or Scoping Estimate ...................................................... 4-11

Preliminary Estimate .................................................................... 4-11
PS&E Estimate ............................................................................ 4-11
Mobilization .................................................................................. 4-12

Traffic Control .............................................................................. 4-12
Preconstruction Engineering ........................................................ 4-12
Construction Engineering............................................................. 4-12
Quantities ..................................................................................................... 4-12
Contract Documents, Plans, Specifications and Estimates
4-i
4.4.3.1
4.4.3.2
4.4.3.3
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February 2015
Units of Measurement .................................................................. 4-12

Rounding ..................................................................................... 4-13
Significant Digits .......................................................................... 4-13
MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT DOCUMENT ........................................................ 4-14

4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.5.4
4.5.5
4.5.6
Item Numbers ................................................................................................ 4-14

Plan Quantity ................................................................................................. 4-15
Lump Sum ..................................................................................................... 4-15
As Constructed Quantity (Unit Measurement) ............................................... 4-16
Variable Quantity Items ................................................................................. 4-16
Multiple Funding Sources .............................................................................. 4-16
4.6
ACCEPTANCE AND DOCUMENTATION................................................................... 4-16
4.7
ESTIMATING UNIT PRICES ....................................................................................... 4-17

4.7.1
4.7.2
Cost Basis 4-17

Cost Adjustments .......................................................................................... 4-17
APPENDIX 4A ABBREVIATION LIST .................................................................................. 4-19

APPENDIX 4B UNITS OF MEASUREMENT IN SUMMARY TABLE ................................... 4-26
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 REINFORCING FOR MAJOR CALLOUTS ......................................................... 4-5
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February 2015
Chapter 4
CONTRACT DOCUMENTS, PLANS,
SPECIFICATIONS AND ESTIMATES
The contract documents must clearly communicate to prospective bidders the details of the
project to allow the submission of a responsive proposal from bidders. Contractors, material
suppliers and construction inspection personnel must clearly understand how to execute their
responsibilities and to meet expectations.
This chapter discusses contract documents, plans, specifications and engineers estimates.
Appendix 4A includes the abbreviation list, and Appendix 4B has a summary table for units of
measurement that apply to structure design projects. The conventions in this chapter for the
contract document elements are intended to achieve uniformity in content and presentation.
4.1
CONTRACT DOCUMENTS
The contract documents are the written, legally binding documents that define the roles,
responsibilities and work under the contract. The individual documents that constitute the
contract documents are defined in the UDOT Standard Specifications.
An advertising package containing bid documents is advertised to bid or as a RFP for DB
projects. The contractor prepares a bid based on the contract documents. Key components of
the advertising package include:
1.
Plans. Plans are graphic and pictorial portions of the contract documents showing the
design, location and dimensions of the work, generally including plan views, elevation
views, sections and design details.
2.
Specifications. Specifications are the portion of the contract documents consisting of the
written requirements for materials, equipment, systems, standards and workmanship for
the work, and acceptance requirements for work performed under the contract.
3.
Engineers Estimate. The engineers estimate provides quantities of items to bid and
provides the anticipated construction costs used for programming and funding purposes.
4.
Measurement and Payment (M&P) Document. The M&P defines how items are
measured, the basis for payment, what the payment includes and what the payment
does not include.
Once the project is awarded, and all bonds, insurance certificates and contract documents have
been signed, the Department issues a notice to proceed (NTP) authorizing the contractor to
proceed with the work. The contract includes the plans, specifications and measurement and
payment documents. The following sections discuss the contract documents in more detail.
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February 2015
DBB projects also require documentation to advertise the project that is not included in the
contract documents.
The advertising checklist for DBB projects defines most of the
requirements and must be completed before advertising. Refer to the website for information on
the advertising checklist. Also, in association with the M&P is the UDOT Acceptance and
Documentation Guide (A&D). The A&D is provided for information only. The A&D summarizes
the submittal, testing and acceptance requirements defined in the specifications and is used as
a tool by the RE during construction.
4.2
PLANS
Project plans are a collection of plan sheets that detail items requiring construction. Structure
plan sheets grouped under a structure drawing number represent a structures plan set. Include
all information required to construct the structure in the structures plan set with the exception of
information contained in the project specifications.
The following sections are intended to improve the consistency and effectiveness of structure
plan sheets by simplifying the plan sheets and providing a uniform appearance and content.
Deviations from the following sections require approval from the Structures Design Manager.
The Structures Division does not enforce rigid rules but does demand consistency. Structural
engineers and detailers are responsible for implementing the guidelines. The Project Manager
or Structures Design Manager has the option of requesting a CADD standards check to ensure
that the CADD standards are met.
4.2.1
CADD Standards
UDOT has consolidated the CADD procedures across all disciplines. Follow the UDOT CADD
Standards Manual except as noted in this section. The UDOT CADD Standards Manual is
available on the website.
Use one of the two standard Structures Division borders (StructBorder.dgn or StructBorder_LGDB.dgn). Use the StructBorder_LG-DB.dgn for local government and DB projects. The
signature block for the border requires an approval signature from the project specific Structures
Design Manager. Use the StructBorder.dgn for all other structure projects. The signature block
for the border requires approval signature from the UDOT Structures Design Manager.
Complete the title blocks according to the UDOT CADD Standards Manual. Include the
responsible consulting firms name under the words Structures Division in the title block.
List the structure number and the drawing number on each plan sheet. The structure number is
the permanent identification number assigned to the structure. The drawing number identifies
the plan sets associated with the structure number. For a new bridge, the structure number and
drawing number are the same. For a rehabilitation/widening or other project on a previously
constructed structure, the drawing number consists of the structure number with additional
identifiers indicating the nature of the project. The structure number does not change. Section
2.14 provides additional information on structure numbers and drawing numbers.
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4.2.2
February 2015
Plan Sheet Requirements
The plan sheets included in the bid package are PDFs scaled to print on 11 17 sheets. Use
line weights, scales and fonts as defined in the UDOT CADD Standards Manual except as
modified in the following sections. Refer to the UDOT CADD Standards Manual for specific
CADD requirements. Do not repeat project specification requirements in the plan set. Do not
list proprietary materials unless required by local governments or owners or approved by
FHWA. Match bid item names in the plan sets with names used in project specifications and in
the M&P.
Use the following conventions:
Draw all details at 1:1. Draw all plan views in the real world coordinate system using the
proper seed file and coordinate system to ensure compatibility with other discipline
drawings. The practice allows referencing of structures files, roadway files, survey files,
etc., and ensures that the structure plans can use Inroads files to verify stations and
offsets.
Use 3D layout and details when required.
Avoid overcrowding. If all details that normally appear on a specific sheet result in
overcrowding, use an additional sheet. When placing a view or section on another
sheet, add a note or notes with references to the related sheets. For example:
SEE APPROACH SLAB DETAILS FOR SECTIONS A-A AND B-B.
SEE APPROACH SLAB PLAN FOR LOCATIONS OF SECTIONS A-A AND

B-B.
Avoid oversized details. Too many plan sheets make plans difficult to read. Do not
oversize details and spread details over numerous sheets.
Place a North arrow on all plan views, including plan views of details.
Place the quantity block in the lower right hand corner of the sheet.
Place sheet notes above the quantity block.
When details or structural elements are complex, use two drawings one for
dimensions and the second for reinforcing details.
Only show a detail once within a set of plans. If required on another sheet, cross
reference the detail.
Use 100-ft stations. Show stationing to the one hundredth of a foot. Label stationing at
100-ft intervals, and provide tick marks at 20-ft intervals. For short structures or details,
label the station of the intermediate tick to establish direction of stationing and scale.
The primary tools provided by the Structures Division to promote consistency are sample sheets
and working standards. The Structures Division also supplies checklists outlining typical sheet
content. Available sample sheets, working standards and checklists are listed, and available for
download, on the website.
4.2.2.1
Sample Sheets
Sample sheets (SS) are examples of typical structure plan sheets. Use the sheets as a guide
when preparing structure plan sets. Sample sheets depict typical layouts and information
provided on structure drawings. Sample sheets guide users in developing plan sets and
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February 2015
encourage consistency in presentation. Sample sheets do not depict specific requirements.

For specific requirements, refer to the SDDM, plan sheet checklists, working standards (WS)
and structure design (SD) drawings.
4.2.2.2
Working Standards
Working standards (WS) define the form, function and requirements of commonly used plan
sheets. The WS sheets identify areas requiring the input of the structural engineer with a blue
note. Replace the border with the project border, and update the sheet where indicated by the
blue notes. Ensure that the WS sheet is compatible with the design and details of a specific
structure. The WS sheet becomes part of the sealed plan set, and the EOR is responsible for
all information on the WS sheet. Review the WS sheets, identify any areas of concern and
inform the Structures Division of proposed changes in addition to the changes indicated by the
blue notes. The Structures Design Manager must approve changes to the WS sheets in areas
not indicated by the blue notes.
4.2.2.3
Checklists
Plan sheet checklists provide direction on content to include on plan sheets. However,
checklists are not all inclusive, and structural engineers must review the plans and include all
information required to construct the structure and reflect the designers intent.
4.2.3
Plan Sheet Numbering
Number each plan sheet of a drawing number sequentially from one to the total number of
sheets required for the plan set. The only exception is that geotechnical sheets have the same
number but a letter is added. The convention permits adding geotechnical sheets without
changing the sheet numbering for plan sheets following the geotechnical sheets.
4.2.4
Plan Sheet Sequence
The sequence of the plan sheets is the Situation and Layout (S&L) sheet(s) followed by the
geotechnical sheets and structure detail sheets. Present the structure detail sheets in the order
of construction with the reinforcing schedule at the end of the structures plan set.
4.2.5
Reinforcing Callouts
List major callouts in the form: A-BMC AT X, where A is the number of reinforcing bars, B is the
reinforcing size, M is the reinforcing location code and C is the reinforcing bar mark. For
example, 122-5S1 AT 6 indicates that there are 122 #5 bars spaced at 6 in. in the deck and
that the bar dimension is listed in the reinforcing schedule under the reinforcing bar mark, S1.
See Figure 4.1. Minor callouts use the form BMC, where B is the reinforcing size, M is the
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February 2015
reinforcing location code and C is the reinforcing bar mark. Always list reinforcing spacing in
inches. The SS sheets include examples of reinforcing callouts.
Figure 4.1 REINFORCING FOR MAJOR CALLOUTS

Below is a list of bridge reinforcing location codes:
Abutment
Wingwall
Girder
Footing
Column
Bent cap
Diaphragms
Deck slab
Approach slab
Sleeper slab
Parapet
Catch basin
A
W
G
F
C
B
D
S
AS
SS
P
CB
Below is a list of miscellaneous structure reinforcing location codes:
Apron
Barrel
Headwall
Retaining wall
A
B
H
R
Include pile, prestressed girder and drilled shaft reinforcing in the pile or drilled shaft pay item;
do not include the reinforcing in the reinforcing schedule. Do not provide a bar mark on the pile
or drilled shaft sheet.
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February 2015
Number reinforcing consecutively for each type A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3.
When construction is phased, structural engineers can indicate in which phase the reinforcing is
installed by using a three digit number, where the first digit indicates the phase. For example,
bar A101 is in phase 1 and bar A201 is in phase 2. Reinforcing crossing the phase line is
included in the phase placed first. Reinforcing in a closure pour is included in the phase placed
second. Where appropriate, use a single reinforcing callout to identify reinforcing across both
phases. Detail the reinforcing crossing the phase line to show the required lap at the phase line
or the required mechanical splice type.
Specify reinforcing cover on details when the required cover is different from the cover listed in
the general notes.
Include reinforcing in precast elements in the reinforcing schedule.
elements does not require a special reinforcing code.
4.2.6
Reinforcing in precast
Dimensioning
Provide sufficient dimensions to define the structure. Dimension so that the reader need not
add or subtract dimensions to determine the length, width or height of an element. Refer to the
sample sheets for examples of accepted dimensioning. Do not use stacked fractions.
All dimensions are to in. except structural steel dimensions, which are to 1/16 in. All
elevations are to 0.01 ft. Provide a (+) or (-) symbol with the dimension when the dimension is
not a multiple of in. State the dimension as follows when placing a string of identical
dimensions: 10 spaces at 8-0(-) = 80-1.
Provide dimension strings along a single line. Do not offset dimension lines in a continuous
string of dimensions.
Avoid duplicate dimensions, which create problems if a dimension is changed on one detail and
not another. Ensure that dimensions are consistent from one detail to another when placing
duplicate dimensions. An acceptable use of duplicate dimensions is to duplicate a single
dimension in a detail view to assist in identifying the orientation of the detail.
Do not provide point callouts that do not agree with a dimension string or could disagree with a
dimension string. For example, do not provide elevations at the top and bottom of a wall plus a
dimension from the top to bottom of the wall. Do not provide a station and offset at the end of
the wall plus a dimension from the abutment to the end of the wall.
Verify that multiple dimension strings on a single detail add to the same value.
Place dimensioning horizontally or vertically.
Place vertical dimensioning so that the
dimensioning is read from the right. If practical, place the dimension above or to the right of a
detail.
A dot in lieu of arrows is acceptable at intermediate dimension points.
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February 2015
List dimensions greater than 12 in. as feet and inches. List dimensions less than 12 in. as only
inches. List dimensions equal to 12 in. as either 1 ft or 12 in., with 1 ft preferred.
Existing dimensions that are not exactly known are listed with a (+/-) after the dimension.
4.2.7
Units of Measurement
Use US customary units feet, inches, pounds, yards, etc.
4.2.8
Scales
Use the scales defined in the UDOT CADD Standards Manual. Use the following scales to
supplement the scales listed in the UDOT CADD Standards Manual. Do not use other scales
and do not use the scales listed below in nonstructure plan sets:
4.2.9
2:1
3:1
4:1
5:1
6:1
8:1
15:1
Plan Sheet Abbreviations
Where practical, avoid using abbreviations except as noted in the abbreviation list.
Appendix 4A. Do not use abbreviations in titles of details or in title blocks.
See
Do not use periods in abbreviations in structure plan sets. The omission is recommended by
the International Committee on Weights and Measures for SI units and is advocated by the
American Standards Association Sectional Committee for scientific symbols and abbreviations
that are not complete English words. For example, use 60 cu ft rather than 60 cu. ft. The
omission of periods saves time, labor and space and does not reduce readability.
Do not use apostrophes. Do not use the plural in abbreviations. The abbreviation of the plural
is the same as the singular. For example: 22 lb, 40 cu yd, 25 in., 30 ft, 70 gal.
4.2.10
Digital Signature
UDOT requires digital signatures. Refer to the website for information on the digital signature
process.
Provide a PE stamp on the first sheet of a plan set. The signature of the EOR in the signature
block on the border on all following sheets on the Senior Design Engineer line serves as an
effective stamp. The EOR is responsible for all sheets in the structures plan set. The first
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February 2015
geotechnical sheet in the plan set is stamped by the geotechnical engineer, and the
geotechnical engineer is responsible for the geotechnical recommendations, but the EOR must
ensure that the geotechnical sheets and recommendations are appropriate for the structure
presented in the plans.
4.2.11
Structure Design Drawings
SD drawings identify specific engineering requirements. SD drawings are a design aid and list
specific design requirements or details, but are not plan sheets and are not included in plan
sets.
4.2.12
Existing Structures Plans
Mark the existing structure plans as FOR INFORMATION ONLY on each existing structure
plan sheet. On bridge replacement or widening projects, include the entire existing structure
plan set, and include in the structures drawings table on the index to sheets in the roadway plan
set. On bridge rehabilitation or preservation projects, include the applicable existing structure
plan sheets and provide an index for the information only sheets on sheet 1 of the S&L.
4.2.13
As Built Drawings
See Section 6.6.5.
4.3
SPECIFICATIONS
Specifications present the written requirements for work methods, materials and acceptance for
the work performed under the contract. UDOT maintains standard and supplemental
specifications.
During design, evaluate the review periods in the specifications for compatibility with the project.
Extremely large or complex projects with multiple submittals could require more review time
than the specifications provide. Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager, and prepare a
modification to the specification when additional review time is required. The specification
modification must explicitly define the number of days needed for review and approval and any
requirements for scheduling multiple submittals for large projects with several structures.
4.3.1
The UDOT Standard Specifications are included in all Department construction contracts. The
specifications are written to the contractor and define the contractors responsibility, the items of
work the contractor is expected to provide and the Departments expectations.
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February 2015
The UDOT Standard Specifications reference the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction
Specifications and AASHTO Guide Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works in applicable
locations.
Ensure that the structure design and the contract documents are consistent with the UDOT
Standard Specifications. Where design intent and the UDOT Standard Specifications conflict,
coordinate with the Structures Design Manager and either modify the design to conform with the
specification requirements or provide a special provision that defines the project specific
requirements.
4.3.2
Supplemental Specifications
Supplemental specifications are additions, deletions and/or revisions to the UDOT Standard
Specifications that have been adopted since the last printing. The majority of the supplemental
specifications will be incorporated into the UDOT Standard Specifications at the next revision.
Supplemental specifications are updated when needed and included as part of the contract
documents. Use supplemental specifications only if the project requires that section.
Supplemental specifications do not apply for all projects. See the website for supplemental
specifications to be included in contracts.
4.3.3
Special Provisions
Use special provisions when the plans, UDOT Standard Specifications or supplemental
specifications do not adequately define the work or material requirements. Clearly define the
required work, submittals, type of materials, equipment required, construction methods or
details, how the item of work is measured and the basis of payment. Special provisions are
developed and incorporated as either project specific provisions or standard special provisions.
Department special provisions, division special provisions and region special provisions have
been developed to uniformly address unique features, processes or changes to the
specifications for situations frequently encountered and are available on the website.
4.3.3.1
Types of Special Provisions
Two types of special provisions are available:

1.
M Designation (00000M). The M designation indicates a project specific special

provision that modifies an existing standard specification. The special provision may
require new or modified bid items.
2.
S Designation (00000S). The S designation indicates a project specific special provision

that is new or entirely replaces an existing standard specification. The special provision
could require new or modified bid items.
Use the following procedure to determine the section number for a project specific unique
special provision.
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February 2015
Examine the list of bid items to determine if a bid item has already been set up. The first five
numbers of a bid item refer to the section number of the standard specification or the special
provision that defines the item.
Examine the unique numbers list in the Project Development Business System (PDBS) or on
the website for the UDOT Standard Specifications. Choose a number identified as a structures
number in the same CSI division as a standard item with similar work.
For example, for a unique special provision for a specific repair on a steel girder, the first step is
to determine the appropriate CSI division based on the primary work performed. The work is on
a steel girder and applies to Division 05, Metals, of the CSI specifications. The first 2 numbers
of the specification represent the CSI division. Many numbers starting with 05 are identified as
structure specific in the special provision unique numbers list. Because the main item of work is
similar to structural steel, select a number close to 05120. For the example, the title for a
unique special provision is:
SECTION 05131S REPAIR STRUCTURAL STEEL
The letter S at the end of a section number indicates a project specific special provision that is
new or entirely replaces a standard specification. Assigning section numbers to special
provisions organizes the special provisions into the appropriate divisions. Supplemental
specifications are numbered in the same manner.
4.3.3.2
Preparing Special Provisions
When writing special provisions, follow the UDOT Specifications Writers Guide and provide
special attention to the following items:
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Ensure that the special provision is written to the contractor. All actions are to be
performed by the contractor unless otherwise noted.
Ensure that each paragraph of the special provision is clear to the reader. Do not
attempt to cover up omissions or unknowns by using the term as directed by the
Engineer. Write a special provision in clear, concise and easy to understand language.
Provide technical definitions.
Provide reasonable and effective meaning to all language in the contract. Tailor the
special provision to the job and language of the contract.
Emphasize the end result. Specify by objective; defined objectives eliminate the
problem of unreasonable tolerances and reduce the cost. Review the special provision
and search for content that could be misinterpreted. Words or phrases can have more
than one meaning. Eliminate potential conflicts.
Eliminate conflicts between the plans and the special provision. The special provisions
govern if discrepancies arise between the two documents.
4.4
February 2015
ESTIMATE
The engineer's estimate is an important element of the overall design process. Estimates are
used at various stages from planning through advertising to determine project construction costs
to align scope and funding. Preparing the estimate requires knowledge of construction
methods, fabrication processes and construction costs based on the measurement and
payment for each item. The estimate uses item numbers to identify pay items. The following
sections discuss the engineers estimate at various stages and provide guidance on quantity
calculations and contingencies.
4.4.1
Engineers Estimates
4.4.1.1
Concept or Scoping Estimate
Before a structure project is assigned a project number, the Structures Division prepares a
construction cost estimate. The following applies to developing an initial construction cost
estimate:
1.
Responsibility. The structural engineer prepares the construction cost estimate, which is
submitted to the Project Manager.
2.
Basis for Estimate. Base the construction cost estimate on historical data, the
anticipated structure type and foundation, right of way, approaches, inflation, estimated
square footage of the structure and appropriate contingency.
4.4.1.2
Preliminary Estimate
The structural engineer prepares a preliminary estimate for plan in hand by updating structural
costs from the scoping stage construction cost estimate. At this stage, make a reasonable
estimate of the major structure quantities and use the appropriate contingency.
4.4.1.3
PS&E Estimate
After the final design is complete, the structural engineer prepares the engineers estimate and
enters all required data into the PDBS system. Determine the final cost estimate using the
calculated quantities and unit prices. Section 4.7 provides guidance for determining unit prices.
Refer to the following sections for information on item numbers, item prices, contingencies, etc.
4.4.2
Contingencies
For anticipated but undetermined costs, add a contingency factor based on the sum of the
estimated construction costs and preliminary engineering costs. The contingency factor usually
decreases as the project progresses and more project specific details are available (e.g., 25%
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February 2015
at concept or scoping stage, 15% at the preliminary design stage and 10% at PS&E). Note that
project funding must exceed the engineers estimate by 10% to proceed to advertising.
4.4.2.1
Mobilization
Add 10% of the estimated construction cost for the contractors mobilization, which is the cost
incurred by the contractor to mobilize the labor and equipment necessary for construction.
Consider increasing mobilization costs for accelerated bridge construction (ABC) projects with
significant equipment demands.
4.4.2.2
Traffic Control
Add 5% of the estimated construction cost for traffic control, which is an estimated amount
required to maintain traffic during construction.
4.4.2.3
Preconstruction Engineering
Add 10% of the estimated construction cost for engineering.
4.4.2.4
Construction Engineering
Construction engineering refers to the cost of the construction project.

estimated construction cost for construction engineering and management.
4.4.3
Add 10% of the
Quantities
An accurate estimate of quantities is critical to prospective contractors interested in submitting a

bid on the project. The first step in producing an estimate is to calculate the project quantities.
Quantities are calculated using the design as shown on the plan sheets. The engineers
estimate uses the computed quantities and estimated unit bid prices to estimate the total project
cost.
4.4.3.1
Units of Measurement
Report the quantity estimates in the quantities table for all contract bid items consistent with the
names and units of measurement presented in the M&P. Appendix 4B illustrates typical units of
measurement used in the summary tables. Refer to Section 4.5 for three basic methods of
measuring contract items for payment plan quantity, lump sum, and as constructed quantity
(unit measurement).
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4.4.3.2
February 2015
Rounding
Round quantities provided in the engineers estimate according to the criteria in the rounding
accuracy column in Appendix 4B. For all calculations, carry one more decimal place than that
noted in Appendix 4B. Document any required rounding of raw estimates in the calculations.
Do not round the calculations until the value is incorporated into the engineers estimate. All
values can be conservatively rounded up, but either up or down rounding is permitted.
4.4.3.3
Significant Digits
Perform quantity calculations considering the implied correspondence between the accuracy of
the data and the given number of digits. In all calculations, retain the number of significant
digits so that the accuracy is neither sacrificed nor exaggerated. Use the following rules to
determine the appropriate number of significant digits:
1.
Number of Digits. Any digit that is necessary to define the specific value or quantity is
considered significant. For example, when a measurement is taken, the measurement
can be recorded as 157, which has three significant digits. If the measurement had
been made to the nearest 0.1, the measurement could have been 157.4, which has four
significant digits.
Zero can be used to indicate either a specific value, like any other digit, or a numbers
order of magnitude. A measurement rounded to thousands can be 120,000. The three
left hand digits of the number are significant; each measures a value. The three right
hand digits are zeroes and only indicate the order of magnitude of the number rounded
to the nearest thousand. The identification of significant digits is only possible through
knowledge of the circumstances. For example, the number 1000 can be rounded from
965, in which case only one zero is significant, or it can be rounded from 999.7, in which
case all three zeroes are significant.
2.
Addition and Subtraction. When adding and subtracting quantities, do not express the
significant digits of the answer any further to the right than occurs in the least precise
number. The following illustrates the rule:
Consider the addition of three numbers drawn from three sources, the first of which
reported data in millions, the second in thousands and the third in units:
163,000,000
217,885,000
+ 95,432,768
476,317,768
Round the total to 476,000,000 (e.g., in millions).
3.
Multiplication and Division. Do not express the product or quotient for multiplication and
division calculations with any more significant digits than used in the calculations. The
following illustrates the rule:
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a.
February 2015
Multiplication. The following applies:

113.2 1.43 = 161.876; round to 161.9
b.
Division. The following applies:

113.2 1.43 = 79.16; round to 79.2
4.5
MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT DOCUMENT
The M&P specifies how each bid item in the contract is measured and paid. A sample M&P
containing all typical bid items is available for review on the website. The website also provides
directions on creating a project specific M&P.
The M&P provides the item number, the item title, method of measurement, basis of payment
and any special instructions to the contractor with respect to the pay item. The M&P is used in
conjunction with the specifications to substantiate acceptance of materials and work items for
both quality and quantity. For each item, the M&P can include information on:
Measurement procedures
Additional work included in the price of the item
Incidental items included in the price of the item
How quantity changes or quantity estimate errors affect the price
The M&P is typically created during the PS&E stage after the quantities listed on the plan sheet
summary table are entered into PDBS. The M&P program reads the PDBS item list and
automatically populates the M&P. The structural engineer must review standard and
nonstandard item descriptions in the M&P to verify that plan and specification requirements are
adequately addressed, modify the document to meet specific project requirements and ensure
that the modifications are incorporated into the overall project M&P.
4.5.1
Item Numbers
A nine digit number, title and description identify each item listed in the M&P. The first five digits
of the item number correspond to the applicable specification. Use digits 6 to 9 to identify
standard items. An X in any of the locations in the summary table indicates that the user must
define the number. The last character can be a number or one of the following characters:
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* as the last character indicates a special provision is required. An asterisk used in a bid
item number collects no history in the PDBS.
P as the last character indicates that the specific bid item cannot be found, but is
covered in the UDOT Standard Specifications or by a supplemental specification. Using
a P allows the user to change the title, unit of measurement or description. A P used in
a bid item number collects no history in the PDBS.
D as the last character indicates a dimension must be added or changed. The D is part
of the number and not added by the user.
February 2015
U as the last character indicates that the item price is the same for every project.
X in any of the last 3 digits in Appendix 4B indicates a variable number. For example,
Appendix 4B item 0222100XD, could be 02221001D for parcel 1, 02221002D for parcel
2, etc.
Appendix 4B lists typical structure item numbers.
4.5.2
Plan Quantity
A plan quantity is the accepted estimated quantity in the bid proposal and is the final quantity for
which payment is made unless the RE revises the plan dimensions through an approved
change order. For example, granular backfill borrow is measured based on the plan set, which
shows vertical fill limits adjacent to the structure. In reality, excavations are sloped next to
structures so that the volume of granular backfill borrow placed always exceeds the amount
measured for payment. Because contractors bid the item as a plan quantity, UDOT only pays
for the quantity needed according to the design plan quantity rather than the quantity that is
actually placed by the contractor. In addition, the contractor can elect to over excavate and
place additional backfill. The additional quantity is documented for testing frequency but not for
payment. Therefore, if the M&P references plan quantity, do not estimate how much will
actually be placed; only calculate the quantity based on the dimensions provided in the plans.
4.5.3
Lump Sum
Use lump sum bid items where the scope of work for the item is clearly defined, and the amount
of work has a minimal chance of changing during construction. Lump sum payment is
considered full compensation to the contractor for all resources necessary to complete the work.
The M&P defines which quantities can be estimated as lump sum. The structural engineer
notes any special circumstances or relevant information in the M&P. If there is a significant
chance of quantity changes, bid the work by the unit and not lump sum. The quantities for the
following lump sum items are required as part of the item name in the M&P:
1.
Structural Concrete. Note the estimated cubic yards of structural concrete.
2.
Structural Steel. Include the approximate steel weight, in pounds, of all steel
components within the project.
3.
Damp Proofing. Provide the area requiring damp proofing in square feet.
4.
Concrete Coating. Identify the square feet of concrete coating required.
5.
Specialty/Nonstandard Items. Modify the M&P when the standard description does not
accurately define the bid item or the work included in the bid item.
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4.5.4
February 2015
As Constructed Quantity (Unit Measurement)
An as constructed quantity is based on a unit measurement such as length, area, volume or

weight. Actual work performed is verified, measured, computed and paid.
4.5.5
Variable Quantity Items
For some items, the exact quantity or element cannot be defined until the contractor begins
work (e.g., parapet surface repair, concrete bridge deck repair). Use engineering judgment
when entering the item quantity. For the variable quantity items, the contractor provides a unit
bid price. The contractor is paid on the amount of work completed. Complete the M&P work
description to incorporate all work included in the unit price.
4.5.6
Multiple Funding Sources
Some projects require two or more funding sources for work conducted under various financing
arrangements. For projects requiring quantity divisions, segregate the quantities according to
the applicable funding source.
4.6
ACCEPTANCE AND DOCUMENTATION
The A&D is used by the RE and construction inspectors to identify required submittals, testing
and acceptance criteria for each bid item in the project. The A&D is structured similar to the
M&P and includes the item number, item title and pay unit. For each item, the A&D can include
information on:
Contractor submittals
Testing and sampling
Inspection element
Documentation
The A&D is typically created after the PS&E stage and after the quantities listed on the plan
sheet summary table are entered into PDBS. The A&D program reads the PDBS item list and
automatically populates the A&D.
The structural engineer must review standard and
nonstandard item descriptions in the A&D to verify that plan and specification requirements are
adequately addressed, modify the document to meet specific project requirements and ensure
that the modifications are incorporated into the overall project A&D. The A&D is provided for
information only in the advertising package.
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4.7
February 2015
ESTIMATING UNIT PRICES
Determine unit prices from the following sources:
4.7.1
PDBS
RS Means Heavy Construction Cost Data, an industry publication
Local contractors
Industry sources (especially for elements with little or no known information)
Cost Basis
The Construction Division maintains a log of past structure construction bid costs, the Bid
Tabulations, on a computer spreadsheet. Use the information from the spreadsheet as a
starting point for estimating the construction costs. The Construction Division also maintains a
page on the website, Estimators Corner, that provides additional information on cost estimating.
The basic procedure is:
4.7.2
Find a similar type structure relative to foundation type, crossing type and superstructure
type.
Compare the quantities for the similar type structure to the estimated quantities for the
proposed structure.
Compare the low bid, second and/or third low bid and engineers estimate for the similar
type structure.
Develop a reasonable bid estimate with consideration for inflation or other project
specific factors.
Compute an estimated unit cost based on the historical data.
Compute an estimated cost according to the square footage of the structure.
Use the estimated per square foot of structure for scoping estimates and as a check to
verify that current quantities are within historical averages.
Identify elements that could cause the project structure to vary from historical averages.
Cost Adjustments
The structural engineer adjusts the estimated construction costs to reflect the actual conditions
(known or anticipated) at the structure. Adjustment factors can include:
Geographic location
Availability of materials
Time of year
Bidding environment
Reliability of recent construction cost data (e.g., presence of unbalanced bids)
Recent trends in availability and cost of materials (e.g., shortages)
Extent of falsework required
Anticipated difficulty of construction
4-17
4-18
February 2015
Size of project relative to size of previous projects for which cost data is available
Known foundation problems at the bridge site
Specialty equipment
Risk to contractor
Anticipated construction logistics (e.g., traffic control during construction)
Construction schedule
Construction techniques
Any other factors appropriate for the structure
Judgment and experience of the estimator
February 2015
Appendix 4A
ABBREVIATION LIST
Agency Abbreviations
BNSF
FHWA
RMP
UDOT
UPRR
UTA
Descriptive Abbreviations
ABND
ABUT
AHD
APPR
APPROX
ARCH
BK
BENT
BNT PL
CIP
CG
C TO C
CL
CLR
COL
CONC
CNSTR
CJ or CNSTR JT or
CNSTR JOINT
CL
CC
CF
C&G
DIA or
DIAPH
EOD
EOSW
EST
Notes
BNSF Railroad
Federal Highway Administration
Rocky Mountain Power
Utah Department of
Transportation
Union Pacific Railroad
Utah Transit Authority
Abandoned
Abutment
Ahead
Approach
Approximate
Architectural
Back
Bent
Bent Plate
Cast-in-Place
Center of Gravity
Center to Center
Centerline
Clearance
Column
Concrete
Construction
No abbreviation allowed
Construction Joint
Control Line
Crash Cushion
Cross frame
Curb and Gutter
Diameter
Diaphragm
Edge of Deck
Edge of Sidewalk
Estimate, Estimated
4-19
Descriptive Abbreviations (Continued)

EXIST
Existing
EXP
Expansion
FENCE
Fence
FS
Field Splice
FIX
Fixed
FTG
Footing
GALV
Galvanize
GA
Gauge
GDR
Girder
GRIND
Grind
GRND
Ground
HH
Heavy Hex
High Occupancy Vehicle and
Toll Lane
High Occupancy Vehicle Lane
High Water
Horizontal
Inside Diameter
Integral or Interior or
Intermediate
Invert
Joint
Lane
Lightweight
Minimum Vertical Clearance
Nominal
Not to Scale
Number
On Center
Optional
Optional Construction Joint
Out to Out
Outside Diameter
Plastic Hinge Zone
Plate
Point
Point of Minimum Vertical
Clearance
Quantity
HOV/T
HOV
HW
HORZ
ID
INT
INV
JT
LN
LW
MVC
NOM
NTS
#
OC
OPT
OCJ or OPT CNSTR JT
O-O
OD
PHZ
PL
PT
PTMVC
QTY
4-20
February 2015
For use in abbreviations for
existing ground or ground line
February 2015
Descriptive Abbreviations (Continued)

ROW
RDWY
RD
SHLD
SW
SLAB
SP
SQ
STD
STIFF
STR #
SYM
TBC
VERT
VC
Right of way
Roadway
Round
Shoulder
Sidewalk
Slab
Slope Protection
Square
Standard
Stiffener
Structure Number
Symmetrical
Top Back of Curb
Vertical
Vertical Clearance
Dimensional or Quantity Abbreviations

CU
Cubic
CU FT
Cubic Feet
CFS
Cubic Feet Per Second
CY OR CU YD
Cubic Yards
FT
Feet
FPS
Feet Per Second
INCH
Inch
KLF
Kips Per Linear Foot
KSF
Kips Per Square Foot
KSI
Kips Per Square Inch
LIN
Linear
LF or LIN FT
Linear Feet
MPH
Miles Per Hour
LB
Pound
PLF
Pounds Per Linear Foot
PSF
Pounds Per Square Foot
PSI
Pounds Per Square Inch
SQ
Square
SQ FT
Square Feet
SY or SQ YD
Square Yards
YD
Yard
4-21
February 2015
Direction and Geometry Abbreviations (Continued)

BRG
Bearing
CP
Control Point
E
East
EB
Eastbound
EL
Elevation
LT
Left
N
North
NB
Northbound
OFF
Offset
PC
Point of Curvature
PI
Point of Intersection
PT
Point of Tangent
PVC
Point of Vertical Curve
PVI
Point of Vertical Intersection
PVT
Point of Vertical Tangent
PGL
Profile Grade Line
R
Radius
RT
Right
S
South
SB
Southbound
STA
Station
SE
Superelevation
TAN
Tangent
TC
Tangent to Curve
W
West
WB
Westbound
WP
Working Point
Miscellaneous Abbreviations
&
and
APPROX
Approximate
ADT
ADTT
Average Daily Truck Traffic
MISC
Miscellaneous
YR
Year
ME
Manhole Electric
MG
Manhole Gas
4-22
February 2015
Miscellaneous Symbol Abbreviations (Continued)

MSC
Manhole Storm Drain
MSS
Manhole Sanitary Sewer
MT
Manhole Telephone
MW
Manhole Water
UP
Utility Pole
Rating
Abbreviations
F
INV
OPER
S
Table
Reinforcing Abbreviations
ADJ
ALT
A.S.
BF
BAY
BTWN
BOT
CTR
CLR
EA
EF
EMBED
EQ
FF
INC
LAP
MAX
MIN
REINF
REQ'D
SPA
STAGGER
TOP
TYP
Flexure
Inventory
Operating
Shear
Adjust
Alternate
As Shown
Back Face
Bay
Between
Bottom
Center
Cover
Each
Each Face
Embedment
Equal
Front Face
Increment
Lap
Maximum
Minimum
Reinforcing or Reinforcement
Required
Spaces
Stagger
Top
Typical
Do not use parentheses
4-23
February 2015
Right of Way Line Abbreviations
Quarter Section Line

40
40-Acre Line
Frontage Road Right of Way
FRTG R/W
Line
L/A
Highway Limited Access Line
N/A
Highway No Access Line
PE
Perpetual Easement Line
PL
Property Line
RR
Railroad Right of Way Line
Highway Right of Way and
R/W L/A
Limited Access Line
Highway Right of Way and No
R/W N/A
Access Line
R/W
Highway Right of Way Line
SEC
Section Line
TE
Temporary Easement Line
Signal Line Abbreviations

DET
FUT
LTG
PEDC
PEM
PSH
PWR
RAD
SIG
VID
Detection Circuit
Future Conduit
Lighting Circuit
Pedestrian Circuit
Pre-Emption Circuit
Push Button Circuit
Power Source Circuit
Radar Detection Circuit
Signal Circuit
Video Detection Circuit
Utility Line Abbreviations

ATMS
BCTV
CTV
PC
E
BE
FO
4-24
Automated Traffic Management

System
Buried Cable
Overhead Cable
Pipe Culvert
Overhead Electrical
Buried Electrical
Fiber Optic
Always use ATMS; never write

out
February 2015
Utility Line Abbreviations (Continued)

G
Gas
IR
PETRO
SWR
SD
BTEL
TEL
WTR
Irrigation
Petroleum
Sanitary Sewer
Storm Drain
Buried Telephone
Overhead Telephone
Water
Identify as High Pressure Gas

Line or gas line in callout
4-25
February 2015
Appendix 4B
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT IN SUMMARY TABLE
Item
Number
020560015
020560025
020560060
020750030
0222100XD
022210015
022210020
022250010
024550010
024550020
02455003D
02455004D
0246600XX
0262200XX
026250010
026260010
026260020
02633001D
026330010
026330015
026450010
026450020
027550010
0282100XX
0289300XX
028930XXX
029820010
03056001D
031390010
032110010
032110015
032110020
032110025
032110030
4-26
Estimate
Unit
Item
Granular Borrow (Plan Quantity)
Granular Backfill Borrow (Plan Quantity)
Free Draining Granular Backfill (Plan
Quantity)
Geotextiles Drainage
Remove Building, Basement, and
Foundation Parcel #
Remove Bridge
Remove Box Culvert
Asphalt Surfacing Removal (Structures)
Pile Driving Equipment
Driven Piles, 12 inch
Driven Piles, inch
Driven Piles, HP
Drilled Shafts,
inch
Underdrain,
inch
Approach Slab Drain Frame Modification
Deck Drain Modification
Deck Drain Closure
Concrete Drainage Structure, ft wide
ft deep
Concrete Drainage Structure
Concrete Drainage Box Precast
Precast Concrete Box Culvert
Precast Concrete Three-Sided Culvert
Concrete Slab Jacking
ft Chain Link Fence, Type
inch Overhead Sign Foundation
inch Overhead (type) Sign
Structure
Bridge Concrete Grinding
Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC) (est.
qty __ yd3)
Concrete Bridge Deck Removal
Reinforcing Steel Coated (Plan
Quantity)
Reinforcing Steel Coated
Reinforcing Steel
Reinforcing Steel (Plan Quantity)
Reinforcing Steel Galvanized (Plan
Quantity)
Cubic Yard
Cubic Yard
Cubic Yard
Rounding
Accuracy
1
1
Cubic Yard
Square Yard
Parcel
Each
Each
Square Yard
Lump
Foot
Foot
Foot
Foot
Foot
Each
Each
Each
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Each
Cubic Yard
Each
Lump
Lump
Cubic Yard
Foot
Each
0.5
1
1
1
1
1
1
Each
Square Yard
Lump
Lump
Pound
Pound
Pound
Pound
1
1
1
Pound
Bid Unit
Item
Number
032110030
033100011
03310001D
033100020
033100030
033110010
033380010
033390010
034000010
033720010
033720020
033920010
033930010
0341200XD
035750010
036050010
039240010
039240015
039240020
039240030
039240050
039240060
039240070
039240080
039240085
039240090
039240100
039320010
039330010
039330020
039340010
05120001D
051200020
051250010
058320010
058320020
058350010
058350020
071050010
071110010
Item
Reinforcing Steel Stainless (Plan
Quantity)
Structural Concrete
Structural Concrete (Est. Qty yd3)
Concrete Small Structure
Concrete Slope Protection
Joint Closure
Precast Substructure Elements
Precast Concrete Deck Panel
Precast Approach Slab, __ ft __ ft
Thin Bonded Polymer Overlay, Type I
Thin Bonded Polymer Overlay, Type II
Penetrating Concrete Sealer
Concrete Healer/Sealer
Prestressed Concrete Member, __ ft __
inch Type
Flowable Fill
Approach Slab Jacking
Column Repair
Column Sealing
Pedestal Repair
Bent Cap Repair
Diaphragm Repair
Wingwall Repair
Abutment Backwall Repair
Beam End Repair
Parapet Surface Repair
Parapet Sealing
Deck Edge Repair
Concrete Slope Protection Repair
Parapet Modification
Parapet End Modification
Structural Pothole Patching
Structural Steel (Est. Qty
lb.)
Structural Steel
Prefabricated Steel Truss Bridge
Expansion Joint
Expansion Joint Modification
Modular Expansion Joint
Modular Expansion Joint Modification
Waterproofing Membrane
Dampproofing (Est. Qty.
sq ft)
February 2015
Estimate
Unit
Cubic Yard
Bid Unit
Round
Accuracy
Pound
Cubic Yard
Lump
Cubic Yard
Square Yard
Square Foot
Lump
Square Foot
Square Foot
Square Foot
Square Foot
Square Foot
Square Foot
1
1
0.5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Each
Cubic Yard
Cubic Yard
Each
Each
Each
Each
Each
Each
Each
Each
Foot
Foot
Foot
Square Foot
Foot
Each
Square Foot
Pound
Lump
Pound
Lump
Foot
Foot
Foot
Foot
Square Foot
Square Foot
Lump
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
1
1
4-27
Item
Number
079210010
079220010
099810010
099920010
165260010
4-28
February 2015
Estimate
Unit
Item
Sealing Existing Concrete Slope
Protection Joints
Relief Joint Crack Sealing
Concrete Coating (Est. Qty. sq ft)
Cleaning and Overcoating Structural
Steel
Electrical Work Bridges
Square Foot
Bid Unit
Round
Accuracy
Foot
Foot
Lump
1
1
Lump
Lump
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
DESI
GN QUALI
TY
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1
QUALITY PROGRAM .................................................................................................. 5-1

5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.2
Alternative Quality Procedures ......................................................................... 5-1

Responsibilities ................................................................................................ 5-2
Documentation ................................................................................................. 5-2
QUALITY CONTROL CHECK ..................................................................................... 5-2

5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5
Request for Proposal Check Design Build Projects ...................................... 5-2

Structure Type Selection Report and Situation and Layout Check .................. 5-2
CADD Standards Check ................................................................................... 5-4
Independent Technical Analysis ....................................................................... 5-4
Plans, Specifications and Estimate Check ....................................................... 5-5
5.3
QUALITY ASSURANCE AUDIT .................................................................................. 5-5
5.4
STRUCTURAL REVIEWS ........................................................................................... 5-5

5.4.1
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.4
5.4.5
5.5
ACCEPTANCE ............................................................................................................ 5-14

5.5.1
5.5.2
5.5.3
5.5.4
5.5.5
5.6
Request for Proposal Review Design Build Projects ..................................... 5-7

Geometry (Stage 2) Review ............................................................................. 5-7
Plan in Hand (Stage 3) Review ........................................................................ 5-7
Intermediate Design (Stage 4) Review ............................................................. 5-9
Plans, Specifications and Estimate (Stage 4) Review ...................................... 5-12
Request for Proposals Acceptance Design Build ........................................ 5-14

Structure Type Selection Report ...................................................................... 5-14
Situation and Layout ......................................................................................... 5-14
Seismic Design Strategy Report (Final) ........................................................... 5-15
Final Structure Acceptance .............................................................................. 5-15
CONSTRUCTION SUBMITTALS AND REVISIONS ................................................... 5-16
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
Figure 5.7
Figure 5.8
DOCUMENTATION OF QUALITY PROCEDURES ............................................ 5-3

STRUCTURAL REVIEWS ................................................................................... 5-6
PLAN IN HAND STRUCTURAL REVIEW TASKS ............................................... 5-8
PLAN IN HAND STRUCTURAL REVIEW TIME .................................................. 5-9
PS&E STRUCTURAL REVIEW TASKS ............................................................ 5-13
PS&E STRUCTURAL REVIEW TIME ............................................................... 5-12
SITUATION AND LAYOUT REVIEW TIME ....................................................... 5-15
FINAL STRUCTURE ACCEPTANCE REVIEW TIME ....................................... 5-16
Design Quality
5-i
February 2015
5-ii
Design Quality
February 2015
Chapter 5
DESIGN QUALITY
Design quality is an essential element in project development. When properly executed, quality
control reduces costs, minimizes errors and enables the project to meet schedules. This
chapter presents design requirements for design quality, and discusses the procedures to
ensure the quality of all structure deliverables as required by the Project Delivery Network.
5.1
QUALITY PROGRAM
The Structures Division quality program for projects consists of:

1.
Project QC/QA. The project structures team follows the procedures as outlined in the
Structures QC/QA Procedures. The project structures team designs, checks and audits
the structures project documents.
2.
Structural Reviews. The Structures Division can assign an independent design reviewer
and oversight reviewer to evaluate the structures project documents for adherence to the
Structures Division design requirements, consistency and constructability. Structural
reviews are performed before the milestone reviews at the plan in hand stage and at the
PS&E stage. The structural engineer responds to and addresses the structural review
comments as outlined in the Structures QC/QA Procedures.
The structural reviews and the milestone reviews can occur concurrently on a case by
case basis depending on the project. The Project Manager works with the Structures
Design Manager as necessary on schedule revisions.
3.
Milestone Reviews. The project team completes project milestone reviews at the end of
each stage of the Project Delivery Network. The project team responds to and
addresses the milestone review comments as outlined in the Structures QC/QA
Procedures.
4.
Structures Division Acceptance. After the project team addresses comments from the
structural reviews and the milestone reviews, the Structures Division accepts the design
at the plan in hand stage and at the advertising stage.
The Structures QC/QA Procedures and all forms associated with project QC/QA, milestone
reviews, structural reviews and the Structures Division acceptance are available on the website.
5.1.1
Alternative Quality Procedures
The Structures QC/QA Procedures allow alternative procedures. Complete and submit
alternative QC/QA procedures or requested modifications in writing to the Structures Design
Manager for approval using the Alternate QC/QA Procedures Acceptance form during the
Design Quality
5-1
February 2015
scoping stage of the project. Place a copy of the approved form in the structures project folder
in ProjectWise.
5.1.2
Responsibilities
Refer to the Structures QC/QA Procedures for roles and responsibilities.
5.1.3
Documentation
Document the completion of all quality procedures required in the Project Delivery Network, the
Structures QC/QA Procedures and this chapter.
Figure 5.1 summarizes the documentation requirements for all quality procedures.
5.2
QUALITY CONTROL CHECK
All structure deliverables required by the Project Delivery Network (i.e., drawings, calculations,
reports) must be checked according to the Structures QC/QA Procedures before distribution for
review (whether structural review or milestone review), including documents prepared for
inclusion in DB projects.
5.2.1
Request for Proposal Check Design Build Projects
The RFP for a DB project is typically developed by a Program Manager (consultant firm) hired
by UDOT to manage that specific project. The structural engineer for the Program Manager is
responsible for developing the specific structures performance requirements and structures
related documents for the project. The structural engineer cross references project specific
design requirements with other disciplines for consistency, compatibility and constructability.
The Program Manager prepares, checks and audits the structures performance requirements
and structures related documents (i.e., concept drawings, special provisions, reports) following
the Structures QC/QA Procedures. For RFP development, the project document cover sheet is
required. Specify on the form all related documents (i.e., calculations, concept plans, special
provisions) that were designed and checked during the RFP development. Perform an audit
according to Section 5.3.
5.2.2
Structure Type Selection Report and Situation and Layout Check
The Structure TSR provides the project objective and a description of the structural
recommendations, and summarizes the existing conditions and the basis of structural
evaluation. The S&L drawings define the general concept and geometry of the structure.
5-2
Design Quality
Procedure
February 2015
Required Documentation
Form
Quality Control (QC)

QC check
QC cover sheet
Check prints*
N/A
Independent Technical Analysis Cover Sheet
ITA_COV
Calculation Cover Sheet

Computer Program Input Cover Sheet
CAL_COV
COM_COV
Drawing Cover Sheet
DWG_COV
Project Document Cover Sheet
DOC_COV
Quality Assurance (QA)

QA audit
Project QA Audit
AUD_QA
Reviews
Structural
review
Structural Review Comment Resolution Form
STR_CRF
RFP_REV
Design
reviewer/
oversight review
Structural Review Completion RFP Preparation

and Review (Design Build)
Structural Review Completion Plan in Hand
(stage 3) Review
Structural Review Completion PS&E (stage 4)
Review
Milestone
review
Milestone Review Comment Resolution Form
PIH_REV
PSE_REV
F1
Acceptance
Structures
Division
acceptance
Structural RFP Acceptance (Design Build)
RFP_ACC
S&L Acceptance (3S6)
S&L_ACC
Final Structural Acceptance (5S1)
PSE_ACC
Structural Design Criteria Deviation Acceptance
DEV_ACC
Alternate QC/QA Procedures Acceptance
ALT_ACC
Check prints are not required to be uploaded to ProjectWise. At a minimum, keep check prints for
two years after the project construction completion.
All other required documentation is to be uploaded to the structures project folder in ProjectWise.
Refer to Section 2.17 for the document naming convention.
Figure 5.1 DOCUMENTATION OF QUALITY PROCEDURES
Design Quality
5-3
February 2015
The checker performs the QC check on the Structure TSR and confirms that all supporting
documents (i.e., calculations, reports) have been checked before beginning the check of the
S&L drawings.
The structural engineer completes the S&L checklist and submits the checklist as part of the
S&L deliverable as defined in the Project Delivery Network. In addition to the S&L checklist, the
checker evaluates the conceptual design of the structure in conjunction with the Structure TSR
including the following:
Geometric layout
Structure type
Structure width
Span length
Support locations
Girder type and spacing
Horizontal and vertical clearances
Expansion joint locations
Aesthetic requirements
Potential utility conflicts
Context sensitivity
Environmental requirements
Seismic Design Strategy Report (Preliminary)
Constructability
Agreement with the roadway drawings
Other items appropriate for the structure
Resolve all questions and concerns before finalizing the Structure TSR and S&L drawings.
5.2.3
CADD Standards Check
A formal external review to verify compliance with CADD requirements is typically not
performed. The structural engineer ensures that drawings meet the Structures Division CADD
requirements identified in Section 4.2.1. The Structures Design Manager can request a formal
review if the drawings appear to disregard or vary from the established CADD requirements.
The review verifies the appropriate level usage, reference file use, scales, etc.
5.2.4
Independent Technical Analysis
The Structures Design Manager or the RFP DB documents identify projects that require an
independent technical analysis. Reasons for an independent technical analysis include, but are
not limited to, a complex or unusual structure, an inexperienced structural engineer or
inexperience with the structure type.
Initiate the independent technical analysis during the PS&E stage. Adjust the design schedule
to allow for completion of the independent technical analysis and incorporation of the
independent technical analysis comments before the PS&E review.
5-4
Design Quality
February 2015
Verify that the independent technical analysis comments are addressed in the design
documents before submitting the PS&E deliverables.
5.2.5
Plans, Specifications and Estimate Check
Check all drawings as a complete package.

Use the structures plan sheet checklists as tools to ensure consistency in content and format of
structure plan sheets. The checklists, with the exception of the S&L checklist, can be included
in the QC/QA documentation but are not a required deliverable.
Recheck the S&L to ensure compliance with the most recent roadway drawings and any
changes within the design. Confirm with the roadway designer that the most current roadway
drawings are being used. Verify that the information and details not available at the plan in
hand stage are included. Update and QC check the S&L checklist.
Check the entire set of design documents (e.g., drawings, calculations, specifications,
engineers estimate). Complete all checking and resolve all questions and concerns before
submitting for PS&E review.
Resolve all questions and concerns before finalizing the PS&E documents for advertising.
5.3
QUALITY ASSURANCE AUDIT
Complete a project QA audit on all structure deliverables according to the Structures QC/QA
Procedures before submitting deliverables for structural reviews and milestone reviews. Use
the Project QA Audit form to document the QA audit.
5.4
STRUCTURAL REVIEWS
All deliverables are subject to reviews by a UDOT structural engineer or a structural engineer
appointed by UDOT before the milestone reviews. The Structures Design Manager determines
if a structural design review is required, the scope of the design review and whether an
oversight review is required. Refer to Figure 5.2 for a summary of the types of reviews, the
stage the reviews typically occur, and the section that discusses review expectations.
QC/QA must be complete before submitting documents for a structural review.
Design Quality
5-5
Review Type
RFP review
(design build)
Design
Stage
During RFP
development
Plan in hand (Stage 3)

review
Intermediate design
(Stage 4) review
PS&E (Stage 4) review
Stage 3
February 2015
Completion
Before submitting for
structural RFP acceptance
(design build)
Before submitting for S&L
acceptance (3S6)
Section
5.4.1
5.4.3
Stage 4
During PS&E, when required
5.4.4
Stage 4
Before preparing/compiling
PS&E review package
5.4.5
Figure 5.2 STRUCTURAL REVIEWS
The intent of the structural reviews is to verify completeness, accuracy and compliance with
design requirements and industry standards. General instructions to reviewers are as follows:
Conduct all reviews with professionalism and tact.

Review projects advertised through the UDOT bidding system for compliance with
SDDM requirements, including plan presentation.
For additional roles and
responsibilities on local government projects, see Section 2.16.6.
Focus the structural reviews of local government projects that do not advertise through
the UDOT bidding system on plan content, not format, unless directed otherwise by the
Structures Design Manager; local government projects are encouraged to but not
required to follow UDOT structure plan presentation. See Section 2.16.7.
Review permit projects similar to local government projects that do not advertise through
the UDOT bidding system. See Section 2.16.5.
The following provides an overview of the general procedures for design reviews and oversight
reviews including performing the review, addressing the review comments and completing the
review procedure as detailed in the Structures QC/QA Procedures.
1.
Perform Review:
5-6
The Structures Design Manager assigns a design reviewer and an oversight

reviewer to each project with structures, when required.
The design reviewer reviews the design deliverables and prepares comments on
the Structural Review Comment Resolution Form as described in the Structures
QC/QA Procedures.
The design reviewer submits the review comments to the oversight reviewer.
The oversight reviewer examines the review comments for consensus, provides
additional comments if necessary, and returns the Structures Review Comment
Resolution Form to the reviewer.
The design reviewer returns the completed Structural Review Comment
Resolution Form to the structural engineer for the project or posts the document
in ProjectWise and notifies the structural engineer.
Design Quality
2.
Address Review Comments:
The structural engineer for the project responds to the review comments as
defined in the Structures QC/QA Procedures and returns the form to the design
reviewer.
The structural engineer and design reviewer discuss comments and responses
and agree upon a final disposition.
3.
Complete Review Procedure:
The structural engineer provides the final deliverables, which address or

incorporate the review comments, to the design reviewer and oversight reviewer
for comment disposition and resolution verification.
The design reviewer verifies the final dispositions and responses are complete.
The design reviewer and oversight reviewer complete the appropriate Structural
Review Completion form for the stage of the project, post the form in
ProjectWise, and notify the Structures Design Manager that the review is
complete and all comments are resolved to the design reviewers and oversight
reviewers satisfaction.
5.4.1
February 2015
Request for Proposal Review Design Build Projects
After the Program Manager completes the QC check and QA audit, the Program Manager
prepares the Structural Review Completion RFP Preparation and Review (Design Build) form
and submits the form to the Structures Division. The Structures Divisions assigned structural
engineer and geotechnical engineer review the geotechnical performance requirements,
structures performance requirements and related documents (i.e., concept drawings, special
provisions, reports), verifies that the Structures QC/QA Procedures were followed, and verifies
that the project document cover sheet and the Project QA Audit form are complete for the RFP
development. The assigned structural engineer and geotechnical engineer complete and sign
the Structural Review Completion RFP Preparation and Review (Design Build) form and place
the form in the structures project folder in ProjectWise as part of the project QC/QA
documentation.
5.4.2
Geometry (Stage 2) Review
A formal review is not required at the geometry stage.
5.4.3
Plan in Hand (Stage 3) Review
The structural engineer prepares the deliverables listed below from the structural documentation
package and submits the deliverables to the design reviewer for comments. Refer to Figure 5.3
for the Structures Division expectations of the design reviewer and oversight reviewer.
Design Quality
5-7
February 2015
Deliverable
Task
Structure Type Selection Report (TSR)
Verify inclusion in package

Review content for reasonableness and
correctness

(Preliminary)

Review document and compare
description with design drawings
Verify that drawings meet all

requirements of the S&L checklist
Verify appearance of the S&L drawings;
request a formal CADD review if the
drawings appear to not follow the
Structures Division CADD requirements
(Chapter 4)
Verify that structures are constructable
using proven construction methods
Spot check, cross reference and look
through nonstructural sheets to validate
that the information shown and impacts
from nonstructural items are addressed
Confirm that drawings represent
acceptable design practices and
presentation
S&L drawings
S&L checklist

Review in conjunction with the S&L
drawings
Structural Design Criteria Deviation

Acceptance
Verify inclusion in package (if applicable)

Review information as it applies to the
drawings
QC/QA documentation (QC cover sheets for

all deliverables and Project QA Audit form)

Review content for completeness
Structural Review Completion Plan in

Hand (Stage 3) Review form
Complete and submit form
Figure 5.3 PLAN IN HAND STRUCTURAL REVIEW TASKS
5-8
Design Quality
February 2015
The design reviewer also performs the following:
Verifies that comments on the Milestone Review Comment Resolution Form (Task 2V1,
Geometry Review Meeting) have been addressed
Verifies that the S&L meets the requirements of the Structure Foundation Type Memo
Verifies that the S&L meets the requirements of the Draft Hydraulics Report
Provides written comments on the Structural Review Comment Resolution Form
Posts the form directly to ProjectWise
Verifies that QC/QA documentation for all deliverables is complete
Coordinates with the oversight reviewer to finalize comments
Resolves all comments with the structural engineer according to the structural review
comment resolution procedures in the Structures QC/QA Procedures
Verifies that all comments are addressed in the deliverables
Completes the Structural Review Completion Plan in Hand (Stage 3) Review form and
places with the QC/QA documentation in ProjectWise
Notifies the Structures Design Manager that the review is complete and provides a link
to the Structural Review Completion Plan in Hand form in ProjectWise
The review time requirement is 3 to 5 weeks before submitting to the Structures Design
Manager for acceptance, distributed as shown in Figure 5.4.
Task
Time Allowance
Perform review
1 to 2 weeks
Address review comments
1 to 2 weeks
Finalize review documentation
1 week
Figure 5.4 PLAN IN HAND STRUCTURAL REVIEW TIME
5.4.4
Intermediate Design (Stage 4) Review
An intermediate design review is not required for all projects, but is occasionally requested on
complex projects, projects using new materials or procedures and projects requiring significant
coordination with other disciplines or the contractor. The Structures Design Manager identifies
projects requiring an intermediate design review. The Structures Design Manager also lists
specific areas of concern when applicable.
An intermediate design review is an over the shoulder review. Structure drawings are reviewed
to verify concept and scope and to identify design issues that significantly affect the design.
The intermediate design review is not a detailed design or drawing check, but a review to
validate compliance with the design direction and verify that the design meets scope, intent and
all project design criteria and requirements.
The objective of the intermediate design review varies from project to project but, in general,
allows evaluation of the design during the design procedure to avoid any significant redesign
Design Quality
5-9
February 2015
efforts and schedule impacts that could occur if identified at the PS&E review. The tasks that
can be included in the intermediate review are to:
Identify and resolve design issues associated with new types of construction
Identify and resolve design issues associated with new methods of design
Verify constructability
Improve constructability
Allow suppliers to comment on use of new materials
Allow other disciplines to review the design and identify areas of concern
Allow contractors to review the design to improve constructability or reduce cost
Verify that specific design requirements are checked
Verify and plan construction schedules
Schedule the intermediate design review early in the design procedure to improve the
opportunity to incorporate quality, efficiency and economics into the design without significant
redesign.
The structural engineer compiles the intermediate design review materials (unchecked) and
submits the package to the design reviewer. The package can include some or all of the
following:
A set of drawings
Calculations
Memos
Specifications
Quantity estimates
Proposed construction scheme
The submittal must provide adequate information to allow review and evaluation of the design
concept. The design reviewer evaluates the material submitted and requests additional
material, if needed. The intermediate design review is not a detailed design or drawing check.
The unchecked drawings often contain errors or inaccurate information. Coordination with the
structural engineer is often required to clarify the drawings.
The intermediate design review submittal must include adequate information required to
evaluate any specific concerns identified by the Structures Design Manager. The intermediate
design review submittal for projects without specific concerns typically includes all materials in
the S&L submittal and the unchecked drawings as follows:
5-10
S&L drawings
Soil data drawings
Pile or drilled shaft drawings
Foundation drawings
Abutment drawings
Bent drawings
Framing drawings
Girder detail drawings
Design Quality
February 2015
Post-tensioning or prestressing drawings

Deck detail drawings
Ideally, the structural engineer submits all created drawings. Due to the preliminary and
unchecked nature of the drawings, the structural engineer has the option to not submit created
drawings that add no value for the design reviewer. The drawings are reviewed from a
conceptual perspective. The design reviewer submits comments either by marking up a set of
drawings or providing written comments on the Structural Review Comment Resolution Form.
The design reviewer must provide written comments when requested by the Structures Design
Manager.
The structural engineer schedules a meeting to review the comments, if needed. Formal
responses to comments on a set of marked up drawings is not required; however, the structural
engineer responds to all comments provided on the Structural Review Comment Resolution
Form according to the procedures in the Structures QC/QA Procedures to document resolution
of all written comments. The structural engineer scans the final form and places the scanned
copy in the structures project folder in ProjectWise.
In general, the design reviewer does the following:
Verifies that the specific concerns identified by the Structures Design Manager are
addressed
Verifies that the seismic strategy is appropriate for the structure and is consistent with
the structure performance goals; verifies that details and geometry identified in the
Seismic Design Strategy Report (Preliminary) are applied or can be applied to the
drawings
Reviews major structure elements; identifies elements that are beyond typical maximum
and minimum values
Verifies that typical details are appropriate; ensures that any nonstandard details are
appropriate
Verifies the constructability of the design; identifies constructability concerns; identifies
difficult or impossible to construct details; evaluates the construction sequence;
evaluates pick weights, stability of materials lifted, potential crane locations, crane size
requirements and overhead utility conflicts; evaluates construction time lines for time
critical projects
Verifies inspection access
Identifies issues that impact bridge maintenance; for example, verifies that the deck
drains will not soak the girders or substructure; identifies avoidable erosion or snow
removal problems
Verifies compliance with project aesthetics, environmental requirements and project
specific design requirements
Identifies concerns with design methods
Design Quality
5-11
5.4.5
February 2015
Plans, Specifications and Estimate (Stage 4) Review
The structural engineer prepares the following deliverables and submits the package to the
design reviewer and oversight reviewer for comments. See Figure 5.5 for review tasks for
project submittals.
The design reviewer completes the following:
Verifies that the Geotechnical Report is complete and reflected properly in the structures
design
Verifies that the Hydraulics Report (if applicable) is complete and reflected properly in
the structures design
Notifies the Structures Project Engineer if final reports are not complete
Verifies consistency of items and quantities among the plans, specifications, special
provisions, engineers estimate, measurement and payment, and acceptance and
documentation documents
Provides written comments on the Structural Review Comment Resolution Form
Posts the form directly to ProjectWise
Verifies that QC/QA documentation for all deliverables is complete
Coordinates with oversight reviewer to finalize comments
Resolves all comments with the structural engineer according to the Structural Review
Comment Resolution Form procedures in the Structures QC/QA Procedures
Verifies that all comments are addressed in the deliverables
Completes the Structural Review Completion PS&E (Stage 4) Review form and places
the form with the QC/QA documentation in ProjectWise
Notifies the Structures Design Manager that the review is complete and provides a link
to the Structural Review Completion PS&E (Stage 4) Review form in ProjectWise
The review time requirement is 5 to 8 weeks before the PS&E meeting, distributed as shown in
Figure 5.6.
Task
Time Allowance
Perform review
1 to 2 weeks
Address review comments
1 to 2 weeks
Finalize review documentation

Submit PS&E documents to project team for review
1 week
2 to 3 weeks (required)
Figure 5.6 PS&E STRUCTURAL REVIEW TIME
5-12
Design Quality
Submittal
February 2015
Task
Structure plans
Verify that drawings meet all requirements of the SDDM

Verify that applicable WS sheets have been used
Verify appearance of the S&L drawings; request a formal CADD
review if the drawings appear to not follow the Structures Division
CADD requirements (Chapter 4)
Verify that structures are constructable using proven construction
methods
Spot check, cross reference and look through nonstructural drawings
to validate that information shown and impacts from nonstructural
items are addressed
Confirm that drawings represent acceptable design practices and
presentation
Verify that all appropriate structural details are included
Verify that dimensions and callouts are clear and complete
Verify that drawing notes use active voice and imperative mood
Verify that drawings clearly communicate the intended design
Verify that all structures are identified, reviewed and have a structure
number assigned
Specifications and
special provisions
Verify that active voice and imperative mood is used

Verify that construction schedule is appropriate
Verify that specifications and special provisions are clear and
understandable
Verify that all required structural special provisions are included
Verify that correlation among plans, specifications and special
provisions is complete
Engineers estimate
(structure items)
Measurement and
payment
Acceptance and
documentation
Calculations
(upon request of reviewer)
Seismic Design Strategy
Report (Final)
Structural design criteria
deviation acceptance
Responses to all previous
structures related review
comments
QC/QA documentation
(QC cover sheets for all
deliverables and Project
QA Audit form)
Structural Review
Completion PS&E
(Stage 4) Review form
Verify that quantities and unit costs for structural items are reasonable
Verify that all items are included in the estimate
Verify that bid items reference appropriate specification or special
provision
Verify that measurement and payment information for structural items
are complete and acceptable
Verify that structural items are complete
Compare design calculations with information in the drawings (if
applicable)
Review document and compare description with design drawings
Verify inclusion in package (if applicable)
Review information as applicable to the calculations
Verify that comments on the Milestone Review Comment Resolution
Form (Task 3V1, Plan In Hand Review Meeting) have been addressed
Verify that intermediate design review and independent technical
analysis comments have been addressed, if applicable
Review content for completeness
Complete and submit form
Figure 5.5 PS&E STRUCTURAL REVIEW TASKS

Design Quality
5-13
5.5
February 2015
ACCEPTANCE
All structure deliverables intended for use on UDOT projects and on local government projects
with federal funding require formal acceptance by UDOT at various design stages. Acceptance
means that the deliverables are ready for the next stage. Acceptance does not relieve the EOR
of responsibility for the design of a bridge or structural component. The EOR retains the
responsibility for errors, correctness of details and conformance to SDDM requirements. The
Structures Design Manager accepts by signature the following structure deliverables.
5.5.1
Request for Proposals Acceptance Design Build
Once the Structures Design Division and Geotechnical Design Division review has been
completed on the RFP for DB projects, the Structures Design Manager or designee and the
Geotechnical Design Manager accept all structural performance requirements, special
provisions and concept/preliminary design drawings before advertising the RFP. The RFP
acceptance submittal includes the RFP structural documents, the completed Structural Review
Completion RFP Preparation and Review (Design Build) form and the Structural RFP
Acceptance (Design Build) form.
The Structures Design Manager completes and signs the Structural RFP Acceptance (Design
Build) form and places the form in the structures project folder in ProjectWise as part of the
project QC/QA documentation. Acceptance of concept/preliminary design plans is required
before advertising the RFP.
5.5.2
Structure Type Selection Report
The Structures Design Manager or designee reviews and accepts the Structure TSR and the
SDSR (Preliminary). Acceptance is typically concurrent with the S&L acceptance and is
documented by signature on the reports.
5.5.3
Situation and Layout
Once the comments have been reviewed and addressed and the Structural Review Completion
Plan in Hand (Stage 3) Review form has been signed, the structural engineer prepares the
structural documentation package and submits the package to the Structures Design Manager
for acceptance. The package includes the deliverables identified in the Project Delivery
Network and on the S&L Acceptance (3S6) form. The Structures Design Manager or designee
provides acceptance of the submittal package by signing the S&L Acceptance (3S6) form.
Place the completed form and the structural documentation package deliverables in the
structures project folder in ProjectWise.
Allow the appropriate time to obtain S&L acceptance before beginning the Stage 4 design.
Review time is distributed as shown in Figure 5.7.
5-14
Design Quality
Task
February 2015
Time Allowance
Submit S&L drawings and preliminary cost estimate to project team

for review
Accept structural documentation package (Structures Design
Manager)
2 to 3 weeks
(required)
1 week
Figure 5.7 SITUATION AND LAYOUT REVIEW TIME
Complete the S&L acceptance before submitting deliverables for the plan in hand meeting and
before beginning the Stage 4 design.
5.5.4
Seismic Design Strategy Report (Final)
The Structures Design Manager reviews and accepts the SDSR (Final). Acceptance is typically
at the same time as the Final Structural Acceptance (5S1) and is documented by signature on
the report. No formal acceptance documentation is required.
5.5.5
Final Structure Acceptance
The Structures Design Manager or designee accepts the final design documents for all UDOT
projects, local government projects with federal funding and permit projects that modify a
structural element of an existing UDOT structure. Final structure acceptance occurs after the
comment resolution meeting is completed and all review comments are addressed and before
submitting for advertisement.
The structural engineer prepares the final structural documentation package and submits the
package to the Structures Design Manager for acceptance with the completed Final Structural
Acceptance (5S1) form, the signed Structural Review Completion PS&E (Stage 4) Review
form and any other documentation requested by the Structures Design Manager. Include the
deliverables identified in the Project Delivery Network and on the Final Structure Acceptance
(5S1) form.
The Structures Design Manager verifies that the final design documents are complete and the
contract documents are ready for advertising. The final acceptance is not a detailed check, but
a review to confirm that the design is complete and that the QC/QA documentation is complete.
The Structures Design Manager provides acceptance of the final project deliverables for
advertising by signature on the Final Structural Acceptance (5S1) form and the final structure
drawings (when applicable).
Complete the final structural acceptance before submitting for advertisement. The review time
requirement for final structure acceptance is two weeks before submitting to the Region for
advertising; see Figure 5.8.
Design Quality
5-15
Task
Review structural documentation package and provide
acceptance for advertising
February 2015
Time Allowance
2 weeks (required)
Figure 5.8 FINAL STRUCTURE ACCEPTANCE REVIEW TIME
5.6
CONSTRUCTION SUBMITTALS AND REVISIONS
See Chapter 6 for construction submittals and requirements for what and how to review. In
general, revisions to design documents (e.g., drawings, specifications) generated after
advertisement or release for construction must follow the Structures QC/QA Procedures.
5-16
Design Quality
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
CONSTRUCTI
ON SUPPORT
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES .............................................................................. 6-1

6.2.1
Central Construction, Materials and Civil Rights Divisions ............................... 6-1

6.2.1.1
6.2.1.2
6.2.1.3
6.2.1.4
6.2.2
District Engineer ............................................................................. 6-2

Resident Engineer .......................................................................... 6-2
Field Engineer, Inspectors and Technicians ................................... 6-2
Central and Region Materials Personnel ........................................ 6-3
Structures Division ........................................................................................... 6-3

6.2.2.1
6.2.2.2
6.2.2.3
6.2.2.4
6.2.2.5
6.2.2.6
6.2.2.7
Structures Design Manager ............................................................ 6-3

Structures Construction Engineer ................................................... 6-4
Structures Project Engineer ............................................................ 6-4
Bridge Management Engineer ........................................................ 6-4
Bridge Database Engineer .............................................................. 6-4
Engineer of Record ......................................................................... 6-5
Geotechnical Engineer ................................................................... 6-5
6.3
CONSTRUCTABILITY REVIEWS ............................................................................... 6-6
6.4
CONSTRUCTION SUBMITTALS ................................................................................ 6-6

6.4.1
Working Drawings ............................................................................................ 6-6

6.4.1.1
6.4.1.2
6.4.1.3
6.4.1.4
6.4.2
6.5
Miscellaneous Construction Submittals ............................................................ 6-9
INSPECTION AND ON SITE SUPPORT ..................................................................... 6-10

6.5.1
6.5.2
Meetings and Site Visits ................................................................................... 6-10

Project Acceptance .......................................................................................... 6-10
6.5.2.1
6.5.2.2
6.6
Distribution Process for Review ...................................................... 6-7

Review and Approval Requirements .............................................. 6-7
Tracking and Documentation .......................................................... 6-8
Working Drawing Checklists ........................................................... 6-9
Substantial Completion ................................................................... 6-10

Final Acceptance ............................................................................ 6-10
DESIGN CLARIFICATIONS AND CHANGES ............................................................ 6-11

6.6.1
6.6.2
6.6.3
Requests for Information .................................................................................. 6-11

Construction Change Orders ............................................................................ 6-11
Notice of Design Change and Field Design Change ........................................ 6-12
Construction Support
6-i
6.6.3.1
6.6.3.2
6.6.3.3
6.6.4
6.6.5
February 2015
Initiation, Evaluation and Tracking Design Change Requests ........ 6-12

Documentation of Design Change Revisions ................................. 6-13
Distribution of Design Changes ...................................................... 6-13
Value Engineering Change Proposal ............................................................... 6-14

As Built Plans ................................................................................................... 6-14
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 6.1 REVIEW STAMP ............................................................................................. 6-8
6-ii
February 2015
Chapter 6
CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT
The responsibilities of the Structures Division extend beyond the preconstruction stage. For all
structural items, the Structures Division must provide the necessary support to the RE to assist
in construction. In many cases (e.g., for change orders), the Structures Division is best
positioned to identify and evaluate any impacts on the long term functionality of the structural
elements.
This chapter presents the Structures Divisions responsibilities for construction support and
input. Examples include construction change orders, review of working drawings and RFIs and
on site support.
6.1
INTRODUCTION
During construction, the EOR is responsible for structure specific support, and the Structures
Division is responsible for statewide oversight and Region support for all structures in
collaboration with the Construction Division and Materials Division. Support responsibilities
include review of shop drawings, erection plans, requests for information, design changes, ABC
planning activities, attendance at project meetings, site visits, and participation in substantial
completion and final acceptance. The EOR has a unique perspective and knowledge of the
structure design, and the knowledge is valuable during submittal reviews, when addressing
questions that arise in construction, and in resolving discrepancies according to the design
intent. Therefore, the EOR and Structures Division must be proactive, available and responsive
in coordinating with the RE for the construction project.
6.2
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Although project team members have specific roles during the design and construction stage,
this chapter focuses primarily on roles and responsibilities during construction.
6.2.1
Central Construction, Materials and Civil Rights Divisions
The Construction, Materials and Civil Rights Divisions have responsibility for the administration
of contracts during the construction stage. The Divisions assume the responsibility when the
contract is advertised according to established Department procedures. The responsibility
ceases when the Department has accepted the project and final payment has been issued to
the contractor. The Materials Division is responsible for the overall management of the
Departments materials acceptance program and all Central Materials laboratory testing and
inspection programs. The Civil Rights Division is responsible for administering the civil rights
program as required by FHWA regulations, contract compliance and DBE programs.
6-1
6.2.1.1
February 2015
District Engineer
The DE is assigned to construction contract administration and reports to the Region Director.
The DE:
Evaluates and approves change orders

Provides stewardship for federal participation
Participates in resolving disputes and potential claims that have been escalated
Coordinates construction activities with other Region operations
6.2.1.2
Resident Engineer
The RE is UDOTs representative on the project and operates under the supervision of the DE.
The RE coordinates activities with the Project Manager on issues that affect the project scope,
schedule and budget. The RE:
Assesses the compatibility of the design with site conditions during the design stage
Provides constructability reviews during the preconstruction stage
Conducts preconstruction conferences, the regularly scheduled team meetings, special
coordination meetings and the substantial and physical completion walk throughs
Administers the construction project according to established policies and procedures
Monitors the project to ensure compliance with the contract documents
Enforces specifications, controls inspection and testing, and ensures proper
documentation
Ensures that project staff have the required certifications and qualifications
Provides training to field personnel
Assigns qualified staff to conduct field inspections for structural items
Notifies the Structures Division of any issues related to structural items and coordinates
submittal reviews
Resolves issues and disputes with the contractor
Prepares contract change orders
Maintains a record of all FDCs
Submits the as built plans, which are an electronic copy of the as constructed (i.e.,
redlined) plans, to the Structures Division and EOR for review and concurrence that the
changes, including FDCs, have been incorporated
Submits the final as built plan set with all structure related FDCs to the Structures
Division at completion of the project for incorporation into the structure record
6.2.1.3
Field Engineer, Inspectors and Technicians
The FE reports directly to the RE. The FE:
6-2
Monitors work progress

Documents noncompliance issues
February 2015
Supervises or performs inspections and testing

Helps evaluate change orders
The inspectors and technicians report directly to the RE. The inspectors and technicians:
Provide sampling and testing according to minimum sampling and testing

Document sampling and testing activities and report test results
Confirm that all materials and work complies with the contract document materials
acceptance
Helps evaluate change orders
6.2.1.4
Central and Region Materials Personnel
Include Central Materials in all inspections related to structural precast elements and structural
steel. Central Materials inspectors:
Provide technical assistance to the RE on materials issues

Inspect and/or qualify fabrication facilities including temporary facilities used for project
site precast elements
Inspect precast elements for compliance with approved working drawings, standards
and specifications
Provide steel girder inspection/material verification during fabrication
Provide overhead sign structural steel inspection/material verification during fabrication
Monitor steel girder erection for compliance with approved erection plan and
specifications
Provide inspection of bolts, welds (shop and field) and shear stud installation
Conduct nondestructive testing of structural steel (i.e., ultrasonic testing, penetrant
testing, magnetic particle testing, radiographic testing)
Monitor and inspect structural steel girders during and after deck removal
Conduct structural steel coatings inspection and lead coating removal
Inspect bearings
6.2.2
Structures Division
6.2.2.1
The Structures Design Manager:
Determines if an independent constructability review is warranted during the design

stage
Assigns oversight reviewers as appropriate for review of construction submittals
Attends meetings and site visits as appropriate
Participates in resolving field questions that have been escalated
Oversees structural design support for construction
6-3
6.2.2.2
February 2015
Structures Construction Engineer
The Structures Construction Engineer reports directly to the Structures Design Manager. The
Structures Construction Engineer:
Coordinates with the RE and EOR to ensure that construction submittals are reviewed in
a timely and thorough manner
Collaborates with the RE and EOR to develop solutions to construction problems or plan
errors
Provides an oversight review on all EOR responses to design clarifications and changes
including RFIs and FDCs, unless reviewed by the Structures Project Engineer
Attends meetings and site visits
6.2.2.3
Structures Project Engineer
The Structures Project Engineer reports directly to the Structures Design Manger.
Structures Project Engineer:
The
Coordinates with the RE and EOR to ensure that construction submittals are reviewed in
a timely and thorough manner
Coordinates with the RE and EOR to develop solutions to construction problems or plan
errors
Coordinates with the RE and EOR to review change orders
Provides an oversight review on all EOR responses to design clarifications and changes
including RFIs and FDCs, unless reviewed by the Structures Construction Engineer
Attends meetings and site visits
6.2.2.4
Bridge Management Engineer
The Bridge Management Engineer:
Assigns bridge inspectors to collect pertinent information for the inventory after
substantial completion
Participates in partial acceptance and/or the substantial completion inspection, as
appropriate
6.2.2.5
Bridge Database Engineer
The Bridge Database Engineer reports directly to the Bridge Management Engineer.
Bridge Database Engineer:
6-4
The
Manages the data collection and storage of information for each structure as part of
asset management and planning
Copies documentation provided by the RE into the structure record including as builts,
approved shop drawings, and submittals and change orders involving structural items
6.2.2.6
February 2015
Engineer of Record
The EOR is the individual that signed and stamped the plans and calculations for the work. The
EOR can be an employee of the Department or a consultant working for the Department. The
EOR:
Must be licensed in the state of Utah as a professional civil or structural engineer

Provides technical assistance to the RE on construction questions
Participates in project meetings as necessary
Participates in field and shop inspections as requested
Reviews construction submittals, RFIs and FDC requests
Limits comments and responses to technical requirements of submittals, interpretation of
the plan set and clarifications of comments on construction submittals
Directly communicates with suppliers and fabricators to discuss technical issues with the
approval of the RE
Does not discuss issues related to measurement, payment or potential resolutions to
problems with the contractor unless the RE is present and has requested the discussion
Must be responsive to the RE and give priority to contract related questions, requests for
information and submittal reviews; delays caused by an untimely review can result in
contractor claims for time and/or compensation
Submits all responses to the Structures Division for approval before sending to the RE
and contractor
6.2.2.7
Geotechnical Engineer
The project geotechnical engineers roles and responsibilities are the same as the EOR for
elements specific to geotechnical design. The geotechnical engineer:
Provides technical assistance to the RE on construction questions

Participates in project meetings, as necessary
Reviews construction submittals, RFIs and FDC requests as necessary including:
Review and acceptance of contractor ground improvement proposals
Review and acceptance of hammer data sheets
Review and acceptance of MSE wall submittals and other geotechnical

structures
Verification of PDA pile capacity

Provides vibration monitoring
Provides interpretation of instrumentation (e.g., settlement, inclinometers)
Provides inspector training for pile driving and drilled shaft installation
Must be licensed in the state of Utah as a PE, professional structural engineer or
professional geologist
6-5
6.3
February 2015
CONSTRUCTABILITY REVIEWS
During the preconstruction stage, construction support includes reviewing plans and
specifications to verify that the structural elements can be reasonably constructed and that there
is a feasible phasing scheme.
The Project Delivery Network details the timing for
constructability reviews. The project team identifies the need for separate constructability
reviews and the scope, and if the review is to be performed by a specialist or third party. The
Structures Construction Engineer, when assigned, and the RE perform constructability reviews
during the milestone reviews. Depending on the complexity of the project, the Structures
Design Manager can request that an independent constructability review be performed as an
intermediate design review (refer to Section 5.4.4). The design schedule is developed to reflect
the appropriate frequency and timing of all reviews.
6.4
CONSTRUCTION SUBMITTALS
The Structures Division and EOR assist the Construction Division by reviewing and responding
to structure related construction submittals. Types of construction submittals include but are not
limited to:
Working drawings
Shop drawings
Erection drawings
Shipping drawings
Temporary works drawings

Methods and procedures as defined within applicable standards (e.g., AASHTO,
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC))
Material submittals
RFIs
FDCs
Nonconformance requests
The UDOT Standard Specifications and project special provisions identify the required
construction submittals for each bid item, the requirements for the submittal content and the
schedule allowance for review and approval.
6.4.1
Working Drawings
Working drawings are drawings produced by the contractor that supplement the contract
drawings to provide information not included in the contract documents but required to fabricate,
erect, transport or temporarily support the structure or structural elements in completion of the
work. Working drawings do not supersede the contract drawings.
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February 2015
Working drawings for fabricator designed structures (e.g., MSE wall drawings, prefabricated
steel truss pedestrian superstructures, three-sided precast culvert structures) must be stored
with the project plan set and become part of the structure record.
6.4.1.1
Distribution Process for Review
Lines of communication, and the specific individuals involved in the specified role, are
established at the project preconstruction meeting. The process for review is:
Fabricators and subcontractors submit to the contractor.

The contractor submits the construction submittal according to the specification
requirements to the RE. When permitted by the contractor, the fabricator can submit the
construction submittal instead of the contractor.
The RE distributes the submittal to the EOR with a copy to the Structures Design
Manager. The Structures Design Manager assigns oversight as appropriate to either the
Structures Project Engineer or Structures Construction Engineer.
The EOR reviews and approves the submittal according to the specifications.
The EOR is responsible for ensuring that all disciplines (e.g., geotechnical, hydraulics)
and the Structures Division review the construction submittal, if applicable. For example,
a retaining wall working drawing requires a review stamp by the structural engineer and
the geotechnical engineer responsible for the design.
Upon completion of the review and concurrence on the response from the Structures
Division, the EOR returns the construction submittal to the RE and copies the:
Contractor
Fabricator
Engineer for Materials (material submittals only)
Materials Engineer for Concrete and Steel
Testing Program Coordinator (steel material submittals and steel working

drawings only)
The RE is responsible for verifying compliance with the specifications.

Depending on the outcome of the review, several iterations of the process may occur.
6.4.1.2
Review and Approval Requirements
The allowable time for review and approval of working drawings is according to the project
specifications. The EOR reviews and returns the working drawings as quickly as possible. The
EOR must complete reviews within the allowable review period.
The contractor is responsible for obtaining Railroad approval. Typically, the Railroad only
reviews working drawings that have been reviewed and approved by the Structures Division.
In general, the RE has the overall responsibility for verifying that the fabricator of structural
components is supplying the items as specified by the construction contract and initiating
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February 2015
coordination with other divisions as needed for approval. The contractor must ensure that all
structural items are fabricated or constructed to the correct dimensions and materials, and
conforms to the construction contract documents.
The EOR is responsible for:
Reviewing working drawings for general conformance with the design concept and
compliance with the contract documents including, but not limited to, reviewing:
Girder working drawings
Joint working drawings
Bearing working drawings
Precast element working drawings
Forming plans
Deck overhang forming plans

Reviewing requests for revisions and reviewing plans detailing revisions including, but
not limited to, revised:
Deck pour sequence and screed deflections
Closure pour locations

Returning the working drawings within the allotted review period
Documenting the working drawing submittal receipt, review and return
The Structures Division provides oversight on all responses during the construction stage.
Review and approval do not relieve the contractor from responsibility for errors, correctness of
details, conformance to the contract and the successful completion of the work.
6.4.1.3
Tracking and Documentation
The EOR reviews the construction submittals for compliance with the drawings and
specifications, and marks comments and discrepancies in red on the submittal/drawing. Upon
completion, the EOR stamps each drawing with the review stamp and signs or initials the
response as appropriate. See Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1 REVIEW STAMP

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February 2015
The EOR checks structural steel shop drawings in accordance with AASHTO/NSBA G.1.1
2000 Shop Detail Drawing Review/Approval Guidelines.
The EOR must track reviews by maintaining a record of shop drawing reviews. At a minimum,
include the following information in the record:
Submittal identification number

Structure number
Project name and number
Submitted by fabricator/vendor/designer
Contractor
Fabricator job number
Receipt date of submittal document
Date sent to reviewer/EOR
Name of reviewer/EOR
Date received back from reviewer/EOR
Status/action or decision of review/remarks (e.g., no exception taken, rejected, revise
and resubmit)
Date returned to designer
The Structures Division maintains an overall record of shop drawing reviews. To maintain the
record, the Structures Division must be copied on all submittals as discussed in the distribution
process for reviews.
6.4.1.4
Working Drawing Checklists
Use the structures working drawing checklists applicable to the project. The checklists are
provided as guidelines on minimum items to check. Do not include the checklists in the
returned set. See the website for checklists.
6.4.2
Miscellaneous Construction Submittals
The Structures Division and EOR support the RE with review of various other submittals and
requests, as appropriate, including:
Methods and procedures as defined within applicable standards (e.g., AASHTO, ASTM,
AISC)
Material submittals
RFIs
FDCs
Nonconformance requests
Upon completion of the review, the EOR returns the construction submittal to the RE and other
individuals as defined at the preconstruction meeting.
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6.5
February 2015
INSPECTION AND ON SITE SUPPORT
6.5.1
Meetings and Site Visits
The EOR and Structures Project Engineer, Structures Construction Engineer or designee:
Attend prebid meeting

Attend preconstruction and post-construction meetings
Support the RE as requested, such as:
Attending prepour conferences before planned major concrete pours
Attending pre-activity meetings as needed
Observing concrete placement on major pours
Accompanying the geotechnical engineer to observe foundation subgrade

preparation and foundation construction activities
Making routine field visits
Providing technical support for processing change orders and resolving claims
and disputes
Providing project specific training
Observing the placement or erection of precast concrete elements, precast

concrete girders and structural steel girders
Observing stressing and grouting operations
Notify the RE of planned visits or any issues or problems observed.
6.5.2
6.5.2.1
Project Acceptance
Substantial Completion
The EOR and Structures Project Engineer or Structures Construction Engineer are expected to
participate in partial acceptance and/or the substantial completion inspection and provide the
RE with a list of items of work that have not been completed according to the contract
requirements.
The Bridge Management Engineer can attend or assign bridge inspectors to attend the
substantial completion inspection to collect pertinent information for the inventory. Often, the
attendance provides a good opportunity to access the structure while the structure is closed to
traffic.
6.5.2.2
Final Acceptance
After physical completion, the RE provides the Bridge Database Engineer with an electronic
copy of all necessary documentation to update the structure record, including:
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Approved as builts
Approved shop drawings and submittals
Approved change orders involving structural items
6.6
DESIGN CLARIFICATIONS AND CHANGES
February 2015
Sometimes, after a project has been awarded (DBB or CMGC) or plans have been released for
construction (DB), design clarifications and/or changes are required to maintain or improve
quality, for constructability or for modifying the design to reflect unexpected or changed
conditions in the field. Whether initiated by the contractor, UDOT or the EOR, the RE is
responsible for coordinating with the Structures Division and EOR to determine if the request
materially affects the design intent. The EOR is responsible for evaluating the request to ensure
that the intent of the design is not compromised and that the EOR or contractors engineer
makes necessary plan changes. The Structures Division provides oversight on all requests and
responses. The procedures for design clarifications and changes during construction are
described in the following subsections.
6.6.1
Requests for Information
During the advertisement period, prospective bidders can seek clarification on provisions,
design details, etc., in the contract documents through RFIs. Usually, the requests are
addressed to the Project Manager who seeks input from the appropriate party for response. If
related to structural items, the requests are forwarded to the Structures Division for a response.
If changes to the contract documents are necessary, the EOR coordinates with the Project
Manager to prepare an addendum. The Project Manager submits the addendum to the
Construction Division.
The Construction Division posts the addendum to the UDOT
advertisement website and notifies prospective bidders that the addendum was posted.
During construction, RFIs can be initiated by the contractor or the RE. RFIs initiated by the
contractor must go through the RE. Suppliers and fabricators submit questions on contract
documents through the contractor. The process allows both the RE and contractor to remain
informed on contract document questions. The RE is responsible for forwarding any RFIs
related to structural items to the Structures Division and EOR. All RFIs must be reviewed and
responded to in a timely manner. All responses to RFIs must be sent to the Structures Division
for approval before being returned to the contractor. Sometimes, a RFI can result in a
construction change order, NDC or FDC.
6.6.2
Construction Change Orders
Change orders modify the contract and are required for plan or specification changes or
additions, differing site conditions or significant changes in the character of work, changes or
extensions of contract time, extra work required that is not within an original bid item and
acceptance of a value engineering change proposal (VECP). Either UDOT or the contractor
can initiate a change order, but both parties must be in agreement before the work is performed.
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February 2015
The RE is responsible for preparing, coordinating and documenting the change order. If the
change order is related to or impacts structural items, the RE is responsible for including the
Structures Division and the EOR in the development of the change order. The Structures
Division supports the RE during the change order preparation and review process to:
Determine agreement with and acceptance of the change order

Verify that the proposed change is consistent with the original design intent
Verify that the change does not adversely impact the structural elements
Calculate and verify the quantities and costs
6.6.3
Notice of Design Change and Field Design Change
Once plans and specifications have been released for construction, proposed design changes
and field design changes must go through a design review process. The following presents the
process for initiating, notifying, evaluating and responding to changes made through a NDC or
FDC. In some cases, depending on the impacts, a NDC and/or FDC can result in a construction
change order.
DB projects often require an approved project specific quality management plan defining the
processes and procedures for initiating, tracking, checking, reviewing, quality assurance,
distributing and releasing the changes.
6.6.3.1
Initiation, Evaluation and Tracking Design Change Requests
A design change can be initiated in one of the following processes:
6-12
The EOR can determine that a previously signed and stamped plan sheet or
specification requires a change to maintain the overall quality of the design. The EOR
coordinates with the Structures Design Manager and, with concurrence, initiates the
request for a design change by preparing a NDC. The NDC is a memorandum to the
Structures Design Manager and RE, which serves as notification of a revision and rerelease of impacted plan sheets and specifications. The memorandum must contain
information on the anticipated change, the affected plans and/or specifications, work that
could be delayed, completion of the revisions and when the revisions will be distributed.
Plans and specifications are revised according to Section 6.6.3.2.
The contractor or RE can request a FDC to improve constructability, to address differing
field conditions, to increase cost effectiveness or to address errors or ambiguities in the
plans. A FDC may or may not require a re-release of the plans and specifications. In
some cases, the change can be reflected on the as built plans in lieu of re-releasing.
The EOR must evaluate the request and confirm that the integrity of the original design
is maintained. All design changes to plans, sketches, memoranda, specifications,
calculations and reports are signed, stamped and dated by a PE in responsible charge
licensed in Utah and, preferably, by the EOR. Plans and specifications are revised
according to Section 6.6.3.2.
February 2015
The EOR must ensure that all disciplines (e.g., geotechnical, hydraulics) review the proposed
change, as applicable. The Structures Division provides an oversight review on all proposed
design changes.
The RE is responsible for tracking all requests for design changes.
6.6.3.2
Documentation of Design Change Revisions
Document all plan revisions due to NDCs or FDCs using the following procedure:
Place a revision number in a triangle and cloud the revision to indicate the revision to the
plan sheet.
Number the revisions consecutively starting at one for the first revision.
Cloud the revision and place the revision number in a triangle near the revision cloud.
Place the revision number in a triangle in the title block area for revisions and provide a
brief description of the revision. Start at the bottom line and work up with subsequent
revisions. When more than three revisions are required, place the revision information in
the sheet area. Remove the cloud and number in a triangle from the sheet, indicating a
previous revision, and only cloud the new revision.
If additional calculations or changes to the original calculations are required as a result of the
proposed change, development of and revisions to calculations follow the same process as
during the design stage.
All changes (e.g., drawings, calculations, documents) undergo the same QC/QA procedure as
the original. See Chapter 5.
The EOR or contractors engineer signs and stamps all design change plans, sketches,
memoranda, specifications, calculations and reports.
When design changes can be conveyed clearly by memorandum and without a re-release of
drawings, the RE verifies that the changes are incorporated into the as built drawings.
6.6.3.3
Distribution of Design Changes
Upon completion of the QC/QA procedures and concurrence from the Structures Division, the
EOR prepares a memorandum summarizing the reason for the change and the documents
impacted. The EOR sends the memorandum and revised documents to the RE and copies, at a
minimum, the following individuals:

Bridge Database Engineer
Engineer for Materials, as appropriate
Materials Engineer for Concrete and Steel, as appropriate
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February 2015
The RE distributes the revised documents and ensures that all field personnel (e.g., contractor
personnel, inspectors) are using the revised documents for construction.
6.6.4
Value Engineering Change Proposal
In accordance with the UDOT Standard Specifications, contractors can submit VECPs for
modifications to the plans and specifications that result in savings and preserve essential
functions and characteristics of the facility including but not limited to service life, economy of
operation, ease of maintenance, desired capacity and safety. The process for submitting
VECPs is detailed in the UDOT Standard Specifications. The RE obtains input from the
Structures Division for any VECPs related to structural items. In general, the EOR reviews the
proposal to determine that the proposed design is at least equal to the functionality, durability
and longevity of the design presented in the contract documents.
6.6.5
As Built Plans
In accordance with the UDOT Standard Specifications, after project completion, the contractor
provides the RE with all surveying and design data and a redlined hard copy plan set showing
as constructed features denoting changes from the original design. However, to verify accuracy
and completeness, the RE must have a systematic method for identifying, documenting and
tracking field changes to facilitate the review of the contractors submitted drawings for
acceptance. The RE submits an electronic copy of the redlined, as constructed plans (which
become the as built plans) to the Structures Division and EOR for review and concurrence that
changes, including FDCs, have been incorporated.
For final acceptance, the RE sends a PDF file or the ProjectWise link for the electronic copy of
the as builts to the Bridge Database Engineer. All as builts are copied to the structure record.
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RESERVED
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RESERVED
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
10.1
PROCESS .................................................................................................................. 10-1

10.1.1
10.1.2
10.1.3
10.1.4
10.2
STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................. 10-4

10.2.1
10.2.2
10.2.3
10.2.4
10.2.5
10.2.6
10.2.7
10.3
Cross Section .............................................................................................. 10-9

Sidewalks on Bridges .................................................................................. 10-10
Bridge Undercrossing Geometry ................................................................. 10-10
Horizontal Clearances ................................................................................. 10-10
Vertical Clearances ..................................................................................... 10-10
Skew ............................................................................................................ 10-11
Straight Girders on Horizontal Curve Alignment.......................................... 10-12
ROADWAY GEOMETRIC GUIDANCE ..................................................................... 10-12

10.5.1
10.5.2
10.5.3
10.5.4
10.5.5
10.5.6
10.6
Span Arrangement ...................................................................................... 10-6

Span Length Ranges ................................................................................... 10-6
Typical Girder Spacing and Overhang Dimensions..................................... 10-7
Seismic ........................................................................................................ 10-8
GEOMETRIC GUIDANCE ......................................................................................... 10-9

10.4.1
10.4.2
10.4.3
10.4.4
10.4.5
10.4.6
10.4.7
10.5
Structural Requirements .............................................................................. 10-4

Live Load Deflection Criteria ....................................................................... 10-4
Span to Depth Criteria ................................................................................. 10-4
Continuous vs Simple Spans....................................................................... 10-4
Composite Action ........................................................................................ 10-4
Number of Girders ....................................................................................... 10-5
Approach Slabs ........................................................................................... 10-5
STRUCTURAL GUIDANCE ...................................................................................... 10-6

10.3.1
10.3.2
10.3.3
10.3.4
10.4
Evaluate the Site ......................................................................................... 10-1

Evaluate the Project Geometry.................................................................... 10-2
Evaluate Costs ............................................................................................ 10-3
Select a Preferred Option ............................................................................ 10-3
Vertical Alignment........................................................................................ 10-12

Horizontal Alignment ................................................................................... 10-13
Superelevation Transitions .......................................................................... 10-13
Variable Width Structures ............................................................................ 10-13
Future Widening of Road Crossed .............................................................. 10-14
Future Structure Widening........................................................................... 10-14
HYDRAULIC GUIDANCE .......................................................................................... 10-14
Preliminary Design
10-i
10.6.1
10.6.2
10.6.3
10.6.4
10.6.5
February 2015
Hydraulic Design Coordination .................................................................... 10-14

Hydraulic Design Criteria ............................................................................. 10-15
Abutment Hydraulic Design Factors ............................................................ 10-15
Bent Hydraulic Design Factors .................................................................... 10-15
Foundation Hydraulic Design Factors ......................................................... 10-16
10.7
GEOTECHNICAL GUIDANCE .................................................................................. 10-16
10.8
OTHER PRELIMINARY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS............................................. 10-17

10.8.1
10.8.2
10.8.3
Right of Way ................................................................................................ 10-17

Utilities ......................................................................................................... 10-17
Railroads ..................................................................................................... 10-17
10.8.3.1
10.8.3.2
10.8.4
Aesthetics .................................................................................................... 10-18

10.8.4.1
10.8.4.2
10.8.5
10.8.6
10.9
Preliminary Design Considerations ............................................ 10-18

References ................................................................................ 10-19
Environmental.............................................................................................. 10-19
Construction and Maintenance of Traffic ..................................................... 10-19
10.8.6.1
10.8.6.2
10.8.6.3
10.8.7
Highway Bridges Over Railroads ............................................... 10-17

Railroad Bridges Over Highways ............................................... 10-18
Access and Time Restrictions.................................................... 10-19

Phased Construction ................................................................. 10-20
Falsework .................................................................................. 10-20
Maintenance and Inspection........................................................................ 10-21
SUPERSTRUCTURE SELECTION GUIDANCE ....................................................... 10-21

10.9.1
Traditional Superstructure Types ................................................................ 10-21

10.9.1.1
10.9.1.2
10.9.2
Alternative Superstructure Types ................................................................ 10-23

10.9.2.1
10.9.2.2
10.9.2.3
10.9.3
Precast Prestressed Concrete I-Girders .................................... 10-21

Composite Steel Girders ............................................................ 10-22
Composite Steel Box Girders..................................................... 10-24

Cast-in-Place or Precast Concrete Slab, Conventionally
Reinforced Concrete Slab.......................................................... 10-25
Segmental Concrete Box Girders .............................................. 10-25
Additional Superstructure Types ................................................................. 10-26
10.10 SUBSTRUCTURE AND FOUNDATION SELECTION GUIDE .................................. 10-27
10-ii
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February 2015
10.10.1 Abutments ................................................................................................... 10-27

10.10.1.1 Integral Abutments ..................................................................... 10-28
10.10.1.2 Semi-Integral Abutments ........................................................... 10-29
10.10.1.3 Seat Abutments ......................................................................... 10-30
10.10.2 Bents ........................................................................................................... 10-30
10.10.2.1
10.10.2.2
10.10.2.3
10.10.2.4
10.10.2.5
10.10.2.6
10.10.2.7
Drop Bent ................................................................................... 10-31

Internal Bent .............................................................................. 10-31
Straddle Bent ............................................................................. 10-31
Capless Bent ............................................................................. 10-32
Wall Bent ................................................................................... 10-32
Extended Pile Bents .................................................................. 10-33
Columns ..................................................................................... 10-33
10.10.3 Foundations ................................................................................................. 10-33

10.10.3.1 Piles ........................................................................................... 10-34
10.10.3.2 Drilled Shafts ............................................................................. 10-34
10.10.3.3 Spread Footings ........................................................................ 10-35
10.11 RETAINING WALLS .................................................................................................. 10-35
10.12 CULVERTS ................................................................................................................ 10-36
10.12.1 Cast-in-Place or Precast Concrete Box Culverts ......................................... 10-36
10.12.1.1 Description ................................................................................. 10-36
10.12.1.2 Advantages/Disadvantages ....................................................... 10-36
10.12.2 Cast-in-Place or Precast Three-Sided Culvert Structures ........................... 10-39
10.12.2.1 Description ................................................................................. 10-39
10.12.2.2 Advantages/Disadvantages ....................................................... 10-39
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 10.1 TYPICAL SPAN LENGTH .............................................................................. 10-7
Figure 10.2 TYPICAL GIRDER SPACINGS ...................................................................... 10-8
Figure 10.3 SKEW MEASUREMENT ................................................................................ 10-12
Figure 10.4 RETAINING WALLS CONSTRUCTED FROM THE TOP DOWN ................. 10-37
Figure 10.5 RETAINING WALLS CONSTRUCTED FROM THE BOTTOM UP ................ 10-38
Preliminary Design
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February 2015
Preliminary Design
February 2015
Chapter 10
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
The LRFD Specifications do not specifically address preliminary design considerations. The
LRFD Specifications do address the topics in Section 10.2 of this chapter, and Section 2 of the
LRFD Specifications discusses many of the nonstructural topics (e.g., geometrics, hydraulics)
that are involved in the preliminary design process.
Preliminary design requires close coordination with other design disciplines. Adjustments in
alignment or geometry can result in simplified construction, improved durability, construction
time savings and cost savings. The preliminary design stage allows examination of various
scenarios to identify the most effective project solution.
The preliminary design stage requires a project wide approach. Minimizing individual element
costs does not always result in minimizing project costs. For example, the minimum cost of
pavement for a road between two points is a straight line with minimal profile change. The
straight line, minimal profile change option can add significant right of way (ROW) and structure
costs. In the preliminary design stage, structural engineers, roadway designers, geotechnical
engineers and hydraulics engineers must coordinate and balance cost and time elements to
determine the optimum project wide approach.
Although minor adjustments can be made during final design, requests for adjustments often
encounter resistance because late changes result in increased design costs and delayed
advertising. The project team must, as practical, identify potential problems early in the design
process.
10.1
PROCESS
The following presents an overview of the process for preliminary design. The process is
presented as a list of tasks and questions for team members during preliminary design. The
process applies to all structure types, bridges, culverts, walls, sign structures, rehabilitations or
other miscellaneous structures, although some items are linked to specific structure types. Also
note that, although the process is presented as a linear list, preliminary design is not linear. The
process is iterative, requiring significant coordination and collaboration.
10.1.1
Evaluate the Site

Review the preliminary scope and estimate.
Visit the site.
Identify obstacles or constraints:
o
Are there utility conflicts?
o
Are there future widening plans?
o
Is there evidence of scour or bank erosion?
Preliminary Design
10-1
10.1.2
10-2
February 2015
o
Is settlement a constraint?
o
Will there be significant construction time limitations?
o
What are the environmental limitations?
Identify opportunities for improvement:
o
Would realignment benefit the project?
o
Does the location lend itself to an enhanced aesthetic concept or plan?
o
Does the location lend itself to specific ABC approaches?
o
Can the structure be eliminated?
o
Can curves and other complex geometry be located so that the elements are
outside of the bridge limits (including approach slabs)?
Evaluate the rehabilitation scope:
o
Does the scope address structure deficiencies?
o
Does the scope meet the budget limitations?
o
Can significant performance improvements be made with minor increases in
project scope or cost?
Evaluate the Project Geometry

Coordinate with the roadway designer and geotechnical and hydraulics engineers:
o
Identify and understand roadway constraints.
o
Identify and understand geotechnical constraints.
o
Identify and understand hydraulic constraints.
Review the concept geometry:
o
Does the concept geometry reflect the project goals?
o
Does the concept geometry avoid identified obstacles or constraints?
o
Would an alternative geometry benefit the project?
o
Does the geometry limit structure types?
o
Is the horizontal curvature excessive?
o
Is the vertical curvature excessive?
o
Have the bridge deck elevation contours been evaluated to prevent low spots?
o
Is the concept compatible with roadway constraints?
o
Is the concept compatible with geotechnical constraints?
o
Is the concept compatible with hydraulic constraints?
o
Is the concept compatible with environmental constraints?
o
Are curves and other complex geometry located outside the bridge limits
(including approach slabs)?
o
Are superelevation transitions within the bridge limits such that the entire cross
section rotates as a unit? If not, can a longitudinal construction joint be provided
at the point of rotation?
Identify potential structure types and layouts:
o
Minimize the bridge skew to provide simpler and more efficient design and
construction.
o
Avoid skewed supports on horizontally curved bridges. Design horizontally
curved bridges with radial supports.
o
Evaluate multispan bridges with steep profile grades that cross multiple
alignments to balance substructure stiffness.
Preliminary Design
10.1.3
10.1.4
February 2015
Coordinate with the roadway designer on the preliminary structure type options
and geometry:
+
Bridge requirements structure depths, span lengths, section width
+
Culvert requirements types, lengths, widths, cover
+
Wall requirements potential types
+
Sign structures potential types
Coordinate with the geotechnical engineer on preliminary structure type options
and foundation options:
+
Bridge requirements geometry, preliminary foundation reactions
+
Culvert requirements types, lengths, widths, cover
+
Wall requirements potential types and location
+
Sign structure requirements potential types and location
Coordinate with the hydraulics engineer on preliminary structure type options and
hydraulic requirements:
+
Bridge requirements span arrangements, preliminary substructure
widths, foundation element types, elevations
Review the environmental constraints.
Evaluate Costs
Perform a system wide cost analysis:
o
Are quantity estimates reasonable?
o
Are item prices reasonable?
o
Do prices reflect trends in construction costs?
o
Are major items identified?
o
Are contingencies included?
Identify high cost items:
o
Can adjustments be made to reduce or eliminate high cost items?
o
What factors drive the selection of the high cost item?
o
Can the factors that dictate the high cost items be altered?
Re-evaluate options with an emphasis on reducing high cost items using a project wide
approach.
Select a Preferred Option

Justify the selection.
Document the selection and provide deliverables as defined in the Project Delivery
Network.
Re-evaluate the selection as project variables change.
Re-evaluate the geometry:
o
Verify that the alignment profiles provide adequate vertical clearance and
structure depth for the selected bridge type.
o
Evaluate bridge deck elevation contours to prevent low spots.
Preliminary Design
10-3
February 2015
The following sections elaborate on various design considerations that impact preliminary
design.
10.2
10.2.1
STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS
Structural Requirements
Meet the LRFD Specifications requirements except as modified by the SDDM. Chapters 11
through 22 discuss specific elements and element requirements. The following sections provide
generic requirements not specifically addressed in other SDDM chapters that impact preliminary
and final design.
10.2.2
Live Load Deflection Criteria
Reference:
LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2
Limit the live load deflections to the span length based criteria in LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2.
10.2.3
Span to Depth Criteria
Reference:
The LRFD Specifications provide optional depth to span ratios for typical bridge types. The
depth to span ratios provide good guidance for efficient girder and/or structure design. Strict
conformance to the depth to span ratios is not necessary. Use of a structure depth less than
required in LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.3 is permitted where overall project costs are reduced through
the use of a shallower girder.
10.2.4
Continuous vs Simple Spans
Use continuous structures. Add expansion joints between continuous frames when a single
continuous frame results in integral abutment movements exceeding the limits defined in
Section 18.1.3.1. Simple span girder systems made continuous for live loads are considered
continuous structures.
Continuous structures provide superior structural performance when compared to bridges with
simple spans and joints.
It is appropriate to use simple spans when widening existing bridges consisting of simple spans.
10.2.5
Composite Action
Reference:
10-4
LRFD Articles 4.5.2.2 and 9.4.1

Preliminary Design
February 2015
Composite action enhances the stiffness and economy of girder bridges by using the bridge
deck as an integral part of the girder cross section. Make all bridge decks and girders fully
composite throughout the entire length of the bridge, in both the positive and negative moment
regions. Design the shear connectors or other connections between decks and girders to
develop full composite action. Shear connectors are not required on splice plates.
Base the stiffness characteristics of composite girders on full participation of the effective width
of the concrete deck in the positive moment regions. Consider composite concrete bridge
decks uncracked throughout the span for the determination of moments and shears for service
and strength limit states in structural analysis.
Do not use noncomposite bridge decks.
10.2.6
Number of Girders
Reference:
LRFD Article 1.3.4
Typical highway bridges require a minimum of four girders per span to provide redundancy.
Exceptions are appropriate for narrow bridges or single lane bridges where a minimum of three
girders can be used. Do not use two girder systems on highway bridges.
Pedestrian bridges are typically narrow structures where two girder systems or single girder
systems are appropriate.
Design and fabricate two girder systems with fracture critical provisions. Apply the r factor
defined in Chapter 11 to both two and three girder systems. The maximum girder spacing for a
three girder system is 13-0.
The cost of a girder bridge increases with the number of girders in the cross section.
Conversely, structure redundancy increases with the number of girders. The basic objective is
to identify a girder spacing and corresponding number of girders that optimizes the
superstructure design by providing sufficient redundancy with minimal cost.
10.2.7
Approach Slabs
Provide approach slabs that are at least 25-ft long (measured along the control line of the
bridge), are the same width as the bridge deck and extend over the abutment wingwalls. Make
allowance for settlement between the approach slab and wingwall by providing a minimum 5-in.
gap between the top of the wingwall and the approach slab. Use the approach slab design
defined in the WS sheets.
Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager when the use of the standard 25-ft approach
slabs present additional project complications. Obtain approval from the Structures Design
Manager when 25-ft approach slabs are not used.
Preliminary Design
10-5
10.3
10.3.1
February 2015
STRUCTURAL GUIDANCE
Span Arrangement
The required length of a bridge is typically easy to determine. Determining the optimum number
of spans is more difficult, which depends on:
Roadway profile
Vertical clearance
Construction requirements
Environmental factors
Allowable depth of structure
Allowable locations of bents
Foundation conditions
Waterway opening requirements
Safety of underpassing traffic
Flood debris considerations
Consider single span bridges for all locations. Single span bridges are typically the most cost
effective structures for structural steel girder spans up to 225 ft and for prestressed concrete
girder spans up to 150 ft. Limitations on permissible structure depth can make single span
bridges impractical.
Single span bridges typically require the least maintenance and usually perform better in
extreme events. Use caution when selecting single span bridges on high skews and/or curved
alignments because typical cost estimates, quantity estimates and expected performance is not
always applicable.
10.3.2
Span Length Ranges
Figure 10.1 presents the typical span length ranges for the traditional and alternative
superstructure types. The upper limit of the span ranges suggests a boundary above which
other superstructure types or span arrangements are usually more cost effective. The lower
limit of the range suggests a boundary below which other superstructure types are usually more
cost effective. The limits represent typical structures and can be exceeded for atypical locations
and project requirements. Use caution when exceeding the limits.
10-6
Preliminary Design
February 2015
Typical Span Length Ranges
Traditional
Superstructures
Structure Type
Precast, prestressed concrete I-girders
Composite steel
Plate I-girders
Alternative
Superstructures
Continuous
Spans
50 ft to 150 ft
50 ft to 160 ft
40 ft to 225 ft
90 ft to 250 ft
Rolled beams
Composite steel box girders
Buried
Structures
Simple Spans
30 ft to 90 ft
120 ft to 250 ft
120 ft to 400 ft
CIP or precast, conventionally reinforced

concrete slab
20 ft to 40 ft
CIP or precast, post-tensioned concrete slab
30 ft to 65 ft
Segmental concrete box

girders
Span by span
100 ft to 150 ft
Balanced
cantilever
100 ft to 400 ft
Box culverts, precast or CIP

Three-sided culvert or precast arch
4 ft to 20 ft per cell
8 ft to 80 ft
Figure 10.1 TYPICAL SPAN LENGTH
10.3.3
Typical Girder Spacing and Overhang Dimensions
Figure 10.2 presents the typical girder spacings for the traditional and alternative superstructure
types. Generally, wider girder spacing results in a lower cost superstructure. However, wider
girder spacings reduce redundancy and require thicker decks, deeper girders, larger cross
frames and higher concrete strengths for concrete girders.
Proportion the overhang to provide a minimum of 1 ft from the edge of flange to the edge of
deck. The overhang width for a balanced design in a girder bridge is approximately 30% of the
girder spacing. Typical overhang widths are less than 40% of the girder spacing for I-girders
and 50% for box girders. The maximum overhang width is 5.5 ft.
Preliminary Design
10-7
February 2015
Typical
Girder Spacing
Alternative
Superstructures
Traditional
Superstructures
Structure Type
Precast, prestressed concrete I-girders
Composite steel
6 ft to 12 ft
Plate I-girders
8 ft to 14 ft
Rolled beams
6 ft to 12 ft
Composite steel box girders
Web to web spacing:

8 ft to 12 ft
CIP or precast, conventionally reinforced

concrete slab
N/A
CIP or precast, post-tensioned concrete slab
N/A
Segmental concrete box girders
N/A
Figure 10.2 TYPICAL GIRDER SPACINGS
10.3.4
Seismic
Chapter 13 discusses detailed seismic considerations.

Ideally, bridges have a regular configuration as defined in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for
LRFD Seismic Design, which allows predictable seismic behavior and promotes plastic hinging
in readily identifiable and repairable components. Selecting a structural form based solely on
gravity type loading considerations and then adding seismic resistive elements and details is
unlikely to provide the best solution. In general, consider the following when selecting the
structure type:
1.
Alignment. Curved bridges can lead to unpredictable seismic response.
2.
Substructure Skew. Skewed supports can lead to unpredictable seismic response and
cause rotational response with increased displacements.
3.
Superstructure Weight. Increased superstructure weight increases seismic demands.
4.
Joints. Expansion joints are weak links in the seismic response system.
5.
Foundations. Liquefaction affects both shallow and deep foundations.
6.
Substructure Stiffness. The substructure configuration must avoid large differences in

the stiffness of the substructure units. Consider designing the structure to uniformly
distribute seismic forces to substructure units by varying the column cross section
between bents or strategically locating pinned versus fixed column ends.
10-8
Preliminary Design
February 2015
7.
Plastic Hinges. Plastic hinges are an effective method of damping and dissipating the
seismic energy input to the structure. Locate plastic hinges where they are accessible
for inspection and repair after an earthquake. Force plastic hinges to develop in the
columns rather than the bent cap, superstructure or foundation elements.
10.4
GEOMETRIC GUIDANCE
Good bridge geometric design is intrinsic to the development of aesthetic, economic, safe, low
maintenance and efficient structures. The alignment geometry defines the bridge geometry and
appearance. No amount of aesthetic treatment can compensate for undesirable bridge
geometry.
Coordinate with the roadway designer to obtain the preliminary roadway geometry. Evaluate
the initial geometry and work with the roadway designer to mitigate impacts of roadway design
decisions on the design of the structure. In some cases, the optimum roadway alignment
significantly increases the cost of the structure. Although bridges can accommodate almost any
given geometry, coordination between the roadway designer and structural engineer can result
in a lower overall project cost by using an alignment that balances the structure cost with the
additional roadway costs.
The roadway designer determines the roadway classification based upon AASHTO and UDOT
standards. The DD series in the UDOT Standard Drawings specify bridge geometry
requirements for the cross sections of the bridge, roadway and feature(s) crossed.
Use the requirements on the drawings when laying out bridges. Verify the correctness and
consistency of the roadway information received and resolve any conflicts with the standards.
Roadway design factors that impact bridge location and structure type selection include:
10.4.1
Horizontal alignment (e.g., tangent, curve, superelevation, skew)

Vertical clearances and alignment (e.g., longitudinal gradient, vertical curves)
Traffic volumes
Roadway and shoulder widths
Presence of medians and sidewalks
Clear zones through underpasses
Cross Section
The roadway classification and traffic volumes determine the minimum number of lanes and
minimum shoulder widths of the bridge and the road crossed.
Design the bridge width to comply with the UDOT Standard Drawings. Add 2 ft to the roadway
shoulder width for shy distance as defined in the UDOT Standard Drawings.
Preliminary Design
10-9
February 2015
Where a bridge includes a median parapet, provide a longitudinal joint in the center of the
median parapet and separate the cross section into two separate bridges. The typical space
between median barriers is 2 in.
Use cross slopes on bridges in compliance with the UDOT Standard Drawings. The roadway
designer provides the superelevation data to the structural engineer.
10.4.2
Sidewalks on Bridges
Refer to the DD series in the UDOT Standard Drawings for geometric and barrier requirements.
Section 16.6.1 discusses the use of bridge parapets in combination with a sidewalk.
10.4.3
Bridge Undercrossing Geometry
Design the bridge undercrossing geometry in accordance with the UDOT Standard Drawings.
In general, carry the approaching roadway cross section, including any auxiliary lanes, bicycle
lanes, sidewalks, etc., through the underpass. Evaluate spanning the clear zone to eliminate
barriers.
In addition, consider the potential for future development or traffic increases in the vicinity of the
underpass that could significantly increase traffic or pedestrian volumes. If appropriate, an
allowance for future widening can be provided to allow for sufficient lateral clearance for
additional lanes. The need for accommodating future travel lanes is made on a case by case
basis.
10.4.4
Horizontal Clearances
Provide horizontal clearances under bridges in accordance with the DD series in the UDOT
Standard Drawings. Bridge underpass geometries must balance safety requirements with
costs.
Eliminate intermediate supports from within the roadside clear zone where possible. When
intermediate supports cannot be eliminated from the clear zone, provide a roadside barrier to
protect the support in its entirety.
10.4.5
Vertical Clearances
Provide the following minimum vertical clearances:
10-10
16-6 for all highway grade separations; do not exceed a 17-0 minimum vertical
clearance when the minimum vertical clearance over the highway is the controlling
profile factor
23-4 for bridges over railroads; do not exceed a 24-0 minimum vertical clearance
when the minimum vertical clearance over the railroad is the controlling profile factor
Preliminary Design
February 2015
17-6 for stand alone pedestrian overpass structures crossing highways

10-0 for structures over a walkway, sidewalk or trail
17-6 for overhead sign structures; measure the clearance from the highest elevation of
the roadway section to the lowest point on the sign panel (or to the support if within the
required clearance envelope)
18-0 for overhead variable message signs; measure the clearance from the highest
elevation of the roadway section to the lowest point on the sign panel (or to the support if
within the required clearance envelope)
Add an additional 1 ft to the minimum vertical clearance of all highway and railroad grade
separations for nonredundant structural elements such as post-tensioned straddle bent caps.
When calculating the minimum vertical clearance for bridges with prestressed concrete girders,
consider the bottom of the girder as a straight line between supports, because the girder is cast
as a straight line. Some excess camber can remain in the girder, but too many variables exist
to accurately predict girder camber during the design stage. Evaluate the potential for long term
sag.
If the structure is expected to settle after initial construction, adjust the vertical clearance to
allow for settlement. Show the anticipated settlement on the plans.
Where girders are haunched over the median strip and the median can accommodate additional
traffic lanes, maintain 16-6 minimum vertical clearance between the girder haunch and the
future lanes. In computing the clearance, assume that the superelevation of the road is
continued through each of the future lanes provided through the adjacent shoulders. Also
assume that shoulder widths remain unchanged for future construction.
10.4.6
Skew
The maximum permitted skew is 60. Skews over 50 require prior approval from the Structures
Design Manager. Avoid skews over 30 where feasible. See Figure 10.3 for skew
measurement.
Most bridges use skewed supports. Skews of less than approximately 30 cause few problems
for most bridge types. Structures with skews more than 30 are more difficult and expensive to
construct. Construction and maintenance problems are common on bridges skewed over 45.
Bridges with skews over 30 can also have long term functionality problems (e.g., uplifting of
girders in the acute corners, bridge bearings translating sideways).
Evaluate the impacts of minimizing the skew by extending the span. The impacts of skew on
structural design are discussed in the respective locations throughout the SDDM. In general,
skew angles of more than 30 affect the design of structural elements. Request that the
roadway designer examine the roadway realignment to reduce the skew on skewed structures
of more than 30.
See Sections 12.5.4 and 12.5.5 for guidance on acceptable methods of analysis for skewed
bridges.
Preliminary Design
10-11
February 2015
Figure 10.3 SKEW MEASUREMENT
10.4.7
Straight Girders on Horizontal Curve Alignment
Use the following criteria to determine when straight girders can be used on a bridge with a
horizontally curved alignment:
For curve offsets (between supports) equal to 12 in. or less use straight girders and
widen the bridge to eliminate a curved edge of deck.
For curve offsets (between supports) greater than 12 in. and equal to or less than 24 in.
use straight girders and curved edges of deck. Consider curved steel plate girders.
For curve offsets (between supports) greater than 24 in. use curved girders and
curved edges of deck.
In all cases, comply with minimum and maximum deck overhang requirements. Do not use a
distance between the edge of deck and the girder top flange less than 1 ft.
10.5
10.5.1
ROADWAY GEOMETRIC GUIDANCE

Vertical Alignment
Vertical curvature on bridges can cause excessive haunch depths on precast, prestressed
concrete I-girders, which can preclude the use of precast, prestressed concrete I-girders. If
necessary, work with the roadway designer to balance the costs of decreasing the rate of the
vertical curve to allow the use of precast, prestressed concrete I-girders.
Steel girders and CIP structures are fabricated to match the vertical curve, which eliminates
large haunches.
10-12
Preliminary Design
10.5.2
February 2015
Horizontal Alignment
Many bridges are constructed on horizontal curves. Horizontal curves complicate the design,
geometry and construction of bridges and reduces the number of bridge types that are
appropriate for the site. Bridges with a tight radius curve are difficult/expensive to construct and
usually require additional maintenance. Bridges on larger radius curves often require lengthy
spans to clear the undercrossing feature. Coordinate with the roadway designer when
adjustments to the roadway curvature offer significant savings. In general, structural steel and
CIP concrete are best suited for horizontally curved bridges.
See Sections 12.5.3 and 12.5.5 for guidance on acceptable methods of analysis for bridges on
curved alignments.
10.5.3
Superelevation Transitions
Superelevation transitions do not create additional structural analysis; however, the geometry
becomes more difficult to construct. Most bridges can be constructed with the transitions on a
bridge if the transition is constant over the entire length of the bridge. Avoid superelevation
transitions on only one side of a crown section.
Verify the required superelevation transition length with the roadway designer. Where practical,
reduce or relocate the superelevation transition length to eliminate the transition over the bridge.
Alternatively, suspend the transition on the bridge and resume the transition on the other side of
the bridge, where practical.
10.5.4
Variable Width Structures
Most bridges are a constant width. However, ramps and roadway approaches sometimes
extend onto or through a bridge. The variable width can create complex detailing and design
challenges. The transitions in bridge width can be either linear or curved. Detailing and design
can become very complex when the bridge is on a horizontal curve with a linear or curved width
transition.
Evaluate eliminating the variable width by extending the required extra width across the
structure. The reduction in design and construction costs often offsets the additional cost of the
wider bridge deck. If the bridge is widened to accommodate the variable width, coordinate with
the roadway designer to align barriers, roadway striping, etc., and verify that adequate ROW is
available. Verify the required taper length with the roadway designer. Occasionally, the ramp
geometry can be modified to eliminate the need for extra bridge width.
For bridges with tapers, begin and end tapers at a support (bent or abutment), or continue the
taper across the entire length of the bridge.
Preliminary Design
10-13
10.5.5
February 2015
Future Widening of Road Crossed
Locate abutments based on the requirements of the road beneath the bridge. The roadway
width is typically based on 20 year traffic projections. However, the LRFD Specifications require
a 75 year design life for bridges. Verify with the project design criteria if appropriate to consider
potential future widening projects when laying out the structure.
Evaluate the use of abutments on fill slopes to eliminate retaining walls and to accommodate
future widenings via fill slope removal combined with soil nail walls.
10.5.6
Future Structure Widening
Consider the possibility of future structure widening. Single web girder (steel or concrete)
bridges are relatively easy to widen. Avoid single cell box girders or widely spaced box girders
where single lane or smaller widenings are likely.
10.6
HYDRAULIC GUIDANCE
Design bridges crossing watercourses to reduce the effects of scour and channel instability over
the life of the structure. Scour is a function of watercourse characteristics and bridge
characteristics. Primary watercourse characteristics include stream flow, stream velocity and
stream bed material. Primary bridge characteristics include span lengths, bent sizes, number of
columns, column shape, support skew and vertical geometry. Channel instability can result in
future impacts to roadways and bridges if not considered in design. Document potential impacts
due to scour and channel instability in the Structure TSR; also include proposed measures to
reduce scour and channel instability.
10.6.1
Hydraulic Design Coordination
Coordinate with the hydraulics engineer and provide the preliminary bridge opening geometry,
sizes and locations of supports. The hydraulics engineer is responsible for conducting the
hydraulic analysis and preparing the Hydraulics Report. The process can be iterative because
the most cost effective bridge type and span lengths may not be compatible with the hydraulic
requirements.
The hydraulics engineer provides the necessary hydraulic information for inclusion on the
situation and layout sheets, including:
10-14
Water surface elevations

Recommended low chord elevation
Recommended bridge waterway opening dimensions, skew angle and bottom of channel
elevation
Scour depth
Preliminary Design
10.6.2
February 2015
Flow volumes and velocities

Any necessary bridge scour and channel protection measures
Hydraulic Design Criteria
The hydraulic criteria for the design of bridge waterway openings is provided below:
1.
Design Flood Frequency. The minimum design event is based on the roadway
classification and ranges from the 25 year event to the 50 year event. Where the local
community has adopted FEMA requirements, the 100 year event must be used.
2.
Maximum Allowable Backwater. The hydraulics engineer determines the allowable

backwater to minimize flooding of adjacent properties. On FEMA delineated floodways,
no backwater can be introduced by the structure in the 100 year design event. On
FEMA delineated floodplains, 1 ft of maximum backwater can be introduced by the
structure in the 100 year design event. For all sites, the maximum allowable backwater
is limited to an amount that will not result in unreasonable damage to upstream property
or to the highway.
3.
Freeboard. The amount of freeboard should be based on the ability of the watercourse
to convey ice and debris and provide the level of protection desired by the Department.
For navigable waters, the vertical clearance is typically based on normally expected
flows during the navigation season and applicable federal requirements. Provide a
minimum freeboard of 2 ft from the low chord of the bridge to the water surface based on
the design event.
4.
Scour. Design bridge foundations to withstand the worst case scour condition up to the
100 year flood event, and provide a minimum factor of safety of one against failure due
to the worst case scour condition up to the 500 year flood event.
10.6.3
Abutment Hydraulic Design Factors
The hydraulic design factors for abutments include orientation and protection from scour. The
hydraulics engineer identifies protective measures to minimize potential scour.
Where practical, locate bridge abutments beyond the water surface elevation for the design
flood so that the bridge does not affect the backwater elevation. When the abutments are
located in the design flood zone, consider locating abutments outside the ordinary high water
elevation to minimize construction cost and risk associated with construction in the waterway.
10.6.4
Bent Hydraulic Design Factors
Design bent shapes, spacing and orientation to minimize flow disruption and local scour. Align
bents with the flow direction at flood stage and minimize the number of columns to minimize the
opportunity for debris to be caught and the possibility of debris dams forming at the bridge
causing an increase in backwater and scour.
Preliminary Design
10-15
February 2015
Locating bents in waterways is an interactive process between the structural engineer,

geotechnical engineer and hydraulics engineer. Initially, the hydraulics engineer determines the
required channel geometry to meet the hydraulic requirements. The structural engineer
coordinates with the hydraulics engineer and estimates the number and length of spans, types
of bents and low chord elevation. The hydraulics engineer evaluates the proposed bridge
geometry to determine if the structure meets or exceeds the hydraulic requirements. Next, the
structural engineer and geotechnical engineer evaluate potential foundation designs for the bent
and provide preliminary design information to the hydraulics engineer for scour analysis. The
structural engineer evaluates the impacts of scour and reduces the number of bents in the scour
zone if appropriate.
Bents in water are expensive, difficult to construct, reduce the hydraulic opening and increase
the contractor risk. Balance the cost of longer spans, deeper structures and increased
superstructure costs with reductions in the number of bents and the number of columns per
bent.
10.6.5
Foundation Hydraulic Design Factors
Stream and river crossings require deep foundations on all foundation elements unless the
foundations are socketed into stable rock below the scour elevation.
The hydraulics engineer, geotechnical engineer and structural engineer evaluate the potential
scour and the possibility of channel migration in designing foundations for bridges. The history
of a watercourse and channel migration can help the designer make decisions on bridge type,
bridge geometry and foundation type. Coordinate with the geotechnical engineer to determine
foundation type and depth based on estimates of potential scour. The structural engineer must
consider the effects of scour on the axial capacity and lateral stability of piles or drill shafts.
10.7
GEOTECHNICAL GUIDANCE
Coordination between the structural engineer and geotechnical engineer for foundation type
selection and design is performed in two stages. During preliminary design, the structural
engineer provides the geotechnical engineer with a structure layout and preliminary foundation
vertical loads. The geotechnical engineer performs the drilling, sampling and testing and
provides the preliminary foundation recommendations; i.e., either spread footings or deep
foundations (with recommended pile type or shaft size).
The preliminary foundation
recommendations are documented in the Structures Foundation Type Memo. During final
design, the loads are refined, foundation element capacities are refined and extreme event
performance is evaluated.
The geotechnical engineer is also responsible for evaluating system global slope stability.
For waterway crossings, the design of bridge foundations involves an interdisciplinary team of
hydraulic, geotechnical and structural engineers to provide a design that withstands the effects
of estimated total scour.
10-16
Preliminary Design
February 2015
Section 17.1 further discusses the coordination among the hydraulics, geotechnical and
structural engineers for foundation selection and design.
10.8
OTHER PRELIMINARY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
10.8.1
Right of Way
Evaluate the impacts of structure types and wall requirements with respect to ROW
requirements. Coordinate with the roadway designer to determine the impacts of increased
structure depths on fill slope limits and ROW acquisition versus wall costs or increased span
lengths to determine the minimum project costs or impacts.
10.8.2
Utilities
Work with the project utility coordinator early in project development to identify and mitigate
utility impacts. The structure design must be consistent with UDOT utility accommodation
policies. Section 2.8 discusses the policy for utility attachments to bridges. The UDOT Utility
Coordination Manual of Instruction also discusses requirements.
10.8.3
Railroads
Work with the project railroad coordinator early in project development to identify impacts and
determine Railroad requirements.
Discuss the structure type, track configuration and
clearances with the Railroad for highway/railroad grade separations. Also, see the UDOT
Railroad Coordination Manual of Instruction for more detail on projects with highway bridges
over railroads and the interaction with the Project Delivery Network. Refer to the WS sheets for
the required railroad sheet for bridges crossing railroads. See Section 2.19 for more discussion.
10.8.3.1
Highway Bridges Over Railroads
Placement of any substructure elements in the Railroad ROW requires approval from the
Railroad. For bridge replacements, the Railroad often requires removal of existing bents from
the ROW.
Design highway bridges constructed over railroads to be consistent with the requirements from
a variety of sources:
1.
FHWA. The Code of Federal Regulations prescribe the FHWA policies, procedures and
design criteria for preparing federal aid projects involving railroad facilities.
2.
AREMA. AREMA provides recommended engineering practices for railroad design and
construction throughout the United States. The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
documents the practices, which contains the AREMA requirements for the geometric
design of railroad tracks passing beneath a highway bridge. The AREMA Manual has
Preliminary Design
10-17
February 2015
approximately the same status to railroad engineers as the LRFD Specifications has to
highway bridge engineers.
3.
LRFD Specifications. LRFD Article 3.6.5.1 presents criteria for the design of bridge
abutments and bents over highways or railroads.
4.
Union Pacific Railroad and Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railroad. Use the
UPRR/BNFS Guidelines for Railroad Grade Separation Projects for the design of
highway bridges over railroads. Generally, UPRR requires that railroad tracks and
maintenance roads be clear spanned.
5.
Utah Transit Authority. The UDOT Railroad Coordination Manual of Instruction provides
policies and practices for highway bridges over UTA railroad facilities.
10.8.3.2
Railroad Bridges Over Highways
Occasionally, UDOT is responsible for the structural design of railroad bridges. Use the
specifications of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering; however, for seismic
requirements, see Chapter 13 of the SDDM.
Provide reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature as specified in LRFD Article 5.10.8.
10.8.4
Aesthetics
Reference:
LRFD Article 2.5.5
See UDOT Policy 08C-03 Project Aesthetics and Landscaping Plan Development and Review
for policies and procedures on aesthetics. Refer to the UDOT Aesthetics Guidelines for
additional guidance.
Projects involving structures are subject to an aesthetics review by the Aesthetics Committee.
Coordinate with the Region Landscape Architect to determine the appropriate aesthetics
requirements.
Also, see Section 2.2.4.
10.8.4.1
Preliminary Design Considerations
Aesthetic design is an integral element of all bridge designs. Bridge aesthetics is inherent in the
structure type, size and shape. The public expects transportation facilities that are economical,
safe and durable, but that also have an attractive appearance. Aesthetic design cannot be an
afterthought; aesthetics is not ornamentation. Aesthetic decisions during preliminary design
cannot easily be changed later in project development because of schedule and budget
requirements.
10-18
Preliminary Design
February 2015
All bridges have an aesthetic impact. A bridge has a strong visual impact on any landscape and
can become a central element in a community, even if the bridge is a simple crossing. Ensure
that even the most basic structure complements, rather than detracts, from the surroundings.
Once constructed, a bridge remains in place for 75 years or longer; all who view the bridge
observe the results of the engineers design efforts.
The bridge must be consistent with other bridges in the vicinity. When designing a new bridge,
consistency of bridge type and detail with existing bridge(s) is critical.
With proper attention to bridge aesthetics in preliminary design, an aesthetically pleasing bridge
need not cost more than an unattractive bridge. Bridges that are well proportioned structurally
using the least material possible are generally visually attractive.
10.8.4.2
References
Refer to the following documents for guidance and explanation of aesthetic principles:
Frederick Gottemoeller, Bridgescape: The Art of Designing Bridges, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 2004
NRC, Bridge Aesthetics Around the World, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, Washington, DC, 1991
Maryland DOT, Aesthetic Bridges Users Guide, 2005
Minnesota DOT, Aesthetic Guidelines for Bridge Design, 1995
TRB Bridge Aesthetics Sourcebook, March 2009
UDOT Aesthetics Guidelines, current version
10.8.5
Environmental
Ensure that the proposed structure type complies with and is compatible with commitments and
requirements defined in the project environmental documents.
10.8.6
Construction and Maintenance of Traffic
Indicate a sequence of construction unless a single method of construction is obvious.

Consider the impacts of construction requirements for the structure type selected. Confined job
sites can limit construction options and make the historical low cost option less viable.
10.8.6.1
Access and Time Restrictions
Bridges over waterways typically have restrictions associated with construction, which can
impact structure type selection. Regulations administered by various agencies can restrict the
time period that the contractor is allowed to work within the waterway. Construction time
limitations reduce the relative cost of longer spans and fewer bents compared to shorter spans
with more bents.
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February 2015
Bridges with many bents can be cost effective when constructed sequentially with a single crew
and reusing forms. Accelerated schedules often preclude the use of sequential construction
and eliminate the associated cost savings.
10.8.6.2
Phased Construction
Project considerations can require phased construction to maintain traffic during construction.
Evaluate the impacts of phasing requirements in preliminary design. The arrangement and
sequencing of each phase of construction is unique to each project. Consider the requirements
for adequate construction clearances and the requirements of the traveling public when
determining the phasing requirements. Phased construction can increase the required number
of girders and increase the required number of bent columns.
10.8.6.3
Falsework
Temporary falsework can be an expensive construction item. Precast elements can eliminate
shoring costs. Consider precast elements when significant falsework is required.
The cost of the falsework can become prohibitive for elements over a waterway and/or with a
high finished elevation. Consider alternative structural systems and construction methods.
Falsework in the clear zone must be protected by barriers.
Coordinate with the Railroad for falsework lateral and vertical clearances and protection
requirements for bridges over railroads.
Consider the following when using a structure type requiring falsework:
1.
Environmental. Some sites can be environmentally sensitive, and the use of falsework
could be prohibited.
2.
Hydraulics. For falsework over a waterway, coordinate with the hydraulics engineer to
determine minimum falsework opening dimensions.
3.
Traffic Impacts. Constructing falsework over traffic poses several risks. Installing and
removing falsework requires extended lane closures or expensive traffic cross overs.
Vehicular impacts to falsework can pose a hazard to the traveling public and
construction workers.
4.
Geotechnical. Settlement of falsework is a potential consideration. Coordinate with the

geotechnical engineer to determine if falsework on simple, low cost footings is viable or if
higher cost deep foundation elements are required to support the falsework.
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Preliminary Design
10.8.7
February 2015
Maintenance and Inspection
The structure type selection impacts maintenance costs. Where available, choose low
maintenance elements. Evaluate and document the following maintenance considerations as
appropriate:
1.
Deck Expansion Joints. Open or inadequately sealed deck expansion joints lead to
deterioration of structural elements by permitting the flow of waterborne deicing agents
through the joints. Use jointless bridges with integral abutments, continuous decks and
drainage control to eliminate deterioration associated with leaking joints, when possible.
2.
Paint. Potential environmental issues associated with removing paint from steel
structures makes the use of unpainted weathering steel preferable to painted steel from
a maintenance perspective. However, weathering steel is not appropriate for all
locations. Refer to Section 15.2.1 for weathering steel usage limitations.
3.
Bearings. Use low maintenance bearings when viable.

additional information.
4.
Bridge Inspection. See Section 2.11.
10.9
SUPERSTRUCTURE SELECTION GUIDANCE
Refer to Section 19.2 for
Numerous superstructure types are available and potentially viable for a particular location.
Consider innovative and nontraditional or alternative superstructure types.
10.9.1
Traditional Superstructure Types
Traditional superstructure types, precast, prestressed concrete girders and structural steel plate
girders, are appropriate and cost effective for the majority of bridges in Utah because the state
has local precasters and steel fabricators. Additionally, the experience and equipment of the
local contracting industry and the availability of materials favor the use of traditional
superstructure types.
10.9.1.1
10.9.1.1.1
Precast Prestressed Concrete I-Girders

Description
A precast, prestressed concrete I-girder bridge is a girder and deck structure. The deck is
replaceable by complete removal and replacement without the need for shoring. The structure
type is efficient for multiple equal spans with a large number of girders, but does not adapt well
to complex geometries.
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10-21
February 2015
See Chapter 14 for a detailed discussion on design practices for precast, prestressed concrete
I-girders. Use the Utah bulb tee girder on new concrete girder bridges. Match existing girder
type and stiffness on bridge widening projects. See Section 21.9.
Use precast, prestressed concrete I-girders when the cost of additional profile height is offset by
a reduction in superstructure costs. Consider the transportation and erection of precast,
prestressed concrete I-girders in selecting girder lengths.
Refer to Figures 10.1 and 10.2 for typical span lengths and girder spacings.
10.9.1.1.2
Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages of this structure type are typically low construction cost, low maintenance cost,
replaceable deck and simple construction.
Disadvantages include limited span lengths, higher depth/span ratios, difficulty in adapting to
complex geometrics, difficulty in handling, shipping and erecting long spans, and aesthetic
concerns on curved bridges and bridges on sharp vertical curves.
10.9.1.1.3
Concrete Strength
Concrete strengths up to 10 ksi can be produced in most precast plants. Higher strengths allow
longer spans and/or increased girder spacing but increase cost and slow production. Typically,
an upper limit for concrete strength of 8.5 ksi is appropriate.
10.9.1.2
10.9.1.2.1
Composite Steel Girders

Description
A composite steel girder bridge is a girder and deck structure, using either steel plate I-girders
or rolled beams. The deck is replaceable by complete removal and replacement without the
need for shoring. Composite steel plate I-girders are efficient for spans over 160 ft and are
adaptable to bridges with limited structure depth, complex geometries and/or horizontal curves.
Consider composite steel rolled beams for spans up to approximately 90 ft. If a composite steel
rolled beam design is proposed for a new bridge, allow the substitution of a composite steel
plate I-girder with equivalent depth and plate dimensions equal to the rolled beam or as
determined according to the LRFD Specifications. Do not use cover plates.
Inadequate design and detailing has a greater impact on composite steel I-girder bridges than
on precast, prestressed concrete I-girder bridges. Poor design increases the required steel
quantities. Good detailing practices significantly reduce the potential for fatigue cracking and
brittle fracture.
Composite steel plate I-girders can have a constant or variable depth. Avoid abrupt depth
changes for aesthetics. Continuous composite steel plate I-girders haunched at the supports
are also an option. Use a parabolic variation in depth when haunching a girder at a support.
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Preliminary Design
February 2015
Consider structure erection issues, where to locate crane(s), how the girders are delivered to
the site, can girders be erected in pairs, etc. Girder field sections can be easily transported in
lengths up to approximately 120 ft. Coordinate with the fabricator when specifying longer field
sections and allow the elimination or addition of field splices when appropriate documentation is
supplied. Field splices can also be shown as optional on the plan set.
See Chapter 15 for a detailed discussion on design practices for structural steel
superstructures.
Use composite steel girder superstructures at sites with limited structure depth, on bridges with
longer spans and, occasionally, to minimize the structure weight and foundation demands.
Refer to Figures 10.1 and 10.2 for typical span lengths and girder spacings.
10.9.1.2.2
Advantages of composite steel plate I-girders and rolled beams include fast on site construction,
simple details and formwork, good aesthetics, adaptable to complex geometrics, low dead
weight and a replaceable deck. Composite steel plate I-girders also have long span capability.
Disadvantages of composite steel plate I-girders and rolled beams include higher girder costs,
increased maintenance costs and dependence on good design and detailing practices.
10.9.1.2.3
Steel Strength
Use Grade 36 or Grade 50 steel for composite steel rolled beams. Use Grade 50 or Grade 70
for webs and flanges of composite steel plate I-girders. Higher grade steels are available.
Obtain approval from the Structures Design Manager before specifying higher grade steels.
Use of Grade 36 and Grade 50 steel is permitted for any secondary element.
10.9.2
Alternative Superstructure Types
Evaluate alternative superstructure types when traditional structure types are not suited to the
project specific criteria and to the unique environment of the bridge location. The Structures
Division promotes innovative and forward thinking solutions, which must meet the goals of low
maintenance and long term durability.
To evaluate alternative superstructure types, provide information early in the preliminary design
process that demonstrates the following:
The superstructure type is accepted for general use by other transportation authorities.
Include project contact information.
If not in general use by other transportation authorities, identify any test projects or
research that has been performed.
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10-23
February 2015
The superstructure type and components perform well under the environmental
conditions at the project site, including frequent freeze thaw cycles, heavy road salt use
and high seismic events.
The superstructure type allows for total deck removal and replacement with minimal
impact to cross traffic and bridge traffic.
Also, provide justification that the proposed alternative superstructure type is a better solution
for the project, and supply a life cycle cost analysis with a comparison to a traditional
superstructure type.
Alternative superstructure types can be rejected without cause.
10.9.2.1
10.9.2.1.1
Composite Steel Box Girders

Description
Composite steel box girders are structural steel plate girders with two webs and a common
bottom flange. The webs are usually inclined to improve aesthetics and reduce the width of the
bottom flange. Spans are economical up to approximately 250 ft. Composite steel box girders
can have a variable depth, but variable depth significantly increases the cost of the bridge.
Consider composite steel box girders for tight radius curved structures and where a composite
steel plate I-girder could be used but the appearance of a box girder is desired. Refer to
Figures 10.1 and 10.2 for typical span lengths and girder spacings.
10.9.2.1.2
Advantages of composite steel box girder bridges include fast on site construction, low dead
weight, adaptability to tight radius curves, replaceable deck and long span capability.
Disadvantages include high girder costs and increased maintenance costs; steel boxes are not
readily adaptable to skewed or variable width bridges. Composite steel box girders are difficult
to handle in the shop due to the size and weight and require significant bracing during
fabrication and erection. In addition, the structure type is susceptible to thermal movements
during erection and may require temporary or permanent external bracing between boxes.
Composite steel box girders require a fabrication sequence that is less cost effective for
fabricators in shops optimized to fabricate composite steel plate I-girders. The local fabricator
shops are optimized for I-girders, and the use of composite steel box girders increases the
relative cost of fabrication when compared to I-girders.
10.9.2.1.3
Steel Strength
Use Grade 50 or Grade 70 for webs and flanges of composite steel box girders. Higher grade
steels are available. Obtain approval from the Structures Design Manager before specifying
higher grade steels. Use of Grade 36 and Grade 50 steel is permitted for any secondary
element.
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Preliminary Design
10.9.2.2
10.9.2.2.1
February 2015
Cast-in-Place or Precast Concrete Slab, Conventionally Reinforced

Concrete Slab
Description
CIP, conventionally reinforced concrete slabs (CIP concrete slabs) are suitable to short spans
and low clearances and easily adapt to skewed alignments. Concrete slabs are the simplest
superstructure system and easy to construct, and structural continuity is achieved without
difficulty.
Use of prestressing or post-tensioning can extend the span range and improve durability.
Consider CIP concrete slabs for short bridge spans in areas that allow cost effective shoring.
10.9.2.2.2
The advantages of the structure type are low construction costs and low maintenance costs.
Construction time is also fairly short. The appearance is neat and simple, especially for low,
short spans.
The disadvantages are that CIP concrete slabs require falsework and have a limited span
range.
10.9.2.2.3
Concrete Strength
Concrete strengths up to 10 ksi can be produced in most precast plants. Higher strengths allow
longer spans and/or increased girder spacing but increase cost and slow production. Typically,
an upper limit for concrete strength of 8.5 ksi is appropriate.
Coordinate with local suppliers to determine availability of high strength CIP concrete. CIP
concrete strengths up to 6 ksi are readily available.
10.9.2.3
10.9.2.3.1
Segmental Concrete Box Girders

Description
Most segmental concrete box girder bridges have a single cell superstructure with only two
girder webs. The spacing of the web is based on the efficiency of the deck design. Segmental
concrete box girders are either CIP or precast with longitudinal post-tensioning and transverse
post-tensioning in the deck. The longitudinal post-tensioning can be placed internal to the webs
as with conventional CIP, post-tensioned construction. The longitudinal post-tensioning can also
be placed fully external to the web or a combination of internal and external. Internal posttensioning has the same considerations as CIP, post-tensioned concrete box girders. Externally
post-tensioned bridges usually have thinner webs because a wider web is not needed for the
post-tensioning.
Preliminary Design
10-25
February 2015
Segmental concrete box girder construction requires that the bridge be designed for a specified
method of construction and included in the contract documents with assumed erection loads. In
many cases, the construction of the bridge and not the permanent loads controls the design of
the substructure.
The precast method is usually less expensive than the CIP method and is used primarily for
shorter spans. Segments are match cast in a casting yard, transported to the site and
connected in the erected position by temporary and permanent post-tensioning. The final
section is typically CIP, and the entire structure is subsequently post-tensioned along the full
length of span. Erection methods can be by balanced cantilever, temporarily supported by
underslung trusses or by an overhead gantry.
CIP segmental concrete box girder construction uses a traveling form support. The traveling
form is set to grade, rebar and ducts are placed, and the concrete is placed and cured. Once a
segment reaches the design strength, the system is post-tensioned, the traveling form is
advanced and the process is repeated. Erection methods include balanced cantilever, a gantry
crane or a system of stays.
Consider segmental concrete box girder construction when the total deck area exceeds
approximately 250,000 sq ft. Precast, segmental concrete box girder construction requires a
significant investment in the casting facilities and erection equipment.
Precast, segmental concrete box girder segments differ from project to project, but the
American Segmental Bridge Institute has established standard sections.
Refer to Figure 10.1 for typical span lengths.
An experienced contractor and construction engineer are necessary for segmental concrete box
girders. Erection methods and equipment used to erect the segments vary from project to
project. The contractor is required to verify the design based on the means and methods of
construction.
10.9.2.3.2
Advantages include reduced traffic impacts when overhead construction techniques are used,
low maintenance costs, fast onsite construction for the precast method and low depth/span
ratios.
Disadvantages include the complexity of time dependent analysis and design, variable
construction costs, limited number of qualified contractors, complex construction and
construction engineering, lengthy construction time for the CIP method and decks cannot be
replaced. Also, the construction method is only economical on large projects.
10.9.3
Additional Superstructure Types
Additional superstructure types that are beyond the scope of the SDDM but can be applicable to
structures requiring spans over 350 ft include:
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Preliminary Design
February 2015
Steel trusses
Steel or concrete arches
CIP multicell boxes
Cable supported concrete or steel bridges
Selection of any of the above superstructure types require coordination with and approval from
the Structures Design Manager.
10.10 SUBSTRUCTURE AND FOUNDATION SELECTION GUIDE

Use the following guidance to select the substructure and foundation type that is suitable at the
site to economically satisfy the geometric and structural requirements of the bridge. Chapter 18
discusses the detailed design of substructure elements; Chapter 17 discusses the detailed
design of foundations.
Substructure and foundation type selection occurs in conjunction with the superstructure type
selection. Balance the foundation and substructure costs and characteristics when selecting the
type of superstructure.
Consider the following:
Foundation conditions influence the cost, size, number and spacing of the necessary
substructure supports.
Dead load has a major influence on foundation costs. Consider the economics of using
lighter structural elements.
Scour can have a significant impact on the foundation design which can, in turn, have a
significant impact on the superstructure type selection.
Seismic response, liquefaction, slope stability, etc., can have a significant impact on the
substructure design which can, in turn, have a significant impact on the superstructure
type selection.
10.10.1 Abutments
Reference:
LRFD Article 10.6
Abutments are either spill through or wall type. Spill through abutments are placed at the top of
the slope. Slopes are typically 1.5H:1V, which requires slope protection and good fill conditions.
Slopes flatter than 2H:1V do not require slope protection. Slope stability requirements can also
require shallow fill slopes to maintain the stability of the slope.
Spill through abutments require longer spans compared to wall type abutments, but eliminate
retaining walls and/or full height abutments. Evaluate the overall cost of longer spans with spill
through abutments compared to shorter spans with increased wall costs. Wall type abutments
consisting of a stub integral abutment on a MSE wall are typically more cost effective. Spill
through abutments are more aesthetic than wall type abutments and allow for future widening
Preliminary Design
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February 2015
with the future construction of CIP retaining walls or soil nail walls. Spill through abutments with
2H:1V fill slopes are often preferred for wildlife undercrossings because the slope provides a
more natural setting.
Use wall type abutments to minimize span lengths if permitted by project specific criteria. Wall
type abutments eliminate fill slopes under the bridge, but require extensive retaining walls. The
retaining walls run either along the approaches to the bridge or parallel to the abutment. Wall
type abutments can be either stub abutments on piles through a MSE wall or full height
abutments.
An abutment can be one of the following basic types:
Integral
Semi-integral
Seat
See the SD drawings for additional information on abutment types.
10.10.1.1
Integral Abutments
10.10.1.1.1 Description
Integral abutments directly connect the superstructure to the substructure. There is no
expansion joint in the bridge deck, and the abutment moves with the superstructure. Integral
abutments require flexible foundation elements to allow superstructure rotation and thermal
movement. Typically, a single row of piles provides the required flexibility. A single row of
drilled shafts is also viable, but evaluate the movement demands and the axial load transmitted
into the superstructure from the less flexible shafts.
Do not use integral abutments on spread footings.
Integral abutments are standard for typical structures. Add finwalls to increase lateral seismic
resistance where required. Wingwalls and finwalls are typically cantilevered from the abutment
and move with the structure. Orient wingwalls parallel to the bridge to avoid resisting passive
earth pressures due to thermal movement. Support flared wingwalls or wingwalls parallel to the
abutment on independent foundations.
Consider a semi-integral abutment when significant post construction differential settlement in
piles along an integral abutment could be possible.
Integral abutments on bridges with flares, skewed supports or horizontal curvature is permitted.
Evaluate the soil load imbalance from flares and curvature. Skew also results in unbalanced
soil pressures because the lines of action of the soil pressures on the two abutments do not
coincide. Additionally, the horizontal axis of rotation of a skewed abutment is not parallel to the
bending axis of the superstructure girders, which produces torsion in the superstructure.
Evaluate the thermal movement of an integral abutment. Integral abutments are not appropriate
if thermal movement exceeds the limits defined in Section 18.1.
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February 2015
10.10.1.1.2 Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages include excellent performance in seismic events. Integral abutments mobilize
passive pressure to resist and dampen seismic forces and do not contain any weak links
between the superstructure and substructure. Additionally, integral abutments move the
expansion joint at the end of the bridge to a point where joint leakage does not promote
deterioration of bearings or abutment seats. The simple details of integral abutments also
reduce the initial construction costs and subsequent maintenance costs on typical structures.
Disadvantages include bridge length limitations associated with pile or shaft displacement limits
and the required increase in abutment and bridge resistance to handle the large passive
pressure loads.
10.10.1.2
Semi-Integral Abutments
Semi-integral abutments allow the bridge to move over the abutment. The superstructure rests
on expansion bearings that minimize horizontal loads and movements transferred to the
substructure. Use shear keys to provide lateral resistance. Use bolsters or longitudinal shear
keys to limit longitudinal movement. Because the superstructure rests on bearings, the
superstructure can be raised and bearings replaced or shimmed to accommodate differential
deflection.
Use semi-integral abutments:
Where superstructure movements exceed the pile movement capacity

Where differential settlement along the abutment is anticipated
Where spread footings are applicable
On post-tensioned bridges to reduce losses into foundation elements due to creep and
shrinkage
On ABC bridges to eliminate closure pours and simplify construction and move details
Semi-integral abutments on bridges with flares, skewed supports or horizontal curvature is

permitted. Evaluate the soil load imbalance from flares and curvature. Skew also results in
unbalanced soil pressures because the lines of action of the soil pressures on the two
abutments do not coincide. Although the horizontal axis of rotation of a skewed abutment is not
parallel to the bending axis of the superstructure girders, semi-integral abutments (when
compared to integral abutments) reduce the effect of torsion in the superstructure through the
use of bearings similar to a seat abutment.
Advantages include good performance in seismic events. Semi-integral abutments mobilize
passive pressure to resist and dampen seismic forces. Additionally, semi-integral abutments
move the expansion joint at the end of the bridge to a point where joint leakage does not
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February 2015
promote deterioration of bearings or abutment seats. Semi-integral abutments do not yield or

damage piles due to temperature movements and are compatible with spread footings.
Disadvantages include more complex detailing and the slide plane is a weak link in a seismic
event.
10.10.1.3
Seat Abutments
Seat abutments consist of a footing, stem wall, seat and backwall with an expansion joint
between the approach slab and the superstructure deck. The footing can be pile, shaft or soil
supported. Bearings support the superstructure on the abutment seat. The backwall retains the
backfill above the abutment seat so that the backfill is not in contact with the superstructure.
The approach slab extends over the top of the backwall.
Seat abutments are only permitted when an expansion joint is required at the abutment. The
Structures Design Manager must approve the use of seat abutments.
Advantages include eliminating substructure movements and eliminating bridge displacement
limits and foundation type limits.
Disadvantages include increased maintenance, higher cost and poor seismic event
performance when compared to integral and semi-integral abutments.
10.10.2 Bents
Bents typically consist of a bent cap supported on columns or a bent wall. Occasionally, a
bridge can be designed with a column under every girder eliminating the need for a bent cap,
but this is often not cost effective.
A bent can be one of the following basic types:
Drop bents
Internal bents
Straddle bents
Capless bents
Wall bents
Extended pile bents
Bents can also be fixed or expansion. Fixed connections provide a more redundant load path
for extreme event loads because the loads are dispersed to all bents. Expansion bents are
used to control temperature movement loads and control loads to short or stiff bents.
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February 2015
Refer to the SD drawings for additional information on bent proportioning.
10.10.2.1
Drop Bent
Drop bents are the most common. In a drop bent, the girders rest on top of the bent cap. The
bent cap is supported by columns.
Advantages include simple details, easy design, flexibility in locating columns and low cost.
Disadvantages include reduced vertical clearance under the cap and poor aesthetics associated
with short columns and large caps.
10.10.2.2
Internal Bent
In an internal bent, the girders frame directly into the bent cap. Only use internal bents when no
other viable option exists due to difficult and costly construction. In addition, internal concrete
caps do not allow inspection of the top tension flanges after the bridge is placed into service.
Do not use internal bents made of steel due to a lack of redundancy.
Internal bents are most often used to eliminate support skew in applications where a bent is
required in the median, the crossing is skewed and the vertical clearance requirements do not
permit drop caps.
Advantages include increased vertical clearance under the bent cap and the reduced visual
impact of the cap.
Disadvantages include high cost, difficult details, reduced inspectability and reduced
redundancy.
10.10.2.3
Straddle Bent
In a straddle bent, the column spacing is spread out to straddle an element passing under the
cap. Straddle bents can also be drop bents or internal bents.
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February 2015
Typically, use straddle bents with pin connections at the top of the columns. Pin connections
reduce the torsional shear forces in the straddle bents. Most straddle bents are concrete and
use post-tensioning to reduce the depth, control cracking and enhance torsional resistance.
Advantages include increased options for locating bents because the cap can straddle elements
that otherwise require spanning.
Disadvantages include high costs, poor aesthetics, difficult details, increased susceptibility to
damage during seismic events and poor aesthetics.
10.10.2.4
Capless Bent
A capless bent eliminates the cap by placing a column under every girder. Capless bents are
viable where girder spacings are large and on high skews where the addition of columns is
offset by the elimination of the cap.
Advantages include simplified bent detailing and increased construction speed.
Disadvantages include complex bearing details, complex framing plans, reduced redundancy
and higher costs for typical bridges.
10.10.2.5
Wall Bent
A wall bent uses a continuous wall extending to almost the outside edge of bridge to transfer
girder loads to foundation elements. Wall bents are typically 2-6 wide with tied reinforcement.
Wall bents are very stiff about the strong axis and flexible about the weak axis. Only use wall
bents when no other viable option is available. Wall bents are an option for bridges over
railroads to satisfy AREMA crash wall requirements where limited ROW is available to place the
bent.
Advantages include a narrow footprint and longitudinal flexibility.
Disadvantages include poor aesthetics, increased cost and attraction of seismic loads in the stiff
direction.
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10.10.2.6
February 2015
Extended Pile Bents
In an extended pile bent, the pile cap or footing is eliminated and the piles extend up to the bent
cap. Do not use extended pile bents without approval from the Structures Design Manager.
Advantages include reduced cost.
Disadvantages include constructability problems due to misaligned piles, poor aesthetics,
painting for steel piles, lower lateral capacity, large number of supports that can trap debris
when located in waterways and reduced substructure stiffness.
10.10.2.7
Columns
Columns are substructure components that support the cap.
columns, depending upon the width and skew of the bridge.
Use either single or multiple
Column design requires coordination with adjacent structures and project specific aesthetic
requirements. Typically, all column shapes use a circular reinforcing pattern with continuous
spirals or welded hoops. The minimum width or diameter is 3 ft, which is typically increased in
6-in. increments.
Consider a single column bent for narrow bridges over waterways. Water hitting a bent at an
angle greatly increases scour, which does not adversely affect a single round column. In
addition, a single column traps less debris. However, in this case, single columns are usually at
least 6 ft in diameter.
Separate the columns from railroad crash walls for improved seismic performance.
10.10.3 Foundations
Foundation selection and design requires close coordination with the geotechnical engineer.
Evaluate the impacts of seismic loading and potential for liquefaction in the preliminary design
stage.
The following foundation types are available:
Driven piles
Drilled shafts
Spread footings
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10.10.3.1
February 2015
Piles
A pile is a long, slender deep foundation element drilled or driven into the ground. Concrete
filled, steel pipe piles and H-piles are most common, but prestressed concrete piles are
permitted. Determine the selected type of pile based on the required bearing capacity, length,
soil conditions and economic considerations.
Micropiles are a type of pile that can be installed in locations with limited overhead space.
See Section 17.2 for design details.
Advantages include low cost, simple and fast construction, high degree of quality control,
flexibility or high lateral displacement capacity, and capacity to tolerate moderate scour.
Disadvantages include potential instability due to significant scour, low stiffness, high noise and
vibration during driving and corrosion potential of steel piles. Piles require a pile cap to
distribute loads, and the pile cap can interfere with utilities.
10.10.3.2
Reference:
Drilled Shafts
LRFD Article 10.8
A drilled shaft (also called a caisson or cast-in-drilled-hole pile) is a long, slender deep
foundation element constructed by excavating a hole with auger equipment and placing
concrete, with reinforcing, in the excavation. Casing and/or drilling slurry could be necessary to
keep the excavation stable. See Section 17.3 for design details.
Advantages include significant resistance to scour, a smaller foundation footprint, less noise and
vibration during installation, significant lateral capacity and significant vertical capacity in some
conditions.
Disadvantages include difficult quality control and lower lateral displacement capacity compared
to steel piles. High mobilization costs for the equipment also reduce the cost effectiveness.
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Preliminary Design
10.10.3.3
Spread Footings
Reference:
LRFD Article 10.6
February 2015
A spread footing is a shallow foundation consisting of a reinforced concrete slab bearing directly
on soil or rock. Structural requirements and the characteristics of supporting components, such
as soil or rock, determine the spread footing geometry. Spread footings distribute the loads
transmitted by bents or abutments to suitable soil strata or rock at relatively shallow depths.
Use spread footings where loads permit and where there are no scour issues.
Settlement criteria must be consistent with the function and type of structure, anticipated service
life and consequences of unanticipated movements on service performance. Do not allow
longitudinal angular distortions between adjacent spread footings greater than 0.008 radians in
simple spans and 0.004 radians in continuous spans. Selection of Spread Footings on Soils to
Support Highway Bridge Structures (FHWA Report Number FHWA-RC/TD-10-001, February
2010) provides guidance on the proper estimation of deformations to encourage the cost
effective use of spread footings to support highway bridges.
Ground modification techniques can improve the soil allowing the use of spread footings.
Geotechnical engineers typically recommend ground modification techniques to address
differential settlement concerns or to avoid potential liquefaction problems. The techniques
include the construction of columns of gravel in the ground (i.e., stone columns) or compaction
grouting through the pressure injection of a slow flowing water/sand/cement mix into a granular
soil or removal of low capacity soils and replacement with higher capacity soils.
See Section 17.4 for design details of spread footings.
Advantages of spread footings include low cost high speed construction and low noise levels.
Spread footings eliminate vibration during construction.
Disadvantages include increased risk of settlement and the potentially large foundation
footprints. Spread footings are often not a viable solution in locations subject to scour.
10.11 RETAINING WALLS

Retaining walls provide lateral support for a variety of applications:
Cuts in slopes for roadway alignments

Roadway widening where ROW is limited
Grade separations
Preliminary Design
10-35
February 2015
Stabilization of slopes where instabilities have occurred

Protection of environmentally sensitive areas
Bridge abutments
Excavation support
Retaining walls are grouped according to the construction method, top down construction or
bottom up construction. Figure 10.4 lists typical top down retaining walls, typical cost effective
wall height ranges and other pertinent information. Figure 10.5 lists typical bottom up retaining
walls, typical cost effective wall height ranges and other pertinent information. Coordinate with
the geotechnical engineer to determine preliminary wall type options. Section 22.4 discusses
each wall type in more detail.
10.12 CULVERTS
See Section 22.1 for more discussion.
10.12.1 Cast-in-Place or Precast Concrete Box Culverts

10.12.1.1
Description
A concrete box culvert is a structure that consists of a top, bottom and sides and is usually
buried below the roadway but the top can be driven on. The box can be precast or CIP. A box
culvert can have single or multiple openings allowing the passage of water, livestock, vehicles
or wildlife under a roadway. Box culverts are typically embedded within the surrounding soil.
Use box culverts for small stream crossings, pedestrian undercrossings and other locations
where cost effective.
10.12.1.2
Advantages include low construction costs, low maintenance costs and simple construction
when water is not present.
Disadvantages include span length limitations, confining feel for wildlife or pedestrians and
difficulty to adapting to complex geometry.
10-36
Preliminary Design
February 2015
Figure 10.4 RETAINING WALLS CONSTRUCTED FROM THE TOP DOWN

Preliminary Design
10-37
February 2015
Figure 10.5 RETAINING WALLS CONSTRUCTED FROM THE BOTTOM UP

10-38
Preliminary Design
February 2015
10.12.2 Cast-in-Place or Precast Three-Sided Culvert Structures

10.12.2.1
Description
The precast three-sided concrete culvert is available in two types the flat top and the arched
top. Three-sided culverts must be placed on CIP concrete footings. The flat top culvert requires
no fill and can be driven on; the arch top culvert requires a minimum of 2 ft of fill. The arch top
culvert has some dependence on proper backfill for its stability; the flat top culvert does not
depend on backfill for stability.
Precast three-sided culvert structures are a viable solution for stream crossings where scour is
not a concern, for pedestrian crossings and for wildlife undercrossings.
10.12.2.2
Advantages are low maintenance costs, simple construction, increased span lengths when
compared to box culverts and improved aesthetics for arch top culverts.
Disadvantages include limited span lengths, foundations subject to scour, difficulty in adapting
to complex geometry and difficulty in handling, shipping and erecting long spans. Longer span
arches also require considerable rise.
Preliminary Design
10-39
10-40
February 2015
Preliminary Design
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
11.1
LRFD DESIGN PHILOSOPHY .................................................................................. 11-1

11.1.1
11.1.2
11.1.3
11.1.4
Limit States .................................................................................................. 11-1

Basic LRFD Equation .................................................................................. 11-1
Load Modifier ............................................................................................... 11-2
Load Factors and Combinations.................................................................. 11-2
11.1.4.1
11.1.4.2
11.1.4.3
11.1.4.4
11.1.4.5
11.1.4.6
11.2
PERMANENT LOADS ............................................................................................... 11-6

11.2.1
11.2.2
11.3
Wearing Surface Dead Load ....................................................................... 11-6

Future Wearing Surface .............................................................................. 11-6
TRANSIENT LOADS ................................................................................................. 11-6

11.3.1
Vehicular Live Load ..................................................................................... 11-7

11.3.1.1
11.3.1.2
11.3.1.3
11.3.1.4
11.3.1.5
11.3.1.6
11.3.1.7
11.3.2
11.3.3
11.3.4
11.3.5
11.3.6
11.3.7
11.4
Strength Load Combinations ..................................................... 11-2

Service Load Combinations ....................................................... 11-3
Extreme Event Load Combinations ........................................... 11-4
Fatigue and Fracture Load Combinations.................................. 11-4
Application of Maximum and Minimum Load Factors ................ 11-4
Load Factors for Uniform Temperatures .................................... 11-5
General ...................................................................................... 11-7

The Nature of the Notional Load ................................................ 11-7
Multiple Presence Factors ......................................................... 11-8
Noncritical Axle Loads ............................................................... 11-8
Two Design Trucks in a Single Lane for Negative Moment
and Interior Reactions ................................................................ 11-8
Sidewalk Loading ....................................................................... 11-9
Application of Horizontal Superstructure Forces to the
Substructure .............................................................................. 11-9
Friction Forces ............................................................................................. 11-9

Thermal Loads............................................................................................. 11-10
Earthquake Effects ...................................................................................... 11-10
Live Load Surcharge ................................................................................... 11-11
Ice Loads ..................................................................................................... 11-11
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Loads .................................................. 11-11
ACCELERATED BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION LOADS.............................................. 11-11
Loads and Load Factors
11-i
February 2015
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 11.1 SPECIAL LOADING FOR NEGATIVE MOMENT AND INTERIOR
REACTIONS OF CONTINUOUS SPANS.................................................... 11-9
Figure 11.2 TRANSFER OF HORIZONTAL SUPERSTRUCTURE FORCE
TO SUBSTRUCTURE THROUGH MOMENT CONNECTION .................... 11-10
Figure 11.3 DEAD LOAD DYNAMIC LOAD FACTOR .................................................... 11-12
Figure 11.4 DESIGN LIVE LOAD FOR BRIDGE MOVES .............................................. 11-12
ACRONYMS
BL
BR
CE
CR
CT
CV
DC
DD
DW
EH
EL
EQ
ES
EV
FR
FWS
IC
IM
IMDL
LL
LS
PL
PS
SE
SH
TG
TU
WA
WL
WS
11-ii
Blast Load
Braking Force
Centrifugal Force
Creep
Truck Collision
Vessel Collision
Component Dead Load
Downdrag
Dead Weight
Horizontal Earth Pressure
Locked In Forces
Earthquake Load
Earth Surcharge
Vertical Earth Pressure
Friction
Ice Load
Dead Load Dynamic Load Factor
Live Load
Live Load Surcharge
Pedestrian Load
Secondary Forces from Post-Tensioning
Differential Settlement
Shrinkage
Temperature Gradient
Uniform Temperatures
Water Load
Wind on Live Load
Wind Load on Structure
February 2015
Chapter 11
LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS
Sections 1 and 3 of the LRFD Specifications present design requirements for loads and load
factors. This chapter discusses the loads and load factor provisions in Sections 1 and 3 of the
LRFD Specifications that require amplification, clarification and/or an enhanced application.
This chapter also addresses load factors not defined in the specifications and defines
requirements where the LRFD Specifications offer options, but the Structures Division requires
the use of a specific option.
11.1
LRFD DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
11.1.1
Limit States
Reference:
LRFD Article 1.3.2
The LRFD Specifications categorize the design criteria within groups termed limit states. The
limit states are service, strength and extreme event. The LRFD Specifications assign a series
of load combinations to the various limit states. The limit states are intended to capture load
effects for design calculations to provide a buildable, serviceable structure capable of safely
carrying loads for the life of the structure.
11.1.2
Basic LRFD Equation
Components and connections of a bridge are designed to satisfy the basic LRFD equation for all
limit states:
Q R
(LRFD Eq. 1.3.2.1-1)
i i
=
=
=
=
=
load factor
load or force effect
resistance factor
nominal resistance
load modifier as defined in LRFD Equations 1.3.2.1-2 and 1.3.2.1-3
Where:
i
Qi
Rn
i
The left hand side of LRFD Equation 1.3.2.1-1 is the sum of the factored load (force) effects
acting on a component; the right hand side is the factored nominal resistance of the component
for the effects. Consider all applicable limit state load combinations for the equation. Similarly,
the equation is applicable to all structural components and foundations.
11-1
February 2015
For the strength limit states, the LRFD Specifications are a hybrid design code in that the force
effect on the left hand side of the LRFD equation is based upon elastic structural response,
while resistance on the right hand side of the equation is determined predominantly by applying
inelastic response principles; i.e., force effects such as moment and shear are determined using
elastic methods while the expressions for resistance are beyond the elastic range at the ultimate
state. The LRFD Specifications have adopted the hybrid nature of strength design on the
assumption that the inelastic component of structural resistance remains relatively small
because of noncritical redistribution of force effects and, therefore, an elastic structural
response model is appropriate. Providing adequate redundancy and ductility in the structure
ensures the noncritical redistribution of forces.
11.1.3
Load Modifier
The load modifier i relates the factors D, R and I to ductility, redundancy and operational
importance. The location of i on the load side of the LRFD equation could appear
counterintuitive because i appears to relate more to resistance than to load. i is on the load
side for a logistical reason. When modifying a maximum load factor, i is the product of the
factors as indicated in LRFD Equation 1.3.2.1-2; when modifying a minimum load factor, i is
the reciprocal of the product as indicated in LRFD Equation 1.3.2.1-3. The factors are
somewhat arbitrary and reflect the desire to promote redundant and ductile bridges.
In general, use i values of 1.00 for all limit states, because bridges designed according to the
SDDM demonstrate traditional levels of redundancy and ductility. Coordinate with the
Structures Design Manager to determine appropriate values of i for special cases. Do not
apply the load modifier that accounts for operational importance in LRFD Article 1.3.5 to seismic
loads. Refer to Chapter 13 for seismic design requirements for critical and essential bridges.
For structural systems with only two longitudinal main members (e.g., two girder/truss/arch
bridges), the factor of redundancy, R, is 1.20 for the girder/truss/arch. Use a R of 1.15 for
three girder systems. The Structures Division prefers bridges with four or more girders.
11.1.4
Load Factors and Combinations
Reference:
LRFD Article 3.4.1
LRFD Table 3.4.1-1 provides the load factors for load combinations associated with the various
limit states.
11.1.4.1
Strength Load Combinations
The LRFD Specifications have calibrated the load factors for the strength load combinations
based upon structural reliability theory, which represents the uncertainty of the loads. The
following simplifies the significance of the strength load combinations, and provides guidance on
which strength limit states are applicable to the bridge:
11-2
February 2015
1.
Strength I Load Combination. Represents random traffic and the heaviest truck to cross
the bridge in the 75 year design life. During the live load event, a significant wind is not
considered probable and, thus, not included.
2.
Strength II Load Combination. Represents an owner specified permit load model. The
live load event has less uncertainty than random traffic and, thus, uses a lower live load
factor than used in Strength I load combination. The Structures Division currently does
not specify a design permit load. Therefore, the Strength II load combination is generally
not considered.
3.
Strength III Load Combination. Represents the most severe design wind event. The
LRFD Specifications assume that no significant live load crosses the bridge during the
event.
4.
Strength IV Load Combination.

Represents an extra safeguard for bridge
superstructures and typically governs where the unfactored dead load exceeds seven
times the unfactored live load. For additional safety, and based on engineering
judgment, the LRFD Specifications have arbitrarily increased the load factor for DC to
1.5 in this case. The rationale for the increase is that the only significant load factor
when DC significantly exceeds LL is the 1.25 load factor for DC.
5.
Strength V Load Combination. Represents the simultaneous occurrence of a normal live

load event and a 55-mph wind event with load factors of 1.35 and 0.4, respectively.
For components not governed by wind force effects, the Strength III and Strength V load
combinations do not govern. Generally, the Strength I load combination governs for a typical
multigirder highway overpass.
11.1.4.2
Service Load Combinations
Unlike the strength load combinations, the service load combinations are material dependent.
The following applies:
1.
Service I Load Combination. Applied to control cracking in reinforced concrete

components and compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components. Also, use
the load combination to calculate deflections and settlements of superstructure and
substructure components.
2.
Service II Load Combination. Applied to control permanent deformations of compact

steel sections and the slip in slip critical (i.e., friction type) bolted steel connections.
3.
Service III Load Combination. Applied to control tensile stresses in prestressed concrete
superstructure components under vehicular traffic loads.
4.
Service IV Load Combination. Applied to control tensile stresses in prestressed

concrete substructure components under wind loads.
11-3
11.1.4.3
February 2015
Extreme Event Load Combinations
The extreme event limit states differ from the strength limit states because the event for which
the bridge and bridge components are designed has a greater return period than the 75 year
design life of the bridge (or a much lower frequency of occurrence than the loads of the strength
limit state). The following applies:
1.
Extreme Event I Load Combination. Applied to earthquakes. Because of the high

seismicity in specific regions of Utah, the load combination often governs design of
substructure elements. Use a live load factor (EQ) of 0.25 in the Extreme Event I load
combination. The live load for the Extreme Event 1 load combination is the lane load
only. Do not include the moving truck load in the live load for the Extreme Event 1 load
combination. Apply the lane load from beginning to end of bridge. The number of lanes
is the roadway width divided by 12 ft and rounded down to the nearest integer with no
reduction for multiple lanes loaded.
An earthquake in conjunction with maximum scour is unlikely. Underwater inspections
are completed in five year intervals, and scour holes are normally identified and flagged
for repair during the inspection. Evaluate the structure response using both no scour
and one half of the total design scour for the design frequency event listed in the
Hydraulic Report.
2.
Extreme Event II Load Combination. Applied to various vessel or vehicle collisions or

ice applied individually.
11.1.4.4
Fatigue and Fracture Load Combinations
Reference: LRFD Articles 3.6.1.4.1 and 3.6.1.4.2

The fatigue and fracture load combination, although strictly applicable to all types of
superstructures, only affects the steel elements, components and connections of a limited
number of steel superstructures.
The LRFD Specifications define the fatigue load for a particular bridge component by specifying
both a magnitude and a frequency. Use the Fatigue I load combination when designing for
infinite life. Use the Fatigue II load combination when designing for a finite number of cycles
during a 75 year life or the life required by the project documents. A design based on a finite
number of cycles requires approval from the Structures Design Manager.
Section 15.4 discusses fatigue and fracture for steel.
11.1.4.5
Application of Maximum and Minimum Load Factors
In LRFD Table 3.4.1-1, the variable P represents load factors for all permanent loads, shown in
the first column of load factors. The variable P acknowledges that a maximum load factor does
not always determine the critical design loading. Maximum and minimum load factors are
11-4
February 2015
defined to reflect the uncertainty in the actual loads. The actual loads could be more or less
than the nominal specified design values.
LRFD Table 3.4.1-2 provides the two extreme values for the various permanent load factors.
The maximum and minimum values do not represent a usable range of values for a single
check. Use either the maximum or minimum load factor; do not use a load factor in between the
maximum and minimum. Structural engineers must evaluate and, where uncertain, calculate all
applicable load combinations using both the maximum and the minimum values for each load
case when calculating the governing load combinations. Further, in a single load combination
evaluation, P is uniformly applied to a specific permanent load.
Select the appropriate maximum or minimum load factors to produce the more critical load
effect. For example, in continuous superstructures with relatively short end spans, transient live
load in the end span increases the bearing load, while transient live load in the second span
decreases the bearing load and could result in uplift. To check the maximum compression force
in the bearing, place the live load in the end span and use the maximum DC load factor of 1.25
for all spans. To check possible uplift of the bearing, place the live load in the second span and
use the minimum DC load factor of 0.90 for all spans.
Superstructure design uses the maximum load factors almost exclusively; the most common
exception is uplift of a bearing as discussed above. With the use of maximum and minimum
load factors, the LRFD Specifications have generalized load situations such as uplift where a
permanent load (in this case a dead load) reduces the overall force effect (in this case a
reaction). Select the maximum or minimum load factor for each load combination to produce
extreme force effects.
Substructure design routinely uses the maximum and minimum load factors from LRFD Table
3.4.1-2. An illustrative yet simple example is a spread footing supporting a cantilever retaining
wall. When checking bearing, the weight of the soil, EV, over the heel is factored up by the
maximum load factor, 1.35, because greater EV increases the bearing pressure, qult, making the
limit state more critical. When checking sliding, EV is factored by the minimum load factor, 1.00,
because lesser EV decreases the resistance to sliding, Q, again making the limit state more
critical. Foundation and substructure design requires the application of both the maximum and
minimum load factors; see Chapters 17 and 18.
11.1.4.6
Load Factors for Uniform Temperatures
The load factors for TU for the strength limit states have two specified values a load factor of
0.5 for the calculation of stress and a load factor of 1.2 for the calculation of deformation. Use
the greater value of 1.2 to calculate unrestrained deformations (e.g., a simple span expanding
freely with rising temperature). The lower value of 0.5 for the elastic calculation of stress
reflects the inelastic response of the structure due to restrained deformations. For example,
one half of the temperature rise is used to elastically calculate the stresses in a constrained
structure. Using 1.2 times the temperature rise in an elastic calculation overestimates the
stresses in the structure.
The structure resists the temperature inelastically through
redistribution of the elastic stresses.
11-5
11.2
February 2015
PERMANENT LOADS
Permanent loads listed in LRFD Article 3.3.2 are either primary loads due to gravity or loads
associated with material properties or construction processes. Permanent gravity based loads
are always present in or on the bridge and do not change in magnitude during the life of the
bridge. Permanent gravity based loads are listed in LRFD Article 3.5.1 and include:
Gravitational dead loads DC, DW and EV

Earth pressures EH, ES and DD
Loads associated with material properties or construction processes include:
Construction process loads EL, PS

Material properties based loads CR, SH
The following sections present modifications or clarifications to the magnitude and application of
permanent loads in the LRFD Specifications.
11.2.1
Wearing Surface Dead Load
Use an asphalt overlay (or bituminous wearing surface in the LRFD Specifications) unit weight
of 0.160 kcf, which is greater than the asphalt overlay (bituminous wearing surface) unit weight
of 0.140 kcf in the LRFD Specifications. The increase is intended to better reflect asphalt
overlay materials used in Utah.
11.2.2
FWS is a type of DW load. Design new structures or rehabilitations for a FWS load of 0.04 ksf,
which is based on a 3-in. FWS at 0.160 kcf.
11.3
TRANSIENT LOADS
Transient loads are not always present in or on the bridge or change in magnitude during the life
of the bridge. Specific transient loads include:
11-6
Live loads (LRFD Article 3.6) LL, PL, IM, LS, BR and CE
Water loads (LRFD Article 3.7) WA
Wind loads (LRFD Article 3.8) WS and WL
Extreme events (LRFD Articles 3.6.5, 3.9, 3.10 and 3.14) BL, EQ, CT, CV and IC
Superimposed deformations (LRFD Article 3.12) TU, TG and SE
Friction forces (LRFD Article 3.13) FR
February 2015
Creep, shrinkage, settlement and temperature are superimposed deformations which, if

restrained, result in force effects. For example, restrained strains due to a uniform temperature
increase induce compression forces. Note that the LRFD Specifications list CR and SH as
permanent loads. Because the loads vary over the life of the structure, CR and SH could be
considered transient loads.
The following sections present modifications or clarifications to transient loads in the LRFD
Specifications.
11.3.1
Vehicular Live Load
11.3.1.1
Reference:
General
LRFD Articles 3.6.1.1, 3.6.1.2 and 3.6.1.3
Vehicular live load, designated HL-93, consists of the design truck or design tandem applied
simultaneously with the lane load. For short and medium span bridges, which predominate in
Utah, vehicular live load is the most significant component of the total load. Short span bridges
can be categorized as bridges governed by the design tandem vehicle; medium span bridges
can be categorized as bridges governed by the design truck vehicle. Dead loads become a
more significant component of the total load on long span bridges. Long span bridges are
defined as bridges governed by the design lane load and the Strength IV load combination
where the dead load is seven times or more greater than the live load.
11.3.1.2
The Nature of the Notional Load
The HL-93 live load model is a notional load in that the model is not a physical representation of
any specific truck. However, the force effects (i.e., the moments and shears) due to the
superposition of vehicular and lane load within a single design lane of the notional load
represent the maximum force effects due to vehicles permitted on highways, including exclusion
vehicles. Exclusion vehicles are a group of vehicles that are over the legal limit, but permitted
on the highways in various states by the grandfathering provision.
The components of the HL-93 notional load are:
A 72-kip design truck or a 50-kip design tandem; formerly, the design truck was
designated as the HS-20 truck and the design tandem as the alternate loading in the
AASHTO Standard Specifications
A 0.64 k/ft uniformly distributed lane load, similar to the lane load of the AASHTO
Standard Specifications, but without any of the previous associated concentrated loads
A dynamic load allowance (IM) of 0.33 is applicable only to the design trucks and the design
tandems, but not to the uniformly distributed lane load.
The force effects of the HS-20 truck alone are less than that of the vehicles permitted on
highways. Thus, a heavier vehicle is appropriate for design, as characterized by the HL-93 live
load model. AASHTO developed the concept of superimposing the design vehicle force effects
11-7
February 2015
and the design lane force effects to yield moments and shears representative of real trucks on
the highways. The moments and shears produced by the HL-93 load model are essentially
equivalent to the moments and shears of a 57-ton truck.
11.3.1.3
Multiple Presence Factors
The multiple presence factor of 1.0 for two loaded lanes, as given in LRFD Table 3.6.1.1.2-1, is
the result of the LRFD Specifications calibration for the notional load, which has been
normalized relative to the occurrence of two side by side, fully correlated (or identical) vehicles.
Use the multiple presence factor of 1.2 for one loaded lane where a single design tandem or
single design truck governs, such as in overhangs, decks, etc. Do not apply the multiple
presence factors to fatigue loads.
11.3.1.4
Noncritical Axle Loads
Neglect axles that do not contribute to the extreme force effect under consideration.
11.3.1.5
Reference:
Two Design Trucks in a Single Lane for Negative Moment and Interior
Reactions
The combination of the lane load and a single vehicle (either a design truck or a design tandem)
does not always adequately represent the real life loading of two heavy vehicles closely
following one another, interspersed with other lighter traffic. At interior supports, the LRFD
Specifications specify a special load case to calculate the maximum force effects for negative
moment and load on continuous superstructures and supports. Two design trucks (with a fixed
rear axle spacing of 14 ft and a clear distance not less than 50 ft between them, superimposed
with the lane load, all within a single design lane and multiplied by a factor of 0.90) captures a
statistically valid representation of negative moment and interior reactions due to closely spaced
heavy trucks.
The LRFD Specifications specify the sequence of highway loading for negative moment and
reactions at interior bents due to the shape of the influence lines for such force effects. The
LRFD Specifications do not extend the special load case to other structures or portions of
structures because the case is not expected to govern for other influence line shapes. Figure
11.1 illustrates the loading.
In positioning the two trucks to calculate negative moment or the reaction over an internal
support of a continuous girder, spans over 90 ft in length allow positioning of the truck in each
spans governing position (over the peak of the influence line). If the spans are greater than 90
ft in length, the trucks remain in the governing positions but, if they are smaller than 90 ft, the
maximum force effect can only be attained by trial and error with either one or both trucks in off
positions (i.e., nongoverning positions for each individual span away from the peak of the
influence line).
11-8
February 2015
Figure 11.1 SPECIAL LOADING FOR NEGATIVE MOMENT AND

INTERIOR REACTIONS OF CONTINUOUS SPANS
11.3.1.6
Sidewalk Loading
Reference:
LRFD Article 3.6.1.6
Where sidewalks are present on the bridge, design for the dead load and pedestrian live load on
the sidewalk; however, also design the full width of the bridge, including sidewalks, for the traffic
live load assuming that traffic can mount the sidewalk. Do not apply pedestrian and traffic loads
concurrently. Design sidewalks and multi-use paths where separated from traffic lanes by
parapets for vehicular loads to account for potential future widening.
11.3.1.7
Application of Horizontal Superstructure Forces to the Substructure
The transfer of horizontal superstructure forces to the substructure depends on the type of
superstructure to substructure connection. Assume that CE, BR and WL act horizontally at a
distance of 6 ft above the roadway. Connections can be fixed, pinned or free for both moment
and shear.
If the horizontal superstructure force is applied to the substructure through a pinned connection,
then no moment transfer occurs. Apply the superstructure force to the substructure at the
connection.
For a fixed or moment connection, apply the superstructure horizontal force with an additional
moment to the substructure as shown in Figure 11.2. The additional moment is equal to the
horizontal force times the distance between the forces line of action and the point of application.
11.3.2
Friction Forces
Reference:
LRFD Article 3.13
LRFD Article 3.13 discusses the determination of forces due to friction between the sliding
surfaces.
11-9
February 2015
Figure 11.2 TRANSFER OF HORIZONTAL SUPERSTRUCTURE

FORCE TO SUBSTRUCTURE THROUGH MOMENT CONNECTION
Use the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design to determine the effects of
degradation on the friction coefficient of PTFE sliding surfaces.
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design increase the coefficient of
friction of the sliding surfaces to account for unintended additional friction forces due to the
possibility of future degradation. Consider the horizontal force due to friction conservatively.
Include friction forces where design loads increase, but neglect friction forces where design
loads decrease.
11.3.3
Thermal Loads
Reference:
LRFD Article 3.12.2
Use Procedure B of LRFD Article 3.12.2.2 to determine the appropriate design thermal
movement range.
11.3.4
Earthquake Effects
Apply the provisions of the UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction in conjunction with the
AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design to determine earthquake
demands in Utah. Chapter 13 and other chapters in the SDDM present required seismic design
and detailing practices. Refer to Section 11.1.4.3 for the required live load factor for the
Extreme Event I load case.
11-10
11.3.5
February 2015
Live Load Surcharge
Reference:
Consider the approach slab reactions on the abutment due to the HL-93 live load on the
approach slabs. The approach slab is a simple span. Conservatively, apply the maximum
approach slab live load reaction with the maximum live load reaction from the first or last span.
Do not apply the live load surcharge specified in LRFD Article 3.11.6.4 to abutment backwalls
when a 25-ft long approach slab is used and the approach slab is supported on one end by the
abutment and on the other end by the sleeper slab.
Retaining walls that retain soil supporting a roadway must be able to resist any lateral pressure
due to the live load surcharge. See Section 22.4 for retaining walls.
11.3.6
Ice Loads
Reference:
LRFD Article 3.9
Apply ice loads as specified in LRFD Article 3.9, identify special situations in the design of
bridges where historical ice loads have caused problems, and evaluate whether or not to place
a bent in the water. Consider ice loads in the conceptual design of the bridge.
11.3.7
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Loads
Use a load factor of 1.3 when applying SPMT loads to existing bridges or temporary structures.
11.4
ACCELERATED BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION LOADS
ABC loads are a type of transient load effect that occurs when a preconstructed structure is
moved into place. The LRFD Specifications do not specify ABC loads. ABC loads include:
Jacking loads
Friction loads
Lifting loads
Acceleration and deceleration loads
Bridge design for ABC bridges must meet all LRFD Specifications requirements. Evaluate all
possible additional loading conditions on structural components related to ABC projects. When
moving a bridge by sliding or launching or on SPMTs, check the structural components of the
bridge for Strength I and Service I load cases using the loads and load factors defined in the
LRFD Specifications, except as modified in the figures below. Apply the IMDL provided in
Figure 11.3 to DC and DW loads (if present at time of move) or to horizontal friction loads based
on DC and DW for all bridges moved into place.
11-11
Type of Move
February 2015
IMDL
Lateral bridge slides
1.00 (vertical); 1.5 (horizontal loads from jacking)
Longitudinal launches
1.15
SPMT moves
1.15
Figure 11.3 DEAD LOAD DYNAMIC LOAD FACTOR
Figure 11.4 defines the design LL during different types of bridge moves.
Type of Move
LL Factor
LL
Lateral bridge slides
1.00
0.01 ksf* plus any equipment load over 10 kips
Longitudinal launches
1.00
0.01 ksf* plus any equipment load over 10 kips
SPMT moves
1.00
Any equipment load over 10 kips
Reduction in the 0.01 ksf load is permitted on structures exceeding 7500 sq ft and where access to
the bridge is controlled. Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to determine the reduced
loading requirements.
Figure 11.4 DESIGN LIVE LOAD FOR BRIDGE MOVES
11-12
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FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
12.1
DISTRIBUTION OF SUPERIMPOSED DEAD LOAD ............................................... 12-1
12.2
DISTRIBUTION OF LIVE LOAD ............................................................................... 12-1

12.2.1
12.2.2
Definition of Live Load Distribution .............................................................. 12-1

Approximate Methods for Determining the Distribution Factor .................... 12-1
12.2.2.1 Approximate Distribution Factors for Girder and Slab Bridges .... 12-2
12.2.2.2 Precast, Prestressed Concrete Girder Example ......................... 12-3
12.3
MODELING CONCRETE BRIDGE PARAPETS ....................................................... 12-6
12.4
INFLUENCE LINE ANALYSIS .................................................................................. 12-6
12.5
REFINED ANALYSIS ................................................................................................ 12-7

12.5.1
12.5.2
12.5.3
12.5.4
12.5.5
2D Analysis (Straight, Zero Skew Bridges) ................................................. 12-8

2D Analysis (Straight Bridges with Long Spans or Wide Girder Spacing) ... 12-8
2D Analysis (Horizontally Curved Bridges).................................................. 12-8
2D Analysis (Skewed Bridges) .................................................................... 12-9
3D Analysis (Highly Skewed or Horizontally Curved Bridges or Bridges
Moved into Place) ........................................................................................ 12-9
12.6
WIND LOAD DISTRIBUTION .................................................................................... 12-9
12.7
MODELING AND ANALYSIS VERIFICATION.......................................................... 12-10
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 12.1 DESIGN LANE AND TRUCK PLACEMENT PRODUCING THE
WORST CASE FOR AN INDIVIDUAL INTERIOR GIRDER, G4 ................. 12-2
Figure 12.2 UTAH BULB TEE GIRDER (UBT42) ........................................................... 12-5
Structural Analysis and Evaluation
12-i
12-ii
February 2015
February 2015
Chapter 12
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
Section 4 of the LRFD Specifications presents the methods of structural analysis for the design
and evaluation of bridge superstructures, but analysis procedures for substructures are not
specifically discussed. This chapter discusses the structural analysis and evaluation provisions
of Section 4 of the LRFD Specifications that require amplification, clarification and/or an
enhanced application. This chapter also addresses specific Structures Division practices on
structural analysis. Chapters 17 and 18 provide provisions on structural analysis procedures for
foundations and substructures.
12.1
DISTRIBUTION OF SUPERIMPOSED DEAD LOAD
Reference:
Distribute superimposed dead loads (e.g., curbs, barriers, sidewalks, parapets, future wearing
surfaces) placed after the deck slab has cured equally to all girders as specified by the LRFD
Specifications. For staged construction, phased construction, bridge widenings and bridges
carrying utilities, analyze all critical loading conditions and apply a more accurate distribution of
superimposed dead loads.
12.2
DISTRIBUTION OF LIVE LOAD
Reference:
12.2.1
Definition of Live Load Distribution
Live load distribution refers to determining the maximum number of loaded lanes that an
individual girder of the superstructure is expected to carry. The live load distribution factor
defines the maximum number of loaded lanes per girder for analysis application.
12.2.2
Approximate Methods for Determining the Distribution Factor
Reference:
LRFD Article 4.6.2
Distribution factors allow for a simple, approximate analysis of bridge superstructures. Live load
distribution factors uncouple the transverse and longitudinal distribution of force effects in the
superstructure. The approximate method distributes live load force effects transversely by
proportioning the design lanes to individual girders through the application of distribution factors.
Therefore, the method allows the use of a one dimensional structural element (line girder) for
girder analysis.
12-1
February 2015
Use distribution factors and line girder analysis where allowed by the LRFD Specifications.
Distribution factors reduce the necessity of modeling the entire bridge using 2D or 3D structural
elements.
12.2.2.1
Reference:
Approximate Distribution Factors for Girder and Slab Bridges

LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.2 presents several common bridge superstructure types with empirically
derived equations for live load distribution factors for each type. Each distribution factor
provides a number of design lanes to be applied to a girder to evaluate the girder for moment or
shear. The factors account for interaction among loads from multiple lanes.
The distribution factors represent the placement of design lanes to generate the maximum effect
in a specific girder. Figure 12.1 depicts the design lane location and the wheel line location
within the design lane used to develop the empirically derived equations for lane load
distribution factors. The location of design lanes is unrelated to the location of striped lanes on
the bridge. Summing all of the distribution factors for all girders produces a number of design
lanes greater than the bridge can physically carry. The apparent overdesign occurs because
each girder must be designed for the maximum load to which the girder could individually be
subjected. Collectively, the individual load conditions producing the distribution factors cannot
exist simultaneously on the bridge, yet each girder must be designed for the worst case.
Figure 12.1 DESIGN LANE AND TRUCK PLACEMENT PRODUCING THE WORST
CASE FOR AN INDIVIDUAL INTERIOR GIRDER, G4
The properties used in calculating the live load distribution factors vary along the span; for
example, steel plate girder moments of inertia vary at the flange or web plate transitions.
However, do not recalculate the distribution factor at each change in property. Use weighted
average properties or maximum properties (e.g., in the span for positive moment and at the bent
for negative moment) to calculate a distribution factor for the positive moment region and the
negative moment region.
12-2
12.2.2.1.1
February 2015
Limitations
The tables of distribution factor equations given in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 include a column
entitled Range of Applicability. The LRFD Specifications specify that bridges with parameters
falling outside the indicated ranges be designed using the refined analysis requirements of
LRFD Article 4.6.3. In fact, the ranges of applicability do not necessarily represent limits of
usefulness of the distribution factor equations, but the ranges represent the range over which
bridges were examined to develop the coefficients and exponents of the empirical equations.
Research studies demonstrate that the factors can be used beyond the range of parameters
that were specifically studied. For more details on the development of the distribution factors,
see Distribution of Wheel Loads on Highway Bridges by T. Zokaie, T. A. Osterkamp and R.A.
Imbsen, Final Report, NCHRP Project No. 12-26.
The Structures Design Manager must approve using the distribution factor equations beyond
the ranges of applicability specified in the tables in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 without the use of a
refined analysis. See Section 12.5 for a discussion on refined analyses.
12.2.2.1.2
Skewed Bridges
The bending moment in the longitudinal direction in a skewed bridge is generally smaller than
the bending moment in a rectilinear bridge of the same span. However, do not use the skew
correction factors for moment in LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2e-1 to reduce the calculated live load
moments in skewed bridges. Ignoring the reduction in moment distribution factors for bridges
on skews is conservative and, for the majority of bridges, the correction only results in a slight
reduction in moment distribution factor.
Torsional moments exist about the longitudinal axis in skewed bridges due to gravity loads (both
dead and live load). The moments increase the reactions and shear forces at the obtuse
corners compared to the acute corners. The potential also exists for reactions to become small
or negative at acute corners.
Use the skew correction factors for shear in LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3c-1 to adjust the live load
shears and reactions in skewed bridges. Apply the skew correction factor as defined in LRFD
Article C4.6.2.2.3c or perform a supplementary investigation of uplift for acute corners.
Bridges with skews over 30 require either a refined finite element or grid analysis to evaluate
reactions, girder shear demands, girder torsion demands, cross frame demands and integral
abutment or bent demands. Refer to Section 12.5.4.
12.2.2.2
Precast, Prestressed Concrete Girder Example
The following presents a girder distribution example for a precast, prestressed concrete girder
bridge.
12-3
February 2015
Example:
Given:
Precast bulb tee girder bridge

Span length, L = 96-0
Girder spacing, S = 9-0
Depth of concrete slab, ts = 8 in.
f C = 4 ksi
D
f C = 8 ksi
G
Note: In the LRFD Specifications, f C
= f C and EG = EB .
B
Section properties (see Figure 12.2):

Area = A = 726 in2
Moment of inertia = I = 183,993 in4
Distance from CG to top = yt = 21.70 in.
Longitudinal stiffness parameter:

K
n =
= n I + Ae 2
g
LRFD Equation 4.6.2.2.1-1
LRFD Equation 4.6.2.2.1-2
E = modulus of elasticity of girder material

G
= 1820 f C
LRFD Equation C5.4.2.4-1
= 5148 ksi
= modulus of elasticity of deck material= 1820 f C
= 1820 f C
= 3640 ksi
n = 1.41
e
= distance between CGs of the girder and deck
= y t + assumed average haunch thicknes s +
1
2
( depth of slab )
= 21.70 + 1.0 + 4.0

= 26.70 in.
12-4
February 2015
Figure 12.2 UTAH BULB TEE GIRDER (UBT42)
12-5
( )
( )(
February 2015
K = 1.41 183,993 + 726 26.70 2

G
= 989,187 in 4
Moment of interior girders with two or more design lanes loaded:
interior
= 0.075 + S
9.5
0. 6
S

L
0 .2
12.0 Lt 3
s
0. 1
LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1
S = 0.95
9. 5
S = 0.09
L
KG
12.0 Lt 3s
= 1.68
( ) (0.09) (1.68)
0.075 + (0.97 )(0.62)(1.05 )
ginterior = 0.075 + 0.95

=
0 .6
0.2
0.1
= 0.71 lanes per girder
12.3
MODELING CONCRETE BRIDGE PARAPETS
Reference:
The LRFD Specifications allow the use of the structural contribution of any structurally
continuous parapet to resist transient loads at the service and fatigue and fracture limit states as
a part of the cross section of the exterior girder. Do not allow any structural contribution for new
designs, except as defined in LRFD Article 4.6.2.6.1, for checking the composite girder
resistance and for structural modeling. Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager if
consideration of the parapet offers significant advantages on a preservation or rehabilitation
project. Use a 3D refined analysis to estimate the contribution of the barrier.
12.4
INFLUENCE LINE ANALYSIS
Influence lines are a tool to position live loads for maximum force effect and for evaluating the
magnitude of the force effect.
Constructing an influence line by analysis consists of dividing the structure into intervals,
calculating the force effects due to a unit load at each resulting node and connecting the
ordinates. For a determinate structure, connect the ordinates with a straight line; for an
indeterminate structure, use a smooth curve that is consistent with the boundary conditions.
12-6
February 2015
Constructing influence lines graphically recognizes that the influence line is essentially a
deformation diagram drawn for a unit relative deformation introduced into the structure at the
point of interest and consistent with the boundary conditions. For flexure, the relative
displacement represents a unit rotation. For shear or reaction, the relative displacement
represents a unit linear deflection.
For the influence analysis of a single girder line, construct an influence line either by analysis or
through graphical means as discussed above. The influence analysis of an entire bridge results
in an influence surface instead of a simple influence line. The influence surface represents not
only the influence of loads positioned along a girder line, but also loads positioned transversely
on the bridge.
Determining the magnitude of the force effects from an influence line consists of multiplying the
magnitude of the load applied at a point by the ordinate under the influence line at that point.
12.5
REFINED ANALYSIS
Reference:
LRFD Articles 4.6.2.2 and 4.6.3
Refined analyses include both 2D and 3D structural elements (sometimes called grid and finite
element models, respectively). 2D structural element models are composed of elements lying in
a single plane with the third dimension represented only through the stiffness properties of the
elements. Typically, in a grid analysis, longitudinal elements represent the girders including any
composite deck, and the transverse elements represent the deck. 3D structural element models
are composed of elements in all three dimensions or of elements with three dimensions (e.g.,
brick elements). LRFD Article 4.6.3.3 provides general requirements for grid and finite element
analyses in terms of the number of elements and aspect ratios.
Use a 2D refined analysis on the following bridge types:
Bridges with nonstandard framing

Bridges with straight girders and girder spacing, if required by the Structures Design
Manager
Bridges with span lengths or girder spacing falling outside the range of applicability of
live load distribution factor equations
Bridges with curved girders (3D refined analysis also permitted)
Bridges with skews exceeding 30
Use a 3D refined analysis on the following bridge types:
Bridges with skews exceeding 45

Bridges with curved girders (2D refined analysis also permitted)
Bridges lifted and moved with temporary supports more than 10% of the span away from
the permanent supports
12-7
February 2015
Modeling errors are more likely when using a refined analysis. Modeling errors can result in
unconservative or unbuildable structures. Refer to Section 12.7 for a discussion on modeling
and analysis verification. Only use a refined analysis for bridges not meeting the above
requirements when approved by the Structures Design Manager. Where refined analysis is
used, show back calculated, live load distribution factors for each girder in the contract
documents for future use in rating or rehabilitating the bridge.
12.5.1
2D Analysis (Straight, Zero Skew Bridges)
Use a 2D analysis for a straight, zero skew bridge with complicated geometry or complex girder
framing such as for an urban interchange bridge or bridges with girder spacing that varies by
more than 20% from the average girder spacing. Line girder analysis with point loads applied
at girder framing locations does not adequately capture the true distribution of loads.
12.5.2
2D Analysis (Straight Bridges with Long Spans or Wide Girder Spacing)
Use a 2D analysis for a bridge with straight girders and girder spacing or span lengths falling
outside the range of applicability of live load distribution factor equations.
12.5.3
2D Analysis (Horizontally Curved Bridges)
The design of all superstructures must account for the effect of curvature where the components
are constructed on horizontal curves.
The magnitude of the effect of horizontal curvature is primarily a function of the curve radius,
girder spacing, span length, diaphragm spacing and, to a lesser extent, web depth and flange
proportions. The effect of curvature develops in two ways. First, the general tendency is for
each girder to overturn, which has the effect of transferring both dead and live load from one
girder to another transversely. The net result of the load transfer is that some girders carry
more load and others carry less. The load transfer is carried through the diaphragms and the
deck.
The second effect of curvature is that flange bending caused by torsion in curved components is
almost totally resisted by horizontal shear in the flanges. The horizontal shear results in
moments in the flanges. The stresses caused by the moments either add to or reduce the
stresses from vertical bending. The torsion also causes warping of the girder webs.
Use refined analysis methods, either grid or finite element, for the analysis of horizontally curved
bridges. LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.4 states that approximate analysis methods can be used for the
analysis of curved bridges, but then highlights the deficiencies of the analyses, specifically the
V-load method for I-girders and the M/R method for boxes. The use of V-load method for Igirders and the M/R method for boxes is not permitted for final design. The V-load and M/R
methods are appropriate for preliminary design purposes or as an order of magnitude checking
tool.
12-8
12.5.4
February 2015
2D Analysis (Skewed Bridges)
Reference:
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.3c
Use a 2D refined analysis for skewed bridges with an angle of skew greater than 30. Areas of
concern include:
12.5.5
Uplift of girders at acute corners

Cross frame loads near supports
Torsion on girders from cross frame effects
Torsion on girders due to restraint at integral abutments
Deck stresses near supports
3D Analysis (Highly Skewed or Horizontally Curved Bridges or Bridges

Moved into Place)
A 3D analysis, and the associated increase in design costs, is often not warranted for the initial
design of a bridge. For the analysis of complex structures or for the investigation of a
problematic bridge (e.g., a bridge experiencing unexplained fatigue cracking), a 3D analysis
could be warranted.
A 3D analysis is required for highly skewed bridges and bridges moved into place. A 2D grid
analysis does not adequately model the deck and girder interaction near supports and does not
properly capture warping torsion effects. Bridges on high skews require a 3D analysis to
adequately define member forces near the bearings. Bridges moved into place with SPMTs
require a 3D analysis to define the twist or displacement limitations. Lateral slides using rigid
slide supports are exempt. A 3D analysis is required for lateral slides using hydraulic support
systems. Run bridge move models with and without the parapet to evaluate the variation in
bridge response.
12.6
WIND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
Reference:
LRFD Articles 3.4.1, 3.8.1 and 4.6.2.7.1
LRFD Article 4.6.2.7.1 discusses load paths for transferring wind loads transversely applied to
the fascia girder to the bridge bearings. The commentary to the Article provides guidelines on
how girders resist the wind loads. The provisions are directly applicable to steel girder bridges.
In typical concrete girder bridges, the distribution of wind load becomes insignificant due to the
greater out of plane stiffness in comparison with steel girders.
12-9
12.7
February 2015
MODELING AND ANALYSIS VERIFICATION
The Structures Division uses many programs for structural analysis and design. The programs
create mathematical models of the structure and permit modeling of various loading conditions.
The models allow structural engineers to quickly analyze several alternative designs (i.e.,
simulation capabilities). The models also reduce the probability of mathematical errors, and
save time by avoiding laborious hand calculations. However, the user of any model must:
Use engineering judgment and experience to evaluate the accuracy of the model output
and to properly interpret the output
Learn the advantages and limitations of each model
Recheck the input to ensure accuracy
Check all output to ensure that answers are reasonable and logical and that there are no
obvious errors. The check must include, but not necessarily be limited to, the following:
Check equilibrium:
+
Does the sum of all dead load reactions equal the intended applied load?
+
Is the distribution of dead load reasonable?
+
Do the reactions have associated moments?
+
Are the reaction moments reasonable?
Review the boundary conditions:

+
Do the boundary conditions in the model reflect the physical boundary
conditions?
+
How does a change in fixity at the support change the results?
Verify the coordinate system, units and member properties:

+
Is member output in the local or global coordinate system?
+
Do you understand how the model defines the coordinate system?
+
Are units in the model consistent?
+
Are the member properties consistent with the member orientation in the
model?
+
Are the member property units consistent with the model units?
Evaluate the model response:

+
Check simple free body diagrams by cutting the structure at a section
where a free body can easily be taken.
+
Review the model deflections; are they reasonable?
The improper use of models has resulted in inadequately sized elements causing structural
failures. The EOR is responsible for any modeling errors. Model results that yield significant
increases or decreases in capacity compared to typical results are often caused by errors in the
model.
12-10
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FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
13.1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 13-1

13.1.1
13.1.2
13.1.3
13.2
EARTHQUAKE RESISTING SYSTEMS AND ELEMENTS ...................................... 13-3

13.2.1
13.2.2
13.3
Objective...................................................................................................... 13-1
Bridges ........................................................................................................ 13-1
Miscellaneous Structures ............................................................................ 13-1
Earthquake Resisting Systems.................................................................... 13-3

Earthquake Resisting Elements .................................................................. 13-3
SEISMIC GROUND SHAKING HAZARD .................................................................. 13-3

13.3.1
13.3.2
13.3.3
Design Seismic Levels for Bridges, Walls, Slopes and Soils

near Bridges ................................................................................................ 13-4
Vertical Accelerations .................................................................................. 13-4
Site Effects .................................................................................................. 13-4
13.3.3.1
13.3.3.2
13.3.3.3
13.3.4
13.4
Site Class................................................................................... 13-4

Deep Soils ................................................................................. 13-5
Depth of Controlling Motion ....................................................... 13-5
Acceleration Time Histories ......................................................................... 13-5
SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY SELECTION ........................................................... 13-5

13.4.1
13.4.2
Permanent Bridges ...................................................................................... 13-5

Temporary Bridges ...................................................................................... 13-5
13.5
LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTORS ...................................................................... 13-6
13.6
ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................. 13-6

13.6.1
13.6.2
13.6.3
13.6.4
13.6.5
13.6.6
13.6.7
13.7
Balanced Stiffness and Balanced Frames................................................... 13-6

Damping ...................................................................................................... 13-6
Combination of Orthogonal Seismic Displacement Demands ..................... 13-7
Analytical Procedures .................................................................................. 13-7
Single Span Bridges .................................................................................... 13-7
Structure Displacement Demand................................................................. 13-7
Bearing Modeling......................................................................................... 13-9
SPECIFIC ELEMENTS AND MATERIALS ............................................................... 13-10

13.7.1
13.7.2
13.7.3
13.7.4
Seismic
In Ground Hinging ....................................................................................... 13-10

Restrainers .................................................................................................. 13-10
Shear Keys and Backwalls .......................................................................... 13-11
Structural Steel ............................................................................................ 13-11
13-i
13.7.4.1
13.7.4.2
13.7.5
Pipe Piles and H-Piles ............................................................... 13-11

Girders or Structural Systems.................................................... 13-11
Reinforcing .................................................................................................. 13-11

13.7.5.1
13.7.5.2
13.7.5.3
13.7.6
February 2015
Steel Reinforcing ....................................................................... 13-11

Alternative Nonmetallic Reinforcing ........................................... 13-11
Reinforcing Details..................................................................... 13-13
Expansion Joints ......................................................................................... 13-13
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 13.1 BRIDGE CLASSIFICATIONS ........................................................................ 13-2
Figure 13.2 LOAD CASES (ORTHOGONAL SEISMIC DISPLACEMENT DEMANDS).... 13-8
Figure 13.3 STRESS PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL REINFORCING STEEL BARS ......... 13-12
Figure 13.4 STRESS PROPERTIES OF OTHER REINFORCING STEEL BARS ............ 13-12
13-ii
Seismic
February 2015
Chapter 13
SEISMIC
UDOT has adopted the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design, which
supersedes Section 3.10 of the LRFD Specifications. This chapter discusses seismic provisions
of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design that require amplification
or clarification.
13.1
INTRODUCTION
13.1.1
Objective
The primary goal for seismic design is to provide ductile structures that meet the performance
objective defined in the project documents or as defined by the Structures Design Manager. All
structures require detailing for ductility, even structures expected to respond elastically to
seismic loading. Use the SDSR to document the seismic design approach. See Section 3.4 for
additional information on the SDSR.
13.1.2
Bridges
Use the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design and Chapter 13 to
determine seismic design loadings and resistances. Do not use Section 3.10 of the LRFD
Specifications for bridge design.
All interstate bridges are classified as essential but can be escalated to a critical classification
by the Structures Design Manager. All noninterstate bridges are classified as normal unless
otherwise specified by the Structures Design Manager. Coordinate with the Structures Design
Manager to determine requirements for nonconventional bridges. Refer to the AASHTO Guide
Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design for a definition of conventional and typical
nonconventional structures.
Figure 13.1 defines performance objectives and ductility limits for the bridge classifications.
Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to determine if the default classification and
performance objective is appropriate for the project.
13.1.3
Miscellaneous Structures
Miscellaneous structures, such as small culverts, vaults or other in ground structures, do not
require seismic design. Culverts meeting the requirements defined in Section 22.1 require
seismic design. Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to determine structure specific
requirements for culverts requiring seismic design. This chapter defines seismic levels for
Seismic
13-1
February 2015
checking wall stability and strength. Design wall structural elements to meet seismic load
requirements elastically using a factor of 1.0.
Bridge
Performance
Classification Objective
Expected
Element
Behaviors
Ductility Limits and Permitted Damage

Permissible elements designed to resist all
seismic
loads
within
displacement
constraints; expansion joints must continue to
function after the seismic event; minor
spalling is permitted.
Critical
Operational
Linear elastic,
essentially
elastic
An essentially elastic plastic hinge meets the

following requirements:
D < 2, single column bent

D < 2, multiple column bent
D < 2, bent wall in weak direction
D < 1, bent wall in strong direction
Cantilever wingwalls can fully plastic hinge

when failure of the wing does not compromise
the roadway above or below the structure.
Permissible elements designed to resist all
seismic
loads
within
displacement
constraints; joints can fail and plastic hinging
can occur; structure could be permanently
displaced; a repairable plastic hinge meets
the following requirements:
Essential
Repairable
Linear elastic,
essentially
elastic, inelastic
D < 3, single column bent

D < 4, multiple column bent
D < 3, bent wall in weak direction
D < 1, bent wall in strong direction
Permanent offsets in a horizontal direction up

to 8 in. are permitted. The permanent offset
is defined as the maximum displacement at
the deck level in a bridge where support
elements have undergone plastic hinging
during the seismic design event. Cantilever
wingwalls can fail.
Normal
Life safety
Linear elastic,
essentially
elastic, inelastic
The life safety performance objective is

intended to prevent bridge collapse in rare
earthquakes. Structures could require partial
or complete replacement. Refer to the
AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD
Seismic Bridge Design for a thorough
description of potential damage.
Figure 13.1 BRIDGE CLASSIFICATIONS

13-2
Seismic
13.2
February 2015
EARTHQUAKE RESISTING SYSTEMS AND ELEMENTS
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design define earthquake resisting
systems and elements. The following sections define permitted systems, systems not permitted
and modifications to loading.
13.2.1
Earthquake Resisting Systems
Article 3.3 of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design defines three
types of ERS Type 1 (ductile substructure with essentially elastic superstructure), Type 2
(essentially elastic substructure with ductile superstructure) and Type 3 (elastic superstructure
and elastic substructure with a fusing element between the two). Use Type 1 or Type 3
Earthquake Resisting Systems. The Structures Design Manager must approve the use of Type
2 systems.
13.2.2
Earthquake Resisting Elements
All EREs defined in Figure 3.3-1B of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic
Bridge Design are permitted with the following exception:
11 Do not reduce the passive pressure; use the passive soil pressures and factors
defined in the SD drawings
The following EREs requiring owner approval and defined in Figure 3.3-2 of the AASHTO Guide
Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design are permitted:
1 Passive pressure; use the passive soil pressures and factors defined in the SD
drawings
2 Sliding footings
4 Rocking footings; permitted when combined with integral abutments; rocking not
permitted if footing is located under a travel lane of the roadway crossed
7 Yielding; this chapter defines pile yield limits
8 In ground hinging; this chapter defines in ground hinging limits and use limitations
13.3
SEISMIC GROUND SHAKING HAZARD
Use the procedures defined in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge
Design to determine the design response spectra or use Geotechnical Design Division
approved project specific criteria when required.
Seismic
13-3
13.3.1
February 2015
Design Seismic Levels for Bridges, Walls, Slopes and Soils near Bridges
Use an earthquake hazard corresponding to 7% probability of exceedence in 75 years for all

bridges.
At bridges classified as normal, essential or critical, use an earthquake hazard corresponding to
3% probability of exceedence in 75 years to evaluate slope stability, lateral spread, liquefaction,
wall stability and wall strength in an area within 50 ft of the centerline of bearing of any bridge
support.
At retaining walls beyond 50 ft of bridges, use an earthquake hazard corresponding to 7%
probability of exceedence in 75 years to evaluate wall stability and wall strength.
13.3.2
Vertical Accelerations
Use vertical accelerations for straddle bents and cantilever bents in near fault environments.
Follow the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design in determining
appropriate design vertical accelerations in consultation with the Geotechnical Design Division
to determine the appropriate vertical accelerations for the site. Document the vertical
accelerations in the SDSR.
Use vertical accelerations for bridges classified as critical unless directed otherwise by the
Structures Design Manager. Use vertical accelerations to verify superstructure capacity for
essential or critical bridges governed by Strength IV loading.
13.3.3
Site Effects
The following sections provide insight into site effects. The project geotechnical engineer
classifies the site and, in consultation with the Geotechnical Design Division, determines if a site
specific hazard analysis is required. Coordinate with the Geotechnical Design Division when
performing a site specific hazard analysis.
13.3.3.1
Site Class
Do not use average N -values or su -values (AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic
Bridge Design, Equations 3.4.2.2-2 through 3.4.2.2-4) directly to determine the site class. Use
site specific v s measurements. For smaller projects where site specific response analyses are
not feasible, infer v s estimates from nearby, pre-existing v s data for the corresponding
geological unit or obtain from empirical correlations with SPT, N and su values. Use the
resulting shear wave velocities in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge
Design, Equation 3.4.2.2-1 to obtain the average shear wave velocity and determine the site
class. If empirical relations are used, consider the uncertainty in the derived v s values.
Coordinate with the Geotechnical Design Division if site specific v s measurements are not
feasible.
13-4
Seismic
13.3.3.2
February 2015
Deep Soils
The definitions of site class based on the average parameters of the upper 100 ft of the site
profile are not typically applicable in deep soil basin conditions where the thickness of the soil
overburden is much greater than 100 ft. Soil amplification/deamplification effects can
significantly change the spectral values for deep soil sites. The effects are not always
adequately represented by using soil amplification factors based on site class and given in the
AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design.
In the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design, special investigations
including site specific hazard analyses often are warranted for deep Site Class D profiles and all
Site Class E and F soil profiles. The Geotechnical Design Division has developed additional
guidance for performing hazard analyses for the soils. See UDOT Research Report UT-03.19,
Bartlett, Steven F., Ground Response Analyses and Design Spectra for UDOT Bridges on Soft
Soil Sites, January 2004, for more information.
13.3.3.3
Depth of Controlling Motion
Use site specific hazard analyses for cases involving deep foundations where the controlling
motion is more appropriately specified at depth rather than near the ground surface.
13.3.4
Acceleration Time Histories
For sites with potential near field effects (distance to active fault is less than 6.25 miles), select
candidate time histories for time domain analyses that include near field effects (e.g., directivity
pulses). Do not use the generation of synthetic time histories unless the algorithm used is
capable of generating near field effects.
13.4
SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY SELECTION
Determine the SDC according to the process defined in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for
LRFD Seismic Bridge Design, except as modified in the following sections.
13.4.1
Permanent Bridges
All bridges in SDC B must meet the detailing requirements of SDC C.
13.4.2
Temporary Bridges
A temporary structure for the application of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic
Bridge Design, Article 3.6, is a temporary widening or temporary bridge that is only used during
a construction project to maintain traffic flow and when the construction duration is less than five
years.
Seismic
13-5
February 2015
Use the SDC determined from the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge
Design, except base the SDC on the 1 second period design spectral acceleration divided by 2.
Develop the design spectra using the same accelerations and site factors as a permanent
bridge, but divide the response spectra by 2 for use in the design model.
Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to determine the required seismic design loads
for emergency replacement structures required to maintain traffic while a permanent
replacement project is funded and developed.
13.5
LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTORS
Use load factors of 1.0 for all permanent loads. Use the load factors, , defined in the SD
drawings for seismic passive pressures. All factors are 1.0 for seismic checks unless defined
otherwise in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design.
Use the live load factor defined in Section 11.1.4.3 of the SDDM. When considering live load
effects, consider the live load envelope (due to gravity of the live loading) to only add and
increase component responses (i.e., live load cannot cancel and/or reduce the seismic design
demands due to other loads). Generally, live load considerations seek the worst case scenarios
where the presence of live load further increases the demands only. Consider the live load as a
static load (i.e., do not include braking, acceleration and centrifugal forces) and do not include
any amplification or reduction in force due to the vehicles suspension. Refer to Section
11.1.4.3 for further clarification of live load application.
Do not include live load in a pushover analysis to determine displacement capacity.
13.6
13.6.1
ANALYSIS
Balanced Stiffness and Balanced Frames
Meet the requirements of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design,
Article 4.1.2, Balanced Stiffness SDC D, and Article 4.1.3, Balanced Frame Geometry SDC D,
for all bridges regardless of the SDC category.
Use of pinned columns to meet the stiffness ratios is permitted.
Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager and obtain approval when impractical to meet
the balanced stiffness and frame requirements.
13.6.2
Damping
Use of damping ratios up to 10% is permitted on all integral abutment bridges and single span
semi-integral abutment bridges on skews less than 20.
13-6
Seismic
13.6.3
February 2015
Combination of Orthogonal Seismic Displacement Demands
According to Article 4.3.1 of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge
Design, determine displacement demands by using two independent load cases where each
case consists of a single directional ground motion and the directional ground motions are
perpendicular to each other.
Combine the forces as defined in Article 4.4 of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD
Seismic Bridge Design. See Figure 13.2 for additional information.
13.6.4
Analytical Procedures
Article 5.4 of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design defines
analytical procedures. Only use Procedure 1, Equivalent Static Analysis (ESA) on single span
bridges with integral or semi-integral abutments. Procedure 2, Elastic Dynamic Analysis (EDA)
is permitted on all other structures. Use Procedure 3, Nonlinear Time History Method, when
required by the Structures Design Manager.
13.6.5
Single Span Bridges
Meet the requirements of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design.
In addition to the requirements of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge
Design, verify the following:
Pile displacements are less than the maximum permitted displacement. Base the
displacement on the horizontal load defined for single span bridges in the AASHTO
Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design.
Abutment and abutment diaphragms meet the design requirements in the SD drawings.
13.6.6
Structure Displacement Demand
Determining accurate foundation flexibility data is difficult, and results can vary significantly
depending on the method used. Do not include the effects of foundation flexibility when
determining the displacement demand unless a fixed bent foundation model is also run.
For example:
1.
Option 1. The bridge model included foundation flexibility, but a separate model with a
fixed foundation was not completed. The total displacement is 2 in.; 0.5 in. of the total
displacement is from lateral pile displacement. Use 2 in. when checking Equation 4.8-1
in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design.
Seismic
13-7
February 2015
Figure 13.2 LOAD CASES (ORTHOGONAL SEISMIC DISPLACEMENT DEMANDS)

13-8
Seismic
2.
February 2015
Option 2. The bridge model included foundation flexibility and a separate model with a
fixed bent foundation was also completed. The total displacement with foundation
flexibility is 2 in.; 0.5 in. of the total displacement is from lateral pile displacement. The
total displacement with no foundation flexibility is 1.6 in. Use the maximum of the actual
column displacement when checking Equation 4.8-1 in the AASHTO Guide
Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design (i.e., the maximum actual column
displacement is the maximum of 1.5 in. and 1.6 in.).
Check the displacement demand against the displacement capacity defined in Article 4.8 of
If according to Equation 4.8.1-3 in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge
Design is less than or equal to 0.2 and the SDC is C, check D according to the requirements of
the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design, Article 4.9, and provide
details according to SDC D.
Essential and critical bridges must also meet the ductility limits defined in Figure 13.1.
13.6.7
Bearing Modeling
Assume that rigid type bearings do not move in the restrained directions. Transmit the seismic
forces from the superstructure through diaphragms or cross frames and the connections to the
bearings and then to the substructure without reduction due to local inelastic action along that
load path.
Seismic isolation bearings can reduce column and foundation demands. Fully or partially
isolated structures are permitted. Partially isolated structures use isolation bearings to minimize
force transfer to specific elements. Partial isolation is also used to balance stiffness in bents.
Model isolation bearings and sliding bearings according to the requirements of the AASHTO
Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design.
Use the full seismic design load to design shear keys or other seismic load transfer elements.
Do not reduce the shear key load through transfer of transverse or longitudinal seismic loads
through elastomeric bearings when the system is restrained by shear keys or the bearing
anchorage is designed to transfer the seismic loads. Do not use the bearing response before
engaging shear keys to reduce the response of the structure.
Model the pads according to AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design when
using elastomeric expansion bearings without shear keys, guides or restrainers. Only
expansion bearings with a movement capacity equal to 1.2 times the EQ displacements are
considered deformable for seismic modeling. Refer to Chapter 19 for minimum lateral loads
transferred to substructure units.
Seismic
13-9
13.7
13.7.1
February 2015
SPECIFIC ELEMENTS AND MATERIALS

In Ground Hinging
In ground hinging is not permitted on single column bents supported on a single shaft.
Do not use in ground hinging except as follows:
13.7.2
Column hinging above the footing but below the finished grade with the footing less than
the maximum of 3-6 or Lp below finished grade. Obtain approval from the Structures
Design Manager for footings deeper than 3-6 or Lp below finished grade.
Essentially elastic behavior is allowed for drilled shafts at the junction between the drilled
shaft and the foundation element when approved by the Structures Design Manager. D
< 2.0 is permitted where D is calculated based on design properties. Do not use
expected properties or overstrength properties to estimate D because the system is not
capacity protected.
Inelastic behavior of drilled shafts due to liquefaction and lateral spread is permitted on
bridges classified as normal when approved by the Structures Design Manager. Limit D
< 4. Limit compressive strain in the shaft at the hinge location to the smaller of 0.008 or
the limit determined from Manders confined concrete model.
Inelastic behavior of steel H-piles or pipe piles is permitted. Do not splice the H-pile or
pipe pile near the anticipated plastic hinge zone.
Restrainers
Use longitudinal restrainers or equivalent extended support lengths according to Article C4.13.11 of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design at expansion joints at
bents. Restrainers are permitted at other locations as needed. Design restrainers at abutments
for longitudinal movement into the approach fill, and design transverse movements to transfer
the design passive pressure and pile loads as defined in the SD drawings. Design restrainers at
abutments to transfer two times the pile capacity for movements away from the approach fill.
Use minimum support lengths as defined in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD
Seismic Bridge Design, Article 4.12, on new structures. Do not reduce the minimum support
length based on the fact that the restrainer can potentially limit the displacement to much less
than the minimum support length calculation. Refer to the SS sheets for sample restrainer
details.
Use restrainers as a primary means of preventing unseating in the seismic retrofitting of existing
bridges. However, even for existing bridges, other methods of preventing unseating are
preferable, including:
13-10
Providing bolsters at girder supports

Eliminating intermediate expansion joints
Replacing expansion bearings with fixed or isolation bearings
Seismic
13.7.3
February 2015
Shear Keys and Backwalls
Do not design shear keys or backwalls to fuse. If shear keys or backwalls are used, the
element must remain essentially elastic during the design event. Localized spalling and impact
damage is permitted.
13.7.4
13.7.4.1
Structural Steel
Pipe Piles and H-Piles
All steel pipe piles must meet the requirements for ductile members as defined in Article 7.4 of
the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design. Determine displacement
limits based on Mrc as defined in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge
Design, Article 7.6.1, but not less than 3 in. The R-factor, referenced in the definition of Mu, for
pipe piles is 1.0.
Use Mp to determine displacement limits of H-piles meeting the requirements for ductile
members as defined in Article 7.4 of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic
Bridge Design but not less than 3 in. Use My to determine displacement limits of H-piles not
meeting the requirements for ductile members as defined in Article 7.4 of the AASHTO Guide
Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design. The R-factor for H-piles is 1.0.
13.7.4.2
Girders or Structural Systems
Do not use the Type 2 (essentially elastic substructure with ductile superstructure) performance
criteria. Provide shear connectors on the top of nonintegral bridge end diaphragms or cross
frames and on diaphragms or cross frames at expansion joints.
13.7.5
13.7.5.1
Reinforcing
Steel Reinforcing
Use ASTM A706 or ASTM A955 reinforcing for use in plastic hinge zones.
Use the properties listed in Figures 13.3 and 13.4 when determining the strength and
displacement capacities of the elements examined.
13.7.5.2
Alternative Nonmetallic Reinforcing
Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to determine appropriate design properties.
Plastic hinge zones require ductile reinforcing.
Seismic
13-11
February 2015
Notation
Bar Size
ASTM
A706
ASTM A615
Grade 60
Specified minimum yield stress (ksi)
fy
#3 #18
60
60
Expected yield stress (ksi)
fye
#3 #18
68
68
Expected tensile strength (ksi)
fue
#3 #18
95
95
Expected yield strain
ye
#3 #18
0.0023
0.0023
#3 #8
0.0150
0.0150
#9
0.0125
0.0125
#10 & #11
0.0115
0.0115
#14
0.0075
0.0075
#18
0.0050
0.0050
#4 #10
0.0900
0.0600
#11 #18
0.0600
0.0400
#4 #10
0.1200
0.0900
#11 #18
0.0900
0.0600
Property
sh
Onset of strain hardening
Reduced ultimate tensile strain; use to

determine ultimate capacity
Ultimate tensile strain
su
Figure 13.3 STRESS PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL REINFORCING

ASTM
A955
Grade 60
ASTM
A955
Grade 75
Property
Notation
Bar Size
ASTM
A615
Grade 40
Specified minimum yield stress (ksi)
fy
#3 #18
40
60
75
Expected yield stress (ksi)
fye
#3 #18
48
75
94
Expected tensile strength (ksi)
fue
#3 #18
81
112
125
Expected yield strain
ye
#3 #18
0.0017
0.0035
0.0035
0.0193
0.0035
0.0035
#4 #10
0.0900
0.0900
0.0900
#11 #18
0.0600
0.0900
0.0900
#4 #10
0.1200
0.2000
0.2000
#11 #18
0.0900
0.2000
0.2000
#3 #8
#9
Onset of strain hardening
sh
#10 & #11

#14
#18
Reduced ultimate tensile strain; use

to determine ultimate capacity
Ultimate tensile strain
su
Figure 13.4 STRESS PROPERTIES OF OTHER REINFORCING

13-12
Seismic
13.7.5.3
February 2015
Reinforcing Details
Meet the detailing requirements defined in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic
Bridge Design, except as noted in the following.
For drilled shafts, develop column reinforcing into oversized drilled shafts according to the
WSDOT method repeated below, or according to the method defined in the AASHTO Guide
Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design.
Do not hook column reinforcing to reduce the development length. The minimum embedment
length is:
lns = ls + s
Where:
ls =
lac =
ld =
s
the larger of 1.7 lac or 1.7 ld (for Class C lap splice)

development length from Article 8.8.4 of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for
LRFD Seismic Bridge Design for the column longitudinal reinforcing
tension development length of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications, Article 5.11.2.1
for the column longitudinal reinforcing
distance between the shaft and column longitudinal reinforcing
Do not use the development length reduction factor based on the (As required / As provided).
13.7.6
Expansion Joints
Design the expansion joints and expansion joint gaps on bridges with the operational
performance objective to remain functional after the design seismic event. Expansion joints on
bridges with the repairable or life safety performance objective do not require specific seismic
load or displacement checks. Section 19.1 discusses expansion joints in more detail.
Use longitudinal restrainers or equivalent extended support lengths according to Article C4.13.11 of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design at all expansion joints
at bents.
Seismic
13-13
13-14
February 2015
Seismic
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
14.1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 14-1

14.1.1
14.1.2
Reinforced Concrete Structures ................................................................... 14-1

Prestressed Concrete Structures ................................................................. 14-1
14.1.2.1
14.1.2.2
14.2
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE DESIGN ......................................................................... 14-2

14.2.1
14.2.2
Member Design Models ............................................................................... 14-2

Sectional Design Model ............................................................................... 14-2
14.2.2.1
14.2.2.2
14.2.2.3
14.2.2.4
14.2.3
14.2.4
14.2.5
14.3
Flexural Resistance .................................................................... 14-2

Minimum Limits for Flexural Steel Reinforcing ........................... 14-3
Crack Control Reinforcing .......................................................... 14-3
Shear Resistance ....................................................................... 14-4
Strut and Tie Model ...................................................................................... 14-5

Fatigue ......................................................................................................... 14-6
Torsion ......................................................................................................... 14-6
MATERIALS ................................................................................................................ 14-7

14.3.1
14.3.2
14.3.3
14.3.4
14.3.5
14.4
Pretensioning ............................................................................. 14-1

Post-Tensioning ......................................................................... 14-2
Structural Concrete ...................................................................................... 14-7

Reinforcing ................................................................................................... 14-7
Welded Wire Reinforcing ............................................................................. 14-8
Prestressing Strands and Tendons .............................................................. 14-9
Prestressing Bars ......................................................................................... 14-9
REINFORCING DETAILS ............................................................................................ 14-9

14.4.1
Reinforcing ................................................................................................... 14-9

14.4.1.1
14.4.1.2
14.4.1.3
14.4.1.4
14.4.1.5
14.4.1.6
14.4.1.7
14.4.1.8
14.4.1.9
14.4.2
14.4.3
Reinforcing Sizes ....................................................................... 14-9

Concrete Cover .......................................................................... 14-9
Spacing of Reinforcing ............................................................... 14-10
Fabrication Lengths .................................................................... 14-10
Lateral Confinement Reinforcing ................................................ 14-11
Corrosion Protection................................................................... 14-12
Development of Reinforcing ....................................................... 14-12
Splices ........................................................................................ 14-12
Bundled Reinforcing ................................................................... 14-14
Welded Wire Reinforcing ............................................................................. 14-14

Prestressing Strand and Tendon Details ..................................................... 14-15
14.4.3.1
14.4.3.2
Concrete Structures
Pretensioned Members .............................................................. 14-15

Post-Tensioned Members .......................................................... 14-16
14-i
14.5
REINFORCED CIP SLAB SUPERSTRUCTURES ...................................................... 14-17

14.5.1
General ........................................................................................................ 14-17

14.5.1.1
14.5.2
14.5.3
14.5.4
14.5.5
14.5.6
14.5.7
14.5.8
14.5.9
14.5.10
14.5.11
14.5.12
14.6
Allowance for Dead Load Deflection and Settlement ................................... 14-17

Construction Joints ...................................................................................... 14-17
Longitudinal Edge Beam Design .................................................................. 14-18
Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcing ..................................................... 14-18
Distribution of Concrete Parapet Dead Load ............................................... 14-18
Distribution of Live Load .............................................................................. 14-18
Shear Resistance ......................................................................................... 14-19
Minimum Thickness of Slab ......................................................................... 14-19
Development of Flexural Reinforcing ........................................................... 14-19
Skews on Reinforced CIP Slab Superstructures.......................................... 14-19
Abutment Type ............................................................................................. 14-20
Basic Girder Design Criteria ........................................................................ 14-20

14.6.1.1
14.6.1.2
14.6.1.3
14.6.1.4
14.6.2
14.6.3
14.6.4
14.6.5
14.6.6
Concrete Stress Limits ............................................................... 14-20

Concrete Strength at Release .................................................... 14-20
Maximum Stirrup Spacing .......................................................... 14-20
Haunch Thickness for Design .................................................... 14-20
Jacking ......................................................................................................... 14-21

Precast, Prestressed Concrete Girders ....................................................... 14-21
14.6.3.1
14.6.3.2
14.6.3.3
14.6.3.4
14.6.3.5
14.6.3.6
14-ii
Haunches ................................................................................... 14-17
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SUPERSTRUCTURES ............................................... 14-20

14.6.1
14.7
February 2015
Precast I-Girder Sections ........................................................... 14-21

General Design Theory .............................................................. 14-28
Loading Conditions ..................................................................... 14-28
Debonded Strands ..................................................................... 14-29
Intermediate Diaphragms ........................................................... 14-29
Sole Plates ................................................................................. 14-30
Camber and Deflections .............................................................................. 14-30

Sweep .......................................................................................................... 14-31
Bursting Reinforcing ..................................................................................... 14-31
SEGMENTAL CONCRETE POST-TENSIONED BOX GIRDERS .............................. 14-32
Concrete Structures
February 2015
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 14.1
Figure 14.2
Figure 14.3
Figure 14.4
Figure 14.5
Figure 14.6
Figure 14.7
END HOOK FOR CLOSED TIES ................................................................ 14-7

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE .......................................... 14-8
REINFORCING SIZES ................................................................................ 14-10
MINIMUM SPACING OF REINFORCING ................................................... 14-11
SPIRAL TERMINATION IN PLASTIC HINGE ZONE .................................. 14-12
STRAND SIZE, WEIGHT AND SPACING................................................... 14-15
SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCING FOR
REINFORCED CIP SLAB SUPERSTRUCTURES ...................................... 14-18
Figure 14.8 BULB TEE GIRDERS ( fc = 6.5 ksi) ............................................................ 14-22
Figure 14.9 BULB TEE GIRDERS ( fc = 8.5 ksi) ............................................................ 14-23

Figure 14.10 DECK BULB TEE GIRDERS ( fc = 6.5 ksi) ................................................. 14-24
Figure 14.11 DECK BULB TEE GIRDERS ( fc = 8.5 ksi) ................................................. 14-25
Figure 14.12 PT BULB TEE GIRDERS ( fc = 6.5 ksi) ....................................................... 14-26
Figure 14.13 PT BULB TEE GIRDERS ( fc = 8.5 ksi) ....................................................... 14-27
Figure 14.14 MULTIPLERS FOR ESTIMATING LONG TERM DEFLECTION OF
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE GIRDERS ................................................... 14-30
Figure 14.15 DEFINITION OF SWEEP ............................................................................ 14-31
Concrete Structures
14-iii
14-iv
February 2015
Concrete Structures
February 2015
Chapter 14
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Section 5 of the LRFD Specifications presents design requirements for reinforced and
prestressed concrete in all structural elements. ACI similarly uses unified provisions in ACI 318.
This chapter discusses structural concrete provisions in Section 5 of the LRFD Specifications
that require amplification or clarification.
14.1
INTRODUCTION
Concrete structures can be reinforced, prestressed or a combination of reinforcing and

prestressing. Unreinforced structures are not permitted. The design requirements are
presented as unified design requirements because the equations carry terms for both regular
reinforcing and prestressing.
14.1.1
Reinforced Concrete Structures
Reinforced concrete structures add reinforcing to the concrete to increase the system strength.
The reinforcing is primarily a tension element but also adds compression capacity to the
concrete. The tension capacity of the concrete is very low compared to the reinforcing and,
therefore, the concrete cracks before any significant tensile capacity is reached. The design
requirements have serviceability checks to limit cracking.
14.1.2
Prestressed Concrete Structures
The term prestressing relates to a method of construction in which a strand is tensioned and
anchored to the concrete. Upon release of the tensioning force, the concrete is largely in
residual compression and the strand is in residual tension. Regular reinforcing is also placed in
the structure to control cracking. There are two methods of applying the prestressing force, as
discussed in the following sections.
14.1.2.1
Pretensioning
In the pretensioning method, tensioning of the strands is accomplished before the concrete is
placed. When the concrete surrounding the strands attains a specified minimum strength, the
strands are released, thereby transmitting the prestressing force to the concrete by bond and
wedge action at the girder ends. The initial prestress is immediately reduced due to the elastic
shortening of the concrete. Further losses occur over time due to shrinkage and creep of
concrete and relaxation of prestressing strand.
The generic term prestress or prestressed is often used to mean pretensioning.
Concrete Structures
14-1
14.1.2.2
February 2015
Post-Tensioning
In the post-tensioning method, tendon tensioning occurs after the concrete has attained a
specified minimum strength. The tendons, usually comprised of several strands, are loaded into
ducts cast into the concrete. Jacks stress the tendons to the specified prestressing level. Once
stressed, proprietary systems anchor the tendons, and the jacks are released.
Several post-tensioning systems and anchorages are used in the United States. Manufacturers
provide information on available systems. Post-tensioned concrete is also subject to losses
from shrinkage and creep, although at a reduced magnitude because a significant portion of
shrinkage usually occurs before stressing, and the rate of creep decreases with the age at
which the prestress is applied.
After anchoring the tendons, the ducts are pressure filled with grout, which protects the tendons
against corrosion and provides composite action by bonding the strand and the concrete.
14.2
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE DESIGN
14.2.1
Member Design Models
Reference:
LRFD Articles 5.6.3, 5.8.1, 5.8.3 and 5.13.2
The LRFD Specifications allow two approaches to the design of concrete members the
traditional sectional design model and the strut and tie model. The basic application is:
1.
Sectional Design Model. Use the sectional design model for the design of typical bridge
girders, slabs and other regions of components where the assumptions of traditional
beam theory are valid. The model assumes that the response at a particular section
depends only on the calculated values of the sectional force effects such as moment,
shear, axial load and torsion. The model does not consider the specific details of how
the force effects were introduced into the member. LRFD Article 5.8.3 and Section
14.2.2 of this chapter discuss the sectional design model. Subarticles 1 and 2 describe
the applicable geometry required to use the technique to design for shear.
2.
Strut and Tie Model. Use the strut and tie model in regions near discontinuities (e.g.,
abrupt changes in cross section, openings, coped (dapped) ends, deep beams, corbels).
See LRFD Articles 5.6.3 and 5.13.2 and Section 14.2.3 of this chapter.
14.2.2
Sectional Design Model
Reference:
14.2.2.1
Reference:
14-2
LRFD Article 5.8.3
Flexural Resistance
LRFD Article 5.7
Concrete Structures
February 2015
Determine the flexural resistance of a girder section using the rectangular stress distribution of
LRFD Article 5.7.2.2. The rectangular stress block is the basis for the general equation for
structural concrete flexural resistance of LRFD Article 5.7.3.2.1. The approximation of the
rectangular stress block adequately models the resistance of practical cross sections.
Applying the rectangular stress block to unusual cross sections can result in variations of
resistance beyond the range of variability assumed by the LRFD Specifications. Use a strain
compatibility approach as outlined in LRFD Article 5.7.3.2.5 in lieu of using the rectangular
stress block when evaluating unusual cross sections. The AASHTO Guide Specifications for
LRFD Seismic Bridge Design present acceptable material models; however, any accepted
material model is permitted. Use the nominal properties, not the expected properties, when
determining resistance using a strain compatibility approach for strength and service load
checks.
14.2.2.2
Minimum Limits for Flexural Steel Reinforcing
Use f r = 0 .24 f c to determine Mcr in LRFD Article 5.7.3.3.2.

Refer to the SD drawings for additional minimum reinforcing requirements for abutments,
wingwalls and finwalls.
14.2.2.3
Reference:
Crack Control Reinforcing

Distribute reinforcing in all reinforced concrete members in tension to control cracking in

accordance with LRFD Article 5.7.3.4. Use e = 1.00 (Class 1 exposure condition) when
designing for crack control. Do not use e = 0.75 (Class 2 exposure condition).
Several smaller reinforcing bars at moderate spacing are more effective in controlling cracking
than fewer larger reinforcing bars.
Use additional skin reinforcing, Ask, when the member depth exceeds 3 ft. Use the following
equations to determine Ask :
A sk 0.012 (d 30)
(Ask is in in2/ft, d in inches)
But:
A sk
A s + Aps
(4) ((d / 12) / 2)
(Ask is in in2/ft ; d in inches (see note below))
Note that LRFD Equation 5.7.3.4-2 is often misinterpreted, resulting in significant over
reinforcing. The above equations have been intentionally rewritten to clarify the LRFD
equations.
Skin reinforcing runs parallel to the main reinforcing.
Concrete Structures
14-3
14.2.2.4
February 2015
Shear Resistance
Reference:
LRFD Article 5.8.3
14.2.2.4.1
Sectional Design Model
Use a sectional design model to calculate shear capacity for flexural regions, regions away from
reactions, applied loads and changes in cross section where conventional methods for the
strength of materials are applicable and strains are linear. The LRFD Specifications present
three alternative sectional shear design models for estimating the shear resistance of concrete
members. Use Method 1 General Procedure: Modified Compression Field Theory. Method 2
Simplified Procedure for Nonprestressed Sections and Method 3 Simplified Procedure for
Prestressed and Nonprestressed Sections are listed with explanations of why the methods are
not recommended:
Method 1, General Procedure: Modified Compression Field Theory. (Reference: LRFD

Article 5.8.3.4.2 and Appendix B5). Use the MCFT procedure to determine the shear
resistance of concrete members.
Method 2, Simplified Procedure for Nonprestressed Sections. (Reference: LRFD Article

5.8.3.4.1). Do not use the procedure. The shear resistance determined by the
procedure is essentially identical to the resistance traditionally used for evaluating shear
resistance. The procedure can be unconservative for large members not containing
transverse reinforcing.
Method 3, Simplified Procedure for Prestressed and Nonprestressed Sections.

(Reference: LRFD Article 5.8.3.4.3). Do not use the procedure. The simplified
procedure is similar to the traditional approach in the AASHTO Standard Specifications.
The procedure can be more conservative than the MCFT approach.
14.2.2.4.2
Additional Longitudinal Reinforcing For Shear
Reference:
Shear induces tension in the longitudinal reinforcing. The free body diagram in LRFD Figure
C5.8.3.5-1 illustrates the tension in the longitudinal reinforcing in reaction to the diagonal
compression field. The tension becomes larger as the angle of inclination of diagonal
compressive stresses, , becomes smaller and as Vc becomes larger.
Check the longitudinal reinforcing provisions of LRFD Article 5.8.3.5. Use both the developed
prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcing present at the cross section to satisfy the provisions
of LRFD Article 5.8.3.5.
The LRFD Specifications check the longitudinal reinforcing at the face of the bearing. Assume
that the face of bearing is the face of the concrete diaphragm at integral or semi-integral
abutments or at bents made continuous with solid concrete diaphragms. At this section, which
usually lies within the transfer length of the strands, the effective prestressing force in the
14-4
Concrete Structures
February 2015
strands is not fully developed. Calculate the term fps as a portion of the effective prestress force
using a linear variation starting from zero at the end of the girder to full effective prestress at the
transfer length. An increase in strand stress, fps, up to 60 ksi is permitted when the strands are
well anchored at the end of the member, by embedment in a diaphragm or by use of a
mechanical device.
For the ends of prestressed girders embedded into diaphragms (making them continuous for
live load with deck reinforcing meeting the requirements of LRFD Articles 5.14.1.4.7 and
5.14.1.4.8), additional longitudinal reinforcing in the embedded girder to comply with LRFD
Article 5.8.3.5 is not required.
14.2.3
Strut and Tie Model
Reference:
LRFD Article 5.6.3
Use the strut and tie model to determine internal force effects in disturbed regions, regions near
reactions or applied loads, near changes in cross section, or where the sectional design model
is not appropriate (e.g., for deep beams). Laboratory tests on loaded members indicate the
presence of stress fields. The strut and tie method models the stress fields with a vector sum of
tensile or compressive resultant forces. The load paths taken by the resultants form a truss
pattern that is optimum for the given loading, and the resultants are in reasonable equilibrium,
especially at ultimate loads.
The objective is to replicate the optimum pattern (truss) in developing the strut and tie model.
The closer the estimated pattern is to the optimum pattern (truss), the more efficient the use of
materials. Material use is less efficient in poorly conceived strut and tie models, yet the
structure is safe. The compressive concrete paths are the struts, and the reinforcing groups are
the ties. The model does not involve shear or moment because the modeled stresses are only
axial loads.
The application of the strut and tie model encompasses several simple steps:
Develop a truss model and define the truss geometry that carries the applied loads to
the reactions.
Proportion the struts according to the provisions of LRFD Article 5.6.3.3 and the ties
according to LRFD Article 5.6.3.4.
Proportion the nodal regions connecting the truss members according to the provisions
of LRFD Article 5.6.3.5, wherein concrete compression stresses are limited.
Provide crack control reinforcing according to LRFD Article 5.6.3.6 to control the
significant cracking necessary to facilitate the strut and tie model.
The following lists strut and tie model reference materials:
NCHRP 20-7, Task 217 Verification and Implementation of Strut and Tie Model in LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications, Final Report, November 2007
D. Mitchell, M. Collins, S. Bhid and B. Rabbat, AASHTO LRFD Strut and Tie Model
Design Examples, EB231, PCA
Concrete Structures
14-5
February 2015
Article 8.12 of the PCI Precast Prestressed Concrete Bridge Design Manual
J. Schlaich, et al, Towards a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete, PCI Journal,
Vol. 32, No. 3, 1987
Strut and tie models also provide a fast check to ensure the adequacy of a design using a
sectional design model, especially for the appropriate anchorage of the reinforcing.
Cracking is associated with partial debonding and, thus, the bonding capacity of cracked
concrete is not completely reliable. The LRFD Specifications generally require that reinforcing
not be anchored in cracked zones of concrete. Improperly anchored reinforcing is commonly
overlooked in strut and tie models. Consider the use of mechanical anchors in cracked regions.
14.2.4
Fatigue
Reference:
LRFD Articles 3.4.1, 3.6.1.4 and 5.5.3
The fatigue limit state is not normally a critical issue for concrete structures.
In the determination of fmin for application in LRFD Equations 5.5.3.2-1 and 5.5.3.2-2, when the
Fatigue I limit state produces only tensile stresses (e.g., simple spans), the minimum live load
stress is zero.
14.2.5
Torsion
Reference:
LRFD Article 5.8
Where torsion effects are present, design the member according to LRFD Articles 5.8.2 and
5.8.3.6. Situations that can require a torsion design include:
Cantilever brackets connected perpendicular to a concrete girder, especially if a

diaphragm is not located opposite the bracket
Abutment caps, if unsymmetrically loaded
Bent caps
Bent cap extensions supporting sign structures
Horizontally curved members
Pile supported footings
Consider transverse torsion reinforcing fully continuous when consisting of a single reinforcing
bar or consisting of piecewise continuous reinforcing anchored by 135 standard hooks around
longitudinal reinforcing. See Figure 14.1 for an example of piecewise continuous reinforcing.
14-6
Concrete Structures
February 2015
Figure 14.1 END HOOK FOR CLOSED TIES
14.3
14.3.1
MATERIALS
Structural Concrete
Reference:
Figure 14.2 presents design criteria for the minimum compressive strength of concrete in
structural elements.
Use of lightweight concrete decks is permitted. Account for the reduced elastic modulus and
reduced modulus of rupture. When using lightweight concrete, add 10 pcf for reinforcing to the
nominal equilibrium concrete weight for dead load calculations. Do not use lightweight concrete
in approach slabs.
Use of Type III cement (high early strength) is permitted with the approval of the Structures
Design Manager.
Plans or project specifications must indicate usage locations and
requirements.
14.3.2
Reinforcing
Reference:
Use AASHTO M31 (ASTM A615), Grade 60 or ASTM A955, Grade 60 unless specified
otherwise. Where plastic hinging is possible, use reinforcing that conforms to the requirements
of ASTM A706, Grade 60. The modulus of elasticity, Es, is equal to 29,000 ksi.
The ASTM A706 specification has strict material and property requirements. The properties
include a maximum yield strength and a minimum ratio between the tensile and yield strengths.
In addition, ASTM A706 reinforcing requires a controlled chemical composition making the
reinforcing weldable with improved ductility. Weld the reinforcing according to AWS D1.4.
Concrete Structures
14-7
February 2015
Class
Minimum 28 Day
Compressive Strength ( f c )
Bridge decks/approach slabs
AA(AE)
4.0 ksi
CIP concrete
AA(AE)
Prestressed concrete
3A(AE)
Precast concrete
AA(AE)
4.0 ksi
Varies 5.0 to 8.5 ksi;
up to 10.0 ksi permitted*
4.0 ksi
Piles
3.0 ksi or 4.0 ksi
Slope protection
A(AE)
A(AE) or
AA(AE)
A(AE)
Noise walls
AA(AE)
5.0 ksi
All other structural concrete components
AA(AE)
4.0 ksi
Structural Element
Drilled shafts
3.0 ksi
3.0 ksi
Do not use higher strengths without the approval of the Structures Design Manager and a review by
the Materials Division. Avoid strengths over 8.5 ksi because the strengths often require an additional
day in the casting bed and can increase girder cost by up to 50%.
Figure 14.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

ASTM A955, Grade 75, is permitted for deck reinforcing. When all longitudinal reinforcing is
ASTM A955, Grade 75, a design yield strength of 75 ksi is permitted. ASTM A706, Grade 80, is
permitted for deck reinforcing. When all longitudinal reinforcing is ASTM A706, Grade 80, a
design yield strength of 80 ksi is permitted.
Use the fy of the lowest strength bar if the project specifies different grades of longitudinal
reinforcing.
Use other reinforcing with a yield strength greater than 60 ksi only with the approval of the
Structures Design Manager. The design must satisfy all limit states, including serviceability (i.e.,
cracking). High strength reinforcing can have reduced ductility and toughness and requires the
use of a reduced yield strength in design to provide an equivalent safety margin to fracture
when compared to 60-ksi reinforcing. Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to
determine the reduced design yield strength of other high strength reinforcing.
14.3.3
Welded Wire Reinforcing
Welded wire reinforcing, also referred to as welded wire fabric, is an alternative to conventional
concrete reinforcing for approved applications listed in Section 14.3.2. WWR is prefabricated in
a series of parallel wires welded with cross wires to form square or rectangular grids. All wires
in one direction are the same diameter, but the wires in the transverse direction are commonly
different. Each wire intersection is resistance welded.
14-8
Concrete Structures
February 2015
The WWR wires can be either smooth or deformed. WWR is generally used for MSE soil
reinforcing and precast reinforced concrete box culverts and conforms to AASHTO M55 (ASTM
A185) Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Plain, for Concrete.
14.3.4
Prestressing Strands and Tendons
Reference:
Use low relaxation, 7-wire strand conforming to AASHTO M 203 Steel Strand, Uncoated
Seven-Wire for Prestressed Concrete with a minimum tensile strength of fpu = 270 ksi; the yield
strength is specified as 0.9fpu or 243 ksi. Note that prestressing steels do not exhibit a defined
yield plateau. The minimum modulus of elasticity, Ep, is equal to 28,500 ksi.
14.3.5
Prestressing Bars
Reference:
Use plain or deformed bars conforming to AASHTO M 275 Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bars
for Prestressed Concrete with a minimum tensile strength of fpu = 150 ksi, with a yield strength
of 127.5 ksi for plain bars and 120 ksi for deformed bars. The minimum modulus of elasticity,
Ep, is equal to 30,000 ksi.
14.4
REINFORCING DETAILS
14.4.1
Reinforcing
14.4.1.1
Reinforcing Sizes
Reinforcing is referred to in structure plans and specifications by number. Reinforcing varies in

size from #4 to #14. Figure 14.3 presents the sizes and properties of typical reinforcing.
14.4.1.2
Reference:
Concrete Cover
LRFD Article 5.12.3
Use the concrete cover requirements in the LRFD Specifications with the following exceptions:
2.5-in. cover on the top of CIP decks (2 in. for stainless reinforcing)
2.75-in. cover on the top of precast decks (2.25 in. for stainless reinforcing) (cover
includes in. for profile grinding)
1.00-in. cover on the bottom of precast or CIP decks
Concrete Structures
14-9
Reinforcing Size
Designation
February 2015
Nominal Dimensions
Weight
(lb/ft)
Diameter
(in.)
Area
(in2)
#4
0.668
0.500
0.20
#5
1.043
0.625
0.31
#6
1.502
0.750
0.44
#7
2.044
0.875
0.60
#8
2.670
1.000
0.79
#9
3.400
1.128
1.00
#10
4.303
1.270
1.27
#11
5.313
1.410
1.56
#14
7.650
1.693
2.25
Figure 14.3 REINFORCING SIZES
14.4.1.3
Reference:
Spacing of Reinforcing
LRFD Article 5.10.3
Figure 14.4 presents the minimum center to center spacing between reinforcing based on
reinforcing size and spliced vs unspliced. The accompanying sketch illustrates how to measure
the spacing for spliced reinforcing.
Check fit and clearance of reinforcing by calculations and large scale drawings. Skews tend to
complicate problems with reinforcing fit. Consider tolerances normally allowed for cutting,
bending and locating reinforcing. Refer to ACI 315 for allowed tolerances. Some of the
common areas of interference are:
Anchor bolts in abutment caps

Between slab reinforcing and reinforcing in monolithic abutments or bents
Vertical column reinforcing projecting through main reinforcing in bent caps and footings
Near expansion devices
Embedded plates for prestressed concrete girders
Anchor plates for steel girders
Between prestressing strands and reinforcing stirrups, ties, etc.
Drilled shaft reinforcing and main reinforcing in abutments and footings
14.4.1.4
Fabrication Lengths
On DBB projects, use a maximum length of 40 ft for #4 reinforcing and 60 ft for #5 and larger.
On DB projects, coordinate with the fabricator; if the fabricator can supply longer reinforcing,
then designing for longer reinforcing is an option.
14-10
Concrete Structures
Reinforcing Size
February 2015
Minimum Spacing
Spliced Reinforcing
(assumes a side by side lap)
(in.)
Unspliced Reinforcing
(in.)
#4
#5
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
#14
Figure 14.4 MINIMUM SPACING OF REINFORCING
14.4.1.5
Lateral Confinement Reinforcing
14.4.1.5.1
Columns
Reference:
Detail all lateral column reinforcing according to the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD
Seismic Bridge Design. Lateral reinforcing for compression members consists of either spiral
reinforcing, welded hoops or a combination of lateral ties and cross ties. Only use ties when not
practical to provide spiral or hoop reinforcing. Where longitudinal reinforcing is required outside
the spiral or hoop reinforcing, provide lateral support with reinforcing spaced and hooked as
required for cross ties. Extend the hooked reinforcing into the core of the spiral or hoop a full
development length. For closed ties, always fold the hooked end at 135 into the core. See
Figure 14.1. Extend tails into the core with the specified length (LRFD Article 5.10.2.2) or 6 in.,
whichever is greater.
See Figure 14.5 for the termination of a spiral in the plastic hinge zone.
14.4.1.5.2
Drilled Shafts
Determine the length of the plastic hinge confinement reinforcing by appropriate analysis but not
less than the requirements of LRFD Article 5.13.4.6.3d.
Concrete Structures
14-11
February 2015
Figure 14.5 SPIRAL TERMINATION IN PLASTIC HINGE ZONE

Maximize the size of longitudinal and transverse reinforcing to increase the openings between
all reinforcing to allow concrete to pass through the cage during placement. Do not exceed the
maximum spacing requirements of LRFD Article 5.13.4.6.3d.
Meet the requirements of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design,
Sections 8.8.10 and 8.8.11.
14.4.1.6
Corrosion Protection
Use coated reinforcing in all locations except for reinforcing in piles.

Stainless steel reinforcing is considered a coated reinforcing bar with respect to corrosion
protection.
14.4.1.7
Development of Reinforcing
Develop reinforcing on both sides of a point of maximum stress at any section of a reinforced
concrete member, which is specified as the development length, ld.
Fully develop the reinforcing in ties and reinforced struts of members designed with the strut
and tie model where the reinforcing departs from the nodal regions. See the example in LRFD
Figure C5.6.3.2-1(A), Flow of Forces. The left support shows the length over which the tension
tie must be developed.
Consider partially developed reinforcing capable of resisting stresses equal to the yield strength
multiplied by the embedded length divided by the development length. On hooked reinforcing,
the embedded length is measured from the point in question to the base of the hook.
14.4.1.8
Reference:
14-12
Splices
LRFD Article 5.11.5
Concrete Structures
14.4.1.8.1
February 2015
Types/Usage
The following presents practices on the types of splices and usage:

1.
Lap Splices. Use conventional lap splices when practical and when permitted in the
LRFD Specifications.
Where feasible, stagger lap splices for main member reinforcing such that no more than
50% are lapped in any one location. Use a minimum stagger of Ld between adjacent
centerlines of splices for individual and bundled reinforcing. When the above two
conditions are met, Class A and Class B splice lengths are permitted as defined in the
LRFD Specifications.
If transverse reinforcing in a bridge deck is lapped near a longitudinal construction joint,
place the entire lap splice on the side of the construction joint that is poured last.
2.
Mechanical Splices. (Reference: LRFD Articles 5.11.5.2.2, 5.11.5.3.2 and 5.11.5.5.2).

The LRFD Specifications define a mechanical reinforcing connector as a device that can
develop 125% of the specified yield strength of the reinforcing. AASHTO places specific
limits on the use of mechanical splices in the plastic hinge zones of members that are
contrary to current UDOT practice.
UDOT has selected a family of seismic connectors for the prefabricated connections that
can develop forces that are larger than specified in the LRFD Specifications. The basis
for use of mechanical splices is ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete and Commentary. Chapter 21 of ACI 318 covers earthquake resistant
structures.
ACI 318 includes two types of mechanical connectors. An ACI Type 1 connector has the
same strength requirements as the LRFD Specifications and has similar restrictions for
use in plastic hinge locations. An ACI Type 2 connector is required to develop 100% of
the specified tensile strength of the reinforcing, which equates to 150% of the specified
yield strength for AASHTO M31 reinforcing. ACI allows the unrestricted use of Type 2
connectors in members subjected to plastic hinging. In addition, research indicates that
the connections can emulate a CIP concrete connection, even when subjected to the
extreme ductility rotations that occur during earthquakes.
Use of grouted splice couplers or other splice systems meeting the ACI Type 2
requirements in plastic hinge zones is permitted when connecting precast elements.
3.
Field Welded Splices. Do not use field welded splices.
4.
Full Mechanical/Welded Splices. (Reference: LRFD Articles 5.11.5.2.3 and 5.11.5.3.2).

Shop fabricated, butt welded hoops can be used as confinement reinforcing for columns.
The AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code does not address the welding of
reinforcing. Reference the AWS D1.4 Structural Welding Code Reinforcing Steel.
Use only ASTM A709 reinforcing. Coat welded bars after fabrication.
Concrete Structures
14-13
14.4.1.8.2
February 2015
Deck Reinforcing Over Bents
Do not provide lap splices in the longitudinal deck reinforcing within 15 ft of the centerline of the
bent.
14.4.1.8.3
Plastic Hinge Regions
1.
CIP Construction. In columns and drilled shafts, do not splice longitudinal reinforcing or
lap splice spiral reinforcing within the plastic hinge regions. See Figure 14.5 for the
termination of spirals in the plastic hinge zone.
2.
Precast Elements. Mechanical splices meeting ACI Type 2 requirements are permitted
at the top and bottom of columns.
14.4.1.9
Bundled Reinforcing
Reference:
LRFD Articles 5.11.2.3 and 5.11.5.2.1
Use either two bundled or three bundled reinforcing bars. Do not use four bundled reinforcing
bars.
Determine the lap splices of bundled reinforcing upon development lengths as specified in the
LRFD Specifications. Do not lap splice entire bundles at the same location. Individual
reinforcing within a bundle can be lap spliced, but do not overlap the splices. Check the fit and
clearance of reinforcing by calculations and large scale drawings.
14.4.2
Welded Wire Reinforcing
Concrete cover, development length and lap length for WWR must meet the requirements of the
LRFD Specifications. See the Wire Reinforcement Institute Manual of Standard Practice,
Structural Welded Wire Reinforcement for standard practices for detailing WWR. The Manual
also provides commonly available wire sizes and spacing and available mat lengths.
WWR is a substitute for AASHTO M31 (ASTM A615) reinforcing for miscellaneous structural
applications, including:
Precast box culverts

Precast MSE wall panels
Precast soundwall panels
Drainage structures and appurtenances
Channel linings
Slope protection
Catch basins
The Structures Design Manager must approve all other applications. Do not use WWR as a
substitute for ASTM A706 reinforcing.
14-14
Concrete Structures
February 2015
Use WWR as a direct replacement, with equivalent cross sectional area, for the specified
reinforcing. Do not reduce the area based on WWR having a higher yield strength.
Replace coated reinforcing with coated WWR. Coat WWR according to ASTM A884, Class A
AASHTO M111.
14.4.3
Prestressing Strand and Tendon Details
14.4.3.1
Pretensioned Members
14.4.3.1.1
Strand Size and Minimum Spacing
Common sizes of prestressing strand used in bridge construction are 0.375-in., 0.5-in. and
0.6-in. diameter. The preferred diameter of the prestressing strands in pretensioned girders is
0.6 in. The standard half depth deck panel uses 0.375-in. strands. Figure 14.6 lists unit weights
and areas for typical diameters.
Diameter
(in.)
Unit Weight
(lb/ft)
Area
(in2)
Minimum Spacing
(in.)
0.375
0.29
0.085
1.75
0.500
0.52
0.153
1.75
0.600
0.74
0.217
2.00
Figure 14.6 STRAND SIZE, WEIGHT AND SPACING
14.4.3.1.2
Strand Profile
Use a straight and/or harped strand profile. Harped strands (i.e., deviated, draped, deflected)
offer greater shear capacity. Use debonded or harped strands to control stresses and camber.
Debonded strands are only permitted in girders. For debonded strands, see Section 14.6.3.4.
14.4.3.1.3
Harped Strands
The maximum number of harped strands is 18 for all girder sizes. The maximum hold down
force is 40 kips and/or a maximum of 12 strands per hold down point. Specify the hold down
location on the plans, but allow for minor adjustments because fabricators use hold down points
at a nominal spacing. Exactly matching plan hold down points could be impossible. Fabricators
stagger the hold down points if using more than 12 harped strands or if the hold down force
exceeds 40 kips. Do not use bundled harped strands. The maximum slope of harped strands is
6.
Concrete Structures
14-15
14.4.3.1.4
February 2015
Strand Patterns
Refer to the WS sheets for the strand template and required reinforcing. Fully detail the strand
pattern showing the total number of strands, layout and spacing, which strands are harped
and/or debonded, and the layout of all mild reinforcing. Frequently, precast, pretensioned
girders of the same size and similar length in the same bridge or within bridges on the same
project specify a slightly different number of strands. In this case, consider using the same
number and pattern of strands to facilitate fabrication.
14.4.3.1.5
Strand Splicing
Do not splice prestressing strand.
14.4.3.2
14.4.3.2.1
Post-Tensioned Members
Strand Size
The preferred diameter of the prestressing strand used for post-tensioning is 0.6 in. See Figure
14.6 for typical strand sizes and weights.
14.4.3.2.2
Prestressing Bar Size
Prestressing bar is available in nominal diameters from 1 in. to 2.5 in.

manufacturers literature for bar sizes and weights.
14.4.3.2.3
Refer to the
Tendons
A post-tensioning tendon is made up of strands through a single duct. Tendons are proprietary
systems that consist of an anchorage, duct, grout injection pipes and prestressing strand or
prestressing reinforcing.
Tendon systems for post-tensioned decks use round or flat ducts containing up to four 0.6-in.
strands. Tendon systems for larger post-tensioned elements use round ducts that contain up to
55 0.6-in. strands. Tendons using more than 31 0.6-in. strands are rare.
Post-tensioning tendons using prestressing bar consist of a single reinforcing bar in a duct.
The outside diameter of the ducts vary from approximately 2 in. to 6 in. depending upon the
number of strands or bar size and system supplier. Use HDPE or galvanized ducts.
Consult specific post-tensioning system literature for the actual size of ducts, anchor systems
and other system specific requirements.
14-16
Concrete Structures
14.4.3.2.4
Duct Spacing
Reference:
February 2015
Apply the limits of LRFD Article 5.4.6.2 to all CIP post-tensioned structures. Use ducts up to
4 in. in diameter in UBTXX-PT girders.
14.5
REINFORCED CIP SLAB SUPERSTRUCTURES
14.5.1
General
Reference:
LRFD Article 5.14.4
This section presents information for the design of reinforced CIP slab superstructures that
amplify or clarify the provisions in the LRFD Specifications.
14.5.1.1
Haunches
Haunches at interior supports of continuous bridges allow an increase in span by reducing the
maximum positive moment and increasing the negative moment resistance. Parabolic
haunches are preferable if aesthetics are important; otherwise, use straight haunches for easier
construction. The length of haunch on either side of an interior support is approximately 15% of
the interior span. The depth of haunch at an interior support is approximately 20% deeper than
the structure depth at the location of maximum positive moment.
14.5.2
Allowance for Dead Load Deflection and Settlement
Reference:
When designing or reviewing falsework for reinforced CIP slab superstructures, make an
allowance for:
Deflection of the falsework

Any settlement of the falsework
The dead load deflection of the span
In addition, for the long term dead load deflection of the span, make an allowance such that, on
removal of the falsework, the top of the structure conforms to the theoretical finished grade plus
the allowance for long term deflection.
14.5.3
Construction Joints
Longitudinal construction joints in reinforced CIP slab superstructures are undesirable.

However, bridge width, phased construction, the method of placing concrete, rate of delivery of
Concrete Structures
14-17
February 2015
concrete, and the type of finishing machine used by the contractor dictate whether or not a
reinforced CIP slab superstructure must be poured in more than one pour.
If the slab is constructed in phases, show the entire lap splice for all transverse reinforcing on
the side of the construction joint that is poured last.
14.5.4
Longitudinal Edge Beam Design
Reference:
LRFD Articles 5.14.4.1, 9.7.1.4 and 4.6.2.1.4
Provide edge beams along the edges of reinforced CIP slab superstructures. The edge beams
consist of more heavily reinforced sections of the slab. Select the width of the edge beams as
the width of the equivalent strip as specified in LRFD Article 4.6.2.1.4b. Structurally continuous
barriers can only be considered effective for the service limit states, not the strength or extreme
event limit states.
14.5.5
Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcing
Reference:
LRFD Articles 5.6.2 and 5.10.8
Evaluating the redistribution of force effects as a result of shrinkage, temperature change, creep
and movements of supports is not necessary when designing reinforced CIP slab
superstructures. Figure 14.7 provides the shrinkage and temperature reinforcing as a function
of slab thickness.
Slab Thickness
(in.)
Reinforcing
(Top and Bottom) (in.)
< 18
#4 @ 12
18 to 28
#5 @ 12
> 28
Design according to LRFD Article 5.10.8
Figure 14.7 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCING FOR

REINFORCED CIP SLAB SUPERSTRUCTURES
14.5.6
Distribution of Concrete Parapet Dead Load
Distribute the dead load of the parapet uniformly over the entire bridge width. Account for
unbalanced loading effects in phased construction projects.
14.5.7
Distribution of Live Load
Reference:
The following applies to the distribution of live load to reinforced CIP slab superstructures:
14-18
Concrete Structures
14.5.8
February 2015
For continuous slabs with variable span lengths, develop one equivalent strip width (E)
using the shortest span length for the value of L1. Use the strip width for moments
throughout the entire length of the bridge.
Specify different strip widths for the reinforced CIP slab superstructure and the edge
beams in LRFD Articles 4.6.2.3 and 4.6.2.1.4, respectively.
Do not use LRFD Equation 4.6.2.3-3 for the reduction of moments in skewed slab type
bridges. The equation does not significantly change the reinforcing requirements.
Shear Resistance
Single span and continuous span reinforced CIP slab superstructures, designed for moment in
conformance with LRFD Article 4.6.2.3, are satisfactory for shear.
14.5.9
Minimum Thickness of Slab
Reference:
When using the equations in LRFD Table 2.5.2.6.3-1, assume that:
S is the length of the longest span

The calculated thickness includes the -in. sacrificial wearing surface
The thickness used can be greater than the value obtained from the LRFD table
14.5.10 Development of Flexural Reinforcing

Reference:
LRFD Article 5.11.1.2 presents specifications for the portion of the longitudinal positive moment
reinforcing that must be extended beyond the centerline of support. Similarly, LRFD Article
5.11.1.2.3 addresses the location of the anchorage (embedment length) for the longitudinal
negative moment reinforcing.
14.5.11 Skews on Reinforced CIP Slab Superstructures

Reference:
For skew angles up to 20, place the transverse reinforcing parallel to the skew. For skews in
excess of 20, place the transverse reinforcing perpendicular to the centerline of the bridge and
place additional top and bottom mat reinforcing parallel to the abutment over the end 5 ft of the
bridge.
Concrete Structures
14-19
February 2015
14.5.12 Abutment Type

Use an integral or semi-integral abutment.
14.6
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SUPERSTRUCTURES
14.6.1
Basic Girder Design Criteria
This discussion applies to both pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete members.
14.6.1.1
Reference:
Concrete Stress Limits

LRFD Article 5.9.4
Tensile stress limits for fully prestressed concrete members must conform to the requirements
for Other Than Segmentally Constructed Bridges in LRFD Article 5.9.4. Use the moderate
corrosion conditions for checking tension stress in the bottom flange of prestressed girders
unless indicated otherwise in the contract documents or directed otherwise by the Structure
Design Manager.
Use gross section properties in conjunction with the Service III load combination or transformed
section properties with the Service I load combination. The requirement applies within the
transfer length of the prestressing strands in addition to beyond the transfer length.
14.6.1.2
Reference:
Concrete Strength at Release

Calculate the minimum concrete compressive strength at release (fci ) for each prestressed
girder, and list the required release strength on the girder sheet. Concrete compressive
strengths at release of between 5 ksi and 7.5 ksi are typical. For specified concrete release
strengths less than 7 ksi, round up the value shown on the plans to the next increment of 0.25
ksi. For release strengths greater than 7 ksi, round up to the next increment of 0.1 ksi.
14.6.1.3
Maximum Stirrup Spacing
Do not exceed a stirrup spacing of 18 in.
14.6.1.4
Haunch Thickness for Design
For girders supporting a CIP concrete slab, use the maximum thickness for dead load
calculations and use a 0-in. haunch for girder resistance calculations.
14-20
Concrete Structures
February 2015
Refer to the SD drawings for a description of the required haunch calculation and Section 14.6.4
for the multipliers used to estimate the girder camber at the time of deck placement.
14.6.2
Jacking
Reference:
LRFD Article 3.4.3
Integral abutments and integral bents do not require jacking provisions.

Provide details allowing replacement or realignment of bearings for bridges on elastomeric pads
at expansion bearings. For bearings similar to sample details in the WS sheets, assume that
the bridge is lifted in. and girders are lifted in pairs. Provide girders or diaphragms capable of
supporting the bridge during bearing replacement.
Provide a jacking plan for high load multirotational (HLMR), isolation or other specialty bearings.
The jacking plan must include the necessary bearing stiffeners, jack locations and clearances,
factored reactions and jacking height. Design all cross frames and diaphragms for the jacking
loads. Provide only conceptual falsework requirements when required.
14.6.3
14.6.3.1
Precast, Prestressed Concrete Girders

Precast I-Girder Sections
Select the type of girders based upon geometric restraints, economy and appearance. See the
SD drawings for standard precast concrete I-girder sections.
The following graphs (Figures 14.8 through 14.13) present typical girder spacings and span
lengths for UDOT bulb tee girders.
Concrete Structures
14-21
February 2015
Approximate Maximum Spans

Figure 14.8 BULB TEE GIRDERS ( fc = 6.5 ksi)
14-22
Concrete Structures
February 2015

Figure 14.9 BULB TEE GIRDERS ( fc = 8.5 ksi)
Concrete Structures
14-23
February 2015
Figure 14.10 DECK BULB TEE GIRDERS ( fc = 6.5 ksi)
14-24
Concrete Structures
February 2015
Figure 14.11 DECK BULB TEE GIRDERS ( fc = 8.5 ksi)

Concrete Structures
14-25
February 2015
Figure 14.12 PT BULB TEE GIRDERS ( fc = 6.5 ksi)

14-26
Concrete Structures
February 2015
Figure 14.13 PT BULB TEE GIRDERS ( fc = 8.5 ksi)

Concrete Structures
14-27
14.6.3.2
Reference:
February 2015
General Design Theory

LRFD Article 5.9
This section addresses the general design theory and procedure for precast, prestressed (pretensioned) concrete girders. For design examples, consult the PCI Bridge Design Manual,
Chapter 9.
Design bridges consisting of simple span precast concrete girders and CIP concrete slabs to be
continuous for live load and superimposed dead loads by using a CIP continuity diaphragm at
bents, when possible. The design of the girders for continuous structures is similar to the
design for simple spans except that, in the area of negative moments, the member is treated as
an ordinary reinforced concrete section, and the bottom flanges of adjoining girders are
connected at the interior supports by reinforcing projecting from girder ends into a common
diaphragm. Assume that the members are fully continuous with a constant moment of inertia
when determining both the positive and negative moments due to loads applied after continuity
is established.
The resistance factor, , (LRFD Article 5.5.4) for flexure is 1.0. An exception is for the design of
the negative moment reinforcing in the deck for structures made continuous for composite loads
only and having a CIP continuity diaphragm between the ends of the girders over the bents. For
this case, the resistance factor is 0.90 for reinforced concrete members in flexure.
14.6.3.3
Loading Conditions
Consider five loading conditions in the design of a precast, prestressed girder:

1.
The first loading condition is when the strands are tensioned in the bed before
placement of the concrete. Seating losses, relaxation of the strand and temperature
changes affect the stress in the strand before placement of the concrete. The fabricator
must consider the factors during the fabrication of the girder and make adjustments to
the initial strand tension to ensure that the tension before release meets the design
requirements for the project. The prestressing working drawings present a discussion
on the fabricators proposed methods to compensate for seating losses, relaxation and
temperature changes.
2.
The second loading condition is when the strands are released and the force is
transferred to the concrete. After release, the girder cambers up and is supported at the
girder ends only. In this condition, the region near the end of the member is not subject
to bending stresses and can develop tensile stresses in the top of the girder large
enough to crack the concrete. The critical sections for computing the critical temporary
stresses in the top of the girder is near the end and at all debonding points. Assume that
the stress in the strands is zero at the end of the girder or debonding point and varies
linearly to the full transfer of force to the concrete at the end of the strand transfer length.
Several methods are available to relieve excessive tensile stresses near the ends of the
girder:
14-28
Concrete Structures
February 2015
Debonding, where the strands remain straight but wrapped in plastic over a
predetermined distance to prevent the transfer of prestress to the concrete
through bonding
Harping some of the strands to reduce the strand eccentricity at the end of the
girder
Use the level of effective prestress immediately after release of the strands, which
includes the effects of elastic shortening and the initial strand relaxation loss, to compute
the concrete stresses at the second loading condition stage.
3.
The third loading condition occurs a few weeks to a few months after strand release
when the girder is transported. Do not consider the lifting and shipping loads in design,
but the fabricator must provide a shipping method that does not overstress the girder.
The main concern for the loading condition is lateral loads. Fabricators have used
additional bonded and unbonded strands in the top flange to minimize the likelihood of
damage during shipping and to control sweep in long girders before deck placement.
4.
The fourth loading condition occurs several weeks to several months after strand release
when the girder is erected and the composite deck is cast. Camber growth and
prestress losses are design factors at the stage. Field adjustments to the haunch
thickness are required to provide the proper vertical grade on the top of deck and to
keep the deck thickness uniform. Reliable estimates of deflection and camber are
needed to avoid significant encroachment of the top of girder into the bottom of the
concrete deck. Stresses at the stage are usually not critical.
See Section 14.6.4 for determining the girder camber at erection.
5.
The fifth loading condition is after an extended period of time during which all prestress
losses have occurred and loads are at the maximum, which is often referred to as the
maximum service load, minimum prestress stage. The tensile stress in the bottom fibers
of the girder at midspan generally controls the design. The effects of imposed
deformations are also examined at the stage. Checks for imposed deformation due to
creep and shrinkage are not required for fully integral bridges.
14.6.3.4
Debonded Strands
Debonding of strands at the ends of precast, pretensioned concrete girders is acceptable. Do

not debond any strands in the bottom row. Round the theoretical number of debonded strands
to the closest even number (pairs) of strands.
When analyzing stresses and/or determining the required length of debonding, limit stresses to
the values in LRFD Article 5.9.4, except limit tension to 0.0948 fc for all exposure conditions.
14.6.3.5
Reference:
Intermediate Diaphragms
Concrete Structures
14-29
February 2015
Refer to the SD drawings for intermediate diaphragm spacing requirements. Use WS sheets for
steel intermediate diaphragms. Use a minimum thickness of 6 in. for CIP intermediate
diaphragms, and extend the diaphragm from the top of the bottom flange to the bottom of the
top flange.
14.6.3.6
Sole Plates
For a final slope at the bottom of the girder greater than or equal to 1%, use beveled sole plates
to allow for level girder seats.
14.6.4
Camber and Deflections
Base the calculation of the dead load deflections on the gross section properties and LRFD
Article 5.7.3.6. The deflection multipliers in Figure 14.14 are appropriate for the majority of
bridges. Structural engineers with specific concerns relating to long term drainage or sag in
girders or concerns specific to the project can use refined methods, such as the time step
method, to estimate initial and long term girder deflections.
Multipliers for Each Stage
Typical
Displacement
Direction
AR
AD
CD
CF
Prestressing
1.0
1.80
N/A
1.80
2.20
Girder dead load
1.0
1.85
N/A
1.85
2.40
Noncomposite dead load
N/A
1.0
1.0
1.0
2.3
Composite dead load
N/A
N/A
1.0
1.0
3.0
Future wearing surface
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1.0
Load
Figure 14.14 MULTIPLIERS FOR ESTIMATING LONG TERM DEFLECTION

OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE GIRDERS
AR =
AD =
B
CD =
CF =
Camber at release; use the multipliers in the column to estimate the camber at release
Girder camber at deck placement (assumes deck placed at 40 days); use the multipliers
in the column to estimate the camber at the time of deck placement
Girder deflection due to superimposed dead loads; use the multipliers in the column to
estimate the deflections listed on the screed elevation sheet
Girder camber just after all dead loads applied to bridge; use the multipliers in the
column to estimate the camber after deck and composite loads placement
Girder camber at 20 years; CF is a theoretical estimate used to evaluate the potential for
long term sag in the girder; do not use the CF multipliers for determining screed
elevations; see discussion below on long term camber
In general, current simplified estimates of girder cambers tend to overestimate both initial
camber and potential for long term sag. Girder shape, strand density and material properties all
14-30
Concrete Structures
February 2015
contribute to camber estimate errors. Evaluate the impacts of reduced camber on bridges
where the maximum haunch is at midspan. Typical methods can overestimate initial camber by
a factor of 2. Much of the error in camber estimates is attributed to an underestimation of the
girder modulus of elasticity and concrete strength at release.
When using refined methods, evaluate adjusting the girder properties used to estimate camber.
Evaluate the potential for ponding on bridges with the potential for long term sag and on flat
grades or in sag curves. Additional analysis could be warranted in these situations. The
multipliers in Figure 14.14 under CF are based on research published in 1977 and do not
properly account for a large CIP deck. Use the CF multipliers to evaluate the potential for long
term sag. If the CF multipliers indicate long term sag, a refined analysis can be run to verify the
potential for sag. Also, note that the PCI Bridge Design Manual discourages increasing
prestress to reduce the long term sag predicted by the CF multipliers.
14.6.5
Sweep
Sweep is a measure of the girder out of straightness measured from a chord between ends.
See Figure 14.15. Girders over approximately 145 ft have the potential for excess sweep at
erection. Sweep is caused by a number of factors, including strand release patterns and
temperature differentials. Fabricators use unbonded and bonded top flange strands or bracing
during girder storage to control erection sweep and improve girder stability during erection. Use
of the methods is at the fabricators discretion.
Figure 14.15 DEFINITION OF SWEEP
14.6.6
Bursting Reinforcing
The working standards set the end reinforcing for all girders meeting the conditions in the
Prestressed Girder Design and Detailing Checklist. The working standards permit an end zone
for splitting resistance that is slightly longer than permitted in LRFD Article 5.10.10 for highly
prestressed UBT42, UBT50 and UBT58 girders.
Concrete Structures
14-31
14.7
February 2015
SEGMENTAL CONCRETE POST-TENSIONED BOX GIRDERS
Segmental bridges are beyond the scope of the SDDM. Coordinate with the Structures Design
Manager for specific design requirements for projects using segmental systems. At a minimum,
all segmental bridges must meet AASHTO requirements and use a minimum 3-in. sacrificial
concrete overlay (or additional 3 in. of cover) over the structural box.
Detail all new concrete box girder bridges with access openings to allow inspection of the girder
interior. Do not locate access openings over travel lanes or railroad tracks and, preferably, not
over shoulders. Locate the inspection accesses such that the general public cannot gain easy
entrance. Provide one access opening at each end of the bridge when the total span length is
100 ft or more.
Provide an opening that is at least 3 ft 3 ft, has a hinged metal door that swings into the box
girder and has a removal bolt for locking. Where required, provide a method of ladder support
for inspection access. Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to determine if interior
power and lighting are required.
See Section 2.11 for more discussion.
14-32
Concrete Structures
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
STEELSTRUCTURES
FEBRUARY 2015
UDOT Structures Design & Detailing Manual
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
15.1
ECONOMICAL STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN ............................................ 15-1

15.1.1
15.1.2
15.1.3
15.1.4
Number of Girders/Spacing ......................................................................... 15-1

Exterior Girders ........................................................................................... 15-1
Span Arrangements for Continuous Girders ............................................... 15-2
Girder Proportioning .................................................................................... 15-2
15.1.4.1
15.1.4.2
15.1.5
15.2
Welded Plate Girders ................................................................. 15-2

Rolled Beams ............................................................................ 15-6
Falsework .................................................................................................... 15-7
MATERIALS .............................................................................................................. 15-7

15.2.1
Structural Steel ............................................................................................ 15-7

15.2.1.1
15.2.1.2
15.2.1.3
15.2.1.4
15.2.2
Bolts ............................................................................................................ 15-10

15.2.2.1
15.2.2.2
15.2.3
Grade 36 .................................................................................... 15-7

Grades 50 and 50W ................................................................... 15-7
Unpainted Weathering Steel (Grades 50W and HPS70W)........ 15-8
High Performance Steel ............................................................. 15-9
Type ........................................................................................... 15-10

Hole Size ................................................................................... 15-10
Splice Plates................................................................................................ 15-10
15.3
HORIZONTALLY CURVED MEMBERS.................................................................... 15-10
15.4
FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................. 15-11

15.4.1
Load Induced Fatigue.................................................................................. 15-11

15.4.1.1
15.4.1.2
15.4.2
15.4.3
15.5
Fatigue Stress Range ................................................................ 15-12

Fatigue Resistance .................................................................... 15-12
Distortion Induced Fatigue .......................................................................... 15-13

Other Fatigue Considerations ..................................................................... 15-13
DETAILING REQUIREMENTS .................................................................................. 15-13

15.5.1
15.5.2
15.5.3
15.5.4
Steel Structures
Deck Haunches ........................................................................................... 15-14

Camber........................................................................................................ 15-14
Diaphragms and Cross Frames .................................................................. 15-14
Lateral Bracing ............................................................................................ 15-17
15-i
15.5.5
15.5.6
15.6
Inspection Access (Box Girders) ................................................................. 15-17

Jacking ........................................................................................................ 15-17
I-SECTIONS IN FLEXURE ........................................................................................ 15-18

15.6.1
Limit States.................................................................................................. 15-18

15.6.1.1
15.6.1.2
15.6.1.3
15.6.1.4
15.6.2
15.6.3
Positive Moment Region Maximum Moment Section ................ 15-18

Negative Moment Region Bent Section ..................................... 15-18
Negative Flexural Deck Reinforcement ..................................... 15-19
Rigidity in Negative Moment Regions ........................................ 15-19
Shear Connectors ....................................................................................... 15-19

15.6.2.1
15.6.2.2
Requirements ............................................................................ 15-19

Modified Requirements for Precast Decks................................. 15-20
Stiffeners ..................................................................................................... 15-20

15.6.3.1
15.6.3.2
15.6.3.3
15.7
February 2015
Intermediate Transverse Stiffeners ............................................ 15-20

Diaphragm Connection Stiffener ................................................ 15-20
Bearing Stiffeners ...................................................................... 15-20
CONNECTIONS AND SPLICES ............................................................................... 15-21

15.7.1
15.7.2
Bolted Connections ..................................................................................... 15-21

Welded Connections ................................................................................... 15-21
15.7.2.1
15.7.2.2
15.7.2.3
15.7.2.4
15.7.3
Welding Process ........................................................................ 15-21

Welding Types and Symbols ..................................................... 15-22
Field Welding ............................................................................. 15-22
Design of Welds ......................................................................... 15-22
Field Splices ................................................................................................ 15-24
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 15.1
Figure 15.2
Figure 15.3
Figure 15.4
Figure 15.5
Figure 15.6
15-ii
MINIMUM DIMENSIONS ............................................................................. 15-2

GROUPING FLANGES FOR EFFICIENT FABRICATION .......................... 15-4
FLANGE WIDTH TRANSITION ................................................................... 15-4
DRIP BAR DETAIL ...................................................................................... 15-9
TYPICAL DIAPHRAGMS AND CROSS FRAMES ...................................... 15-16
WELDING SYMBOLS .................................................................................. 15-23
Steel Structures
February 2015
Chapter 15
STEEL STRUCTURES
Section 6 of the LRFD Specifications present design requirements for steel structures. This
chapter discusses structural steel provisions in Section 6 of the LFRD Specifications that require
amplification or clarification. This chapter also addresses specific practices for the design and
detailing of steel superstructures.
Chapter 10 provides criteria for the general site
considerations for which steel structures are appropriate, including span lengths, girder spacing,
geometrics, aesthetics and cost.
15.1
ECONOMICAL STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN
Factors that influence the initial cost of a steel bridge include, but are not limited to, detailing
practices, the number of girders, the grade of steel, type and number of substructure units (i.e.,
span lengths and arrangements), steel weight, fabrication, transportation and erection. The cost
associated with the factors changes periodically in addition to the cost relationship among the
factors. Therefore, evaluate and modify the guidelines as necessary for each bridge to
determine the most economical type of steel girder.
Based upon market factors, the availability of steel (especially rolled wide flange sections and
HPS) can affect the construction schedule. The structural engineer must verify the availability
and required lead times of the specified steel. Contact producers to ensure the availability of
plates and rolled beams.
For more detailed information on all aspects of steel design and detailing, see the current
AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaborations Guidelines for Design for Constructability.
15.1.1
Number of Girders/Spacing
See Section 10.2.6 for a discussion on the number of girders and Section 10.3.3 for typical
girder spacings for both I-girder and box girder steel bridges.
15.1.2
Exterior Girders
The following factors control the location of the exterior girder with respect to the overhang:
Locate the exterior girder to limit the dead load and live load on girders such that the
demands on interior and exterior girder sections are similar.
Locate the exterior girder to allow for deck drains.
Consider aesthetics when determining the location of the exterior girder lines.
See Section 16.2.15.1 for additional overhang limits.

Steel Structures
15-1
15.1.3
February 2015
Span Arrangements for Continuous Girders
Provide span arrangements that balance the moments in the spans (i.e., equal maximum
moments in end and interior spans). The end span lengths are typically between 70% and 80%
of the length of interior spans. As a result, the optimum proportions of the girder in all spans are
nearly the same, resulting in a more efficient and cost effective design. To prevent uplift at the
abutments, avoid end spans less than 70% of the interior spans. Span arrangements not
meeting the above ratios are permitted when the span arrangement reduces total project cost
and the girder connections are designed for uplift when uplift is present.
15.1.4
Girder Proportioning
Make girders composite with the bridge deck and continuous over interior supports. To achieve
economy in the fabrication shop, use identical girders in a straight girder bridge. If multiple
girder designs are required due to varying girder spacing or other load effects, attempt to
minimize the number of different plate sizes. Group curved girders into two to four girder groups
with the plate sizes in a group consistent within the group.
15.1.4.1
Welded Plate Girders
Design welded steel plate girders to optimize total cost including material costs while also
considering fabrication and erection costs. Top flanges of composite plate girders are typically
thinner and/or narrower than bottom flanges. Vary the flange section along the length of the
bridge generally following the moment envelope to save cost by offsetting the increased
fabrication costs of welded flange transitions with larger savings in material costs. The webs of
plate girders are typically deeper and thinner than the webs of rolled beams.
Due to buckling considerations, address the stability of the compression flange (i.e., the top
flange in positive moment regions and the bottom flange in negative moment regions) by
providing lateral brace locations based upon calculations.
15.1.4.1.1
Minimum Dimensions
See Figure 15.1 for the minimum dimensions for components of structural steel plate girders.
Components
Minimum Thickness (in.)
Width (in.)
Webs
N/A
Flanges
12
Bearing Stiffener Plates
Transverse Stiffeners
Gusset Plates
N/A
Angles/Channels
N/A
Figure 15.1 MINIMUM DIMENSIONS

15-2
Steel Structures
15.1.4.1.2
February 2015
Haunched (Variable Depth) Girders
When practical, use constant depth girders (i.e., girders with constant web depths). Haunched
girders are generally uneconomical for interior span lengths less than 240 ft. Consider using
parabolic haunched girders where aesthetics or other special circumstances are encountered,
but constant depth girders are generally more cost effective. An effective alternative to
haunched girders is the use flanges with a higher yield strength in negative moment regions.
See Section 15.2.1.4 for additional information on high performance steel.
15.1.4.1.3
Flange Plate Sizes
Provide bottom flanges with a constant width within a frame. Use as wide a flange girder plate
as practical, consistent with stress and b/t (flange width/thickness ratio) requirements. The wide
flange contributes to girder stability during handling and in service, and the additional width
reduces the number of passes and weld volume at flange butt welds. As a guide, the minimum
flange width is approximately 20% of the web depth, and the maximum is approximately 50% of
the web depth. The maximum flange thickness is 3 in. to ensure uniform material properties
through the thickness of the flange. Thicker plates can have a less desirable grain structure in
the mid thickness of the plate, which increases the likelihood of cracking.
Proportion flanges so that the fabricator can economically cut the flanges from steel plate
between 60-in. and 120-in. wide. The most economical mill widths are 72 in., 84 in., 96 in. and
120 in. Allow in. for internal torch cutting lines and in. for exterior torch cutting lines; see
Figure 15.2. Group flanges to provide an efficient use of the plates. Because structural steel
plate is most economically purchased in the typical widths, repeat plate thicknesses as much as
practical. If practical, group plates of like width by thickness to meet the minimum width
purchasing requirement, but an economical purchasing strategy could be unavailable for thicker,
less used plates.
The most efficient method to fabricate flanges is to groove weld together several wide plates of
varying thicknesses received from the mill. After welding and nondestructive testing, the
individual flanges are stripped from the full plate. The method of fabrication reduces the number
of welds, individual runoff tabs for both start and stop welds, the amount of material waste and
nondestructive testing. The objective, therefore, is for flange widths to remain constant within
an individual shipping length by varying material thickness as required. Figure 15.2 illustrates
one example of an efficient fabrication for girders.
Constant top flange width within a field section can be impractical in girder spans over 300 ft
where a flange width transition could be required in the negative bending regions. Though not
preferred, if a transition in width must be provided, shift the butt splice a minimum of 3 in. from
the transition into the narrower flange plate. See Figure 15.3. The 3-in. shift makes it simpler to
fit runoff tabs, weld and test the splice, and grind off the runoff tabs.
Steel Structures
15-3
February 2015
Figure 15.2 GROUPING FLANGES FOR EFFICIENT FABRICATION

(Reference: AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration)
Figure 15.3 FLANGE WIDTH TRANSITION

15-4
Steel Structures
15.1.4.1.4
February 2015
Field Splices
Use field splices to reduce shipping lengths, but minimize the number because field splices are
expensive. The preferred maximum length of a field section is 120 ft. Longer lengths are
possible, but do not use field sections greater than 120 ft without considering shipping, erection
and site constraints. As a rule, use a shipping length to compression flange width less than
approximately 85. Good design practice is to reduce the flange cross sectional area by no more
than approximately 25% of the area of the heavier flange plate at field splices to reduce the
buildup of stress at the transition. For continuous spans, use constant length field sections to
simplify erection.
The fabricator has the option of proposing to eliminate or move the field splice. The fabricator
must submit the request to eliminate or move the field splice for review by the EOR. The EOR
evaluates the request and approves the request when appropriate. Section 6.4 provides
additional information on the shop drawing review process.
15.1.4.1.5
Shop Splices
Include no more than two shop flange splices in the top or bottom flange within a single field
section with a length up to 120 ft. Weigh the cost of groove welded splices against the cost of
an extra plate when determining the points where changes in plate thickness occur within a field
section.
The current edition of the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration Guidelines for Design for
Constructability provides guidelines for weight savings for Grade 50 steel required to justify a
flange shop splice.
Also consider the length of the plate when determining if a plate transition is cost effective.
Available plate lengths vary depending on the plate thickness and the original plate width of a
shop splice. If the design plate length is longer than the available plate, a shop splice is
required; therefore, a plate thickness change can be made without considering the additional
cost for a weld. Most plates less than or equal to 2-in. thick are available in lengths from 78 ft to
86 ft, depending on thickness. Plates thicker than 2 in. are available in lengths from 52 ft to 69
ft. Fifty ft is the maximum length of plates that are normalized, quenched and tempered (e.g.,
Grade HPS70W).
To facilitate testing of the weld, locate flange shop splices at least 2 ft from web splices, and
locate flange and web shop splices at least 1 ft from transverse stiffeners.
15.1.4.1.6
Web Plates
Where no vertical clearance restrictions exist, optimize the web depth. NSBA provides design
assistance for bridge owners to assist in optimizing web depths. Use other sources if the web
depths are based upon material use and fabrication unit costs. Do not change web thickness at
any splice by less than 1/16 in. Maintain symmetry by aligning the centerlines of the webs at
splices.
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15-5
February 2015
Web design can have a significant impact on the overall cost of a plate girder. Thin webs
reduce steel quantities, but installing transverse stiffeners is one of the most labor intensive of
shop operations. The following guidelines apply to the use of transverse stiffeners:
Unstiffened webs are generally more economical for web depths approximately 48 in. or
less.
For web depths greater than 48 in., consider options for a partially stiffened or an
unstiffened web. A partially stiffened web is one where the web thickness is
proportioned at least 1/16 in. less than that allowed by specification for an unstiffened
web at a given depth and, therefore, stiffeners are required only in areas of higher shear.
Evaluate the cost of stiffeners against the cost of added web thickness. Only add
stiffeners where a cost reduction is shown. If the total cost of the stiffened web is
essentially the same as the unstiffened web, select the unstiffened web.
15.1.4.1.7
Transverse Stiffeners
Flat bars (i.e., bar stock rolled to widths up to 8 in. at the mill) are typically more economical
than plates for stiffeners. The stiffeners can be fabricated by shearing flat bars of the specified
width to length. Proportion stiffeners in -in. increments in width and in -in. increments in
thickness. Consult a fabricator for available flat bar sizes.
15.1.4.1.8
Longitudinally Stiffened Webs
Do not use longitudinally stiffened webs.
15.1.4.2
Rolled Beams
Rolled beams are doubly symmetrical as rolled cross sections with equal dimensioned top and
bottom flanges and relatively thick webs. Thus, rolled beams do not optimize the cross sections
for weight savings (as a plate girder does) but are cost effective due to lower fabrication and
erection costs. The relatively thick webs preclude the need for intermediate web stiffeners, but
full height bearing stiffeners are required at all support locations. Rolled beam superstructures
are cost effective for spans less than 50 ft.
Rolled beams are more readily available in depths up to 36 in., with deeper beams rolled less
frequently at intervals of approximately 16 weeks. Before beginning final design, verify with one
or more potential fabricators that the section size and length are available and that delivery can
meet project schedule requirements.
If a rolled beam design is proposed for a new bridge, provide language in the contract
documents that permits the substitution of a welded plate girder design.
Do not use cover plates on rolled beams.
15-6
Steel Structures
15.1.5
February 2015
Falsework
Do not use shored construction unless approved by the Structures Design Manager. Design
steel superstructures to not require intermediate falsework during the placing of the concrete
deck slabs.
15.2
MATERIALS
15.2.1
Structural Steel
Reference:
LRFD Article 6.5.1
The following presents typical practices for the material type selection for structural steel
members. Apply Temperature Zone 2 when using LRFD Table 6.6.2-1.
15.2.1.1
Grade 36
Grade 36 steel is typically only specified for secondary structural members, such as:
Transverse stiffeners
Sole plates
Bearing plates
Angle sections
Grade 36 steel is becoming obsolete and the availability is limited for WT, I, C and MC sections.
Specifying Grade 36 is acceptable, but contractors and fabricators often use Grade 50.
Generally, little or no cost difference exists between Grade 50 and Grade 36 steel.
When specifying Grade 36 steel, provide sections that also meet design requirements assuming
that Grade 50 steel is substituted for Grade 36 steel.
15.2.1.2
Grades 50 and 50W
Grades 50 and 50W steel are the most commonly used grades. The grades are typically used
for primary and secondary members such as:
Rolled beams
Plate girders
Splice plates
Bent plate diaphragms
Channels
Bearing plates
Steel H-piles
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February 2015
Sole plates
Stiffeners
Grade 50W can be painted or unpainted. See Section 15.2.1.3 for limitations on the application
of unpainted Grade 50W.
15.2.1.3
Unpainted Weathering Steel (Grades 50W and HPS70W)
Unpainted weathering steel is more cost effective than painted steel. The initial cost advantage
when compared to painted steel can range up to 15%. When future repainting costs are
considered, the cost advantage is more substantial, especially for bridges over deep canyons
where no access from the ground is available. The savings in repainting costs reflects, for
example, environmental considerations in the removal of paint, which significantly increases the
life cycle cost of painted steel. The application of weathering steel and the potential problems
are discussed in depth in FHWA Technical Advisory T5140.22 Uncoated Weathering Steel in
Structures, December 3, 1989. Also, the proceedings of the Weathering Steel Forum, July
1989, are available from the FHWA Office of Implementation, HRT-10.
Despite the cost advantage, the use of unpainted weathering steel is not appropriate in all
environments and at all locations. The most prominent disadvantage of weathering steel is
aesthetics. The natural weathering of the unpainted steel and the inevitable staining of concrete
where susceptible to water leakage from above (e.g., below deck joints) creates the image of
lack of proper maintenance to the traveling public. Do not use weathering steel where the
following conditions exist:
In industrial areas where concentrated chemical fumes could drift onto the structure, or
where the nature of the environment is questionable
Over bodies of water where the clearance over the ordinary high water is less than 10 ft
Bridges over roads
For additional guidance on the appropriate application of unpainted weathering steel, see the
AISI publication Performance of Weathering Steel in Highway Bridges: A Third Phase Report.
15.2.1.3.1
Design Details for Unpainted Weathering Steel
Where weathering steel girders are used, provide bearing plates using the same steel as the
girders the plates support. The bolts, nuts, washers and DTIs are Type 3 as specified in ASTM
A325/ASTM A563 and ASTM F959.
When using unpainted weathering steel, use the details provided in the SD drawings and the
following drainage treatments:
15-8
Eliminate details that serve as water and debris traps. Seal or paint overlapping
surfaces exposed to water. The sealing or painting applies to nonslip critical bolted
joints. Slip critical bolted joints or splices do not produce pack rust when the bolts are
Steel Structures
February 2015
spaced according to the LRFD Specifications and, therefore, do not require special
protection.
Place a drip plate or other material transverse across the top of the bottom flange in front
of the substructure elements to prevent water from running off the flange onto the
concrete. Ensure that the attachments meet all fatigue requirements. Figure 15.4 and
the SD drawings show typical drip plate details.
Figure 15.4 DRIP BAR DETAIL
Refer to Section 16.5 for more information on deck drainage requirements.
15.2.1.4
15.2.1.4.1
High Performance Steel

Grade HPS70W
Grade HPS70W is cost competitive in multispan bridge applications. (Note: The W

designates weathering grade steel; however, the steel can still be painted.) In addition to
increased strength, the high performance steels exhibit enhanced weathering, toughness and
weldability properties. A savings in weight offsets the premium on material costs.
Cost effective design solutions tend to be hybrid girders with Grade 50 webs and HPS70W
tension and compression flanges in the negative moment region over the bent. On very long
bridges, HPS70W tension flanges in the high positive moment region can be effective.
HPS70W is rarely cost effective on single span bridges. For more information, see the
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15-9
February 2015
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway Bridge Fabrication with HPS70W Steel. The cost of
steel fluctuates with the market; therefore, coordinate with suppliers when evaluating the cost of
Grade 70 steel versus Grade 50 steel.
See Section 15.2.1.3 for limitations on the application of unpainted Grade HPS70W.
15.2.1.4.2
Grade HPS100W
The industry has introduced new high performance steel with minimum specified yield strength
of 100 ksi. Do not use Grade HPS100W because the grade has yet to prove cost effective for
bridge girder applications.
15.2.2
Bolts
Reference:
15.2.2.1
LRFD Article 6.4.3
Type
For normal construction, high strength bolts are:
Painted Steel. Use -in. A325 (Type 1)

Weathering Steel. Use -in. A325 (Type 3) .
15.2.2.2
Hole Size
Typically, use a standard hole size. Do not use oversized or slotted holes, except in unusual
circumstances where the additional tolerance could be advantageous. Examples include a
bridge widening or phased construction with large girder deflections.
15.2.3
Splice Plates
Use the same material for steel in all splice and filler plates that is used in the corresponding
web and flanges of plate girders.
15.3
HORIZONTALLY CURVED MEMBERS
Reference:
LRFD Articles 6.10 and 6.11
The LRFD Specifications include horizontally curved girders in the provisions for proportioning Ishaped and box girders at both the strength and service limit states. In addition, the LRFD
Specifications specify analysis methodologies that detail various required levels of analysis.
15-10
Steel Structures
February 2015
The use of horizontally curved steel members requires the consideration of many factors that
differ from straight girders including but not limited to:
1.
Cross Frames/Diaphragms. Use cross frames and diaphragms that are as close as
practical to the full depth of the girders. See Section 15.5.3 for additional cross frame
and diaphragm information. All curved steel simple span and continuous span bridges
must have diaphragms directed radially except end diaphragms. Place end diaphragms
parallel to the centerline of bearings. Charpy V-notch tests on cross frames, diaphragms
and cross frame connection plates are not required.
2.
Load Considerations.
Design all cross frames and diaphragms, including the
connections to the girders, to carry the total transferred load at each diaphragm location.
Design cross frame and diaphragm connections according to the provisions of LRFD
Article 6.13.1. LRFD Article 6.13.1 allows the design of connections for cross frames
and diaphragms using only the calculated loads. The average of the load and resistance
provision or the 75% of resistance provision can result in large diaphragm connections
that are difficult to detail.
3.
Expansion/Contraction. Consider providing restraint either radially and/or tangentially to

guide the thermal movement of the structure. For ordinary geometric configurations
where the bridge length is long relative to the bridge width and the degree of curvature is
moderate (i.e., satisfying the requirements of LRFD Article 4.6.1.2.4b), no additional
consideration is necessary for the unique expansion characteristics of horizontally
curved structures. Wide, sharply curved or long span structures could require the use of
HLMR bearings.
4.
Flange Splices. Design the splices in flanges of curved girders to carry flange bending
or lateral bending stresses and vertical bending stresses in the flanges.
15.4
FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
Reference:
LRFD Article 6.6
LRFD Article 6.6.1 categorizes fatigue as either load induced or distortion induced. Load
induced fatigue is a direct cause of loading. Distortion induced fatigue is an indirect cause in
which the force effect, normally transmitted by a secondary member, tends to change the shape
of or distort the cross section of a primary member.
15.4.1
Load Induced Fatigue
Reference:
Avoid the use of steel bridge details with fatigue resistances lower than Detail Category C (i.e.,
Detail Categories D, E and E).
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15-11
February 2015
Design all bridges for the Fatigue I load combination providing infinite fatigue life unless
otherwise directed by the Structures Design Manager.
LRFD Article 6.6.1.2 provides the framework to evaluate load induced fatigue, which is
determined by:
The stress range induced by the specified fatigue loading at the detail under
consideration
The nominal fatigue resistance for the detail category being investigated
For finite fatigue life design, the number of repetitions of fatigue loading a steel
component experiences during the 75 year design life
15.4.1.1
Fatigue Stress Range

1.
Regions. Consider fatigue in the regions of a steel member that experience a net applied
tensile stress. Also consider fatigue if the compression stress from the unfactored
permanent loads is less than the Fatigue I load combination stress range when the
Fatigue I load combinations results in tension stress. Therefore, when designing for
finite life using the Fatigue II load combination, check fatigue even though the Fatigue II
load combination does not produce a net tensile stress. Refer to AASHTO C6.6.1.2.1
for additional discussion.
2.
Range. Define the fatigue stress range as the difference between the maximum and
minimum stresses at a structural detail subject to a net tensile stress as described in
Item 1, Regions. The stress range is caused by a single design truck that can be placed
anywhere on the deck within the boundaries of a design lane. If a refined analysis
method is used, position the design truck to maximize the stress in the detail under
consideration. The design truck has a constant 30-ft spacing between the 32-kip axles.
The dynamic load allowance is 0.15. The Fatigue I load factor is 1.5. The Fatigue II
load factor is 0.75.
3.
Analysis. Use the single design lane load distribution factor in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 to
determine fatigue stresses, unless a refined analysis method is used. The tabularized
distribution factor equations incorporate a multiple presence factor of 1.2 that must be
removed by dividing either the distribution factor or the resulting fatigue stresses by 1.2.
The division does not apply to distribution factors determined using the lever rule.
15.4.1.2
Fatigue Resistance
LRFD Article 6.6.1.2.3 groups the fatigue resistance of various structural details into eight
categories (A through E). Experience indicates that Detail Categories A, B and B are seldom
critical. Investigation of details with a fatigue resistance greater than Detail Category C could be
appropriate in unusual design cases. For example, Category B applies to base metal adjacent
to slip critical bolted connections and is only evaluated when thin splice plates or connection
plates are used. For Detail Categories C, C, D, E and E, the LRFD Specifications require that
15-12
Steel Structures
February 2015
the fatigue stress range must be less than the specified fatigue resistance for each of the
respective categories.
The fatigue resistance of a category is determined from the interaction of a Category Constant A
and the total number of stress cycles, N, experienced during the 75 year design life of the
structure. The resistance is defined as (A/N)1/3. A constant amplitude fatigue threshold ((F)TH)
is also established for each category. If the fatigue stress range using the Fatigue I load
combination is less than the threshold value, the detail has infinite fatigue life.
For bridges designed for infinite fatigue life, the applied fatigue stress range using the Fatigue I
load combination is less than the threshold value, (F)TH. The practice provides an infinite
theoretical design life. For bridges designed for finite life, calculate the fatigue resistance
according to LRFD Article 6.6.1.2.3.
Fatigue resistance is independent of the steel strength. The application of higher grade steels
causes the fatigue stress range to increase, but the fatigue resistance remains the same. The
independence implies that fatigue can become more of a controlling factor where higher
strength steels are used.
15.4.2
Distortion Induced Fatigue
Reference:
LRFD Article 6.6.1.3 provides specific detailing practices for transverse and lateral connection
plates intended to reduce significant secondary stresses that could induce fatigue crack growth.
The provisions of the LRFD Specifications are prescriptive and require no mathematical
computation of stress range.
15.4.3
Other Fatigue Considerations
Reference:
Various LRFD Articles
In addition to the considerations in Sections 15.4.1 and 15.4.2, investigate the fatigue provisions
in other articles of Section 6 of the LRFD Specifications, including:
Fatigue due to out of plane flexing in webs of plate girders LRFD Article 6.10.5.3
Fatigue at shear connectors LRFD Articles 6.10.10.1.2 and 6.10.10.2
Bolts subject to axial tensile fatigue LRFD Article 6.13.2.10.3
15.5
DETAILING REQUIREMENTS
Reference:
LRFD Article 6.7
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15-13
15.5.1
February 2015
Deck Haunches
A deck haunch is an additional thickness of concrete between the top of the girder and the
bottom of the deck to provide adjustability between the top of the cambered girder and the
roadway profile. For rolled beams, measure the depth of the haunch from the top of the girder
section and, for a welded plate girder, from the top of the web. Dimension the haunch at the
centerline of bearing. See the SD drawings for the haunch calculation procedure. Typically,
neglect the haunch when determining the resistance of the section. See Section 16.2.6 for
calculations and additional details.
15.5.2
Camber
Where dead load deflection and vertical curve offset are greater than in., provide girders with
a compensating camber. Camber the entire girder length as required by the loading and profile
grade. Calculate camber to the nearest 0.01 ft, with ordinates matching the screed elevation
spacing (typically, tenth points or equal spaces less than 15-0) throughout the length of the
spans. Show the required camber values from a chord line that extends from point of support to
point of support.
Provide a camber diagram in all contract documents with structural steel girders. Include a
camber diagram with ordinates as follows:
15.5.3
Steel DL deflection
Noncomposite DL deflection
Composite DL deflection
Total DL deflection
Diaphragms and Cross Frames
Reference:
LRFD Articles 6.7.4 and 6.6.1.3.1
Diaphragms and cross frames stabilize the girders in the positive moment regions during
construction and in the negative moment regions during and after construction. Cross frames
also serve to distribute gravitational, centrifugal and wind loads. Determine the spacing of
diaphragms and cross frames based upon the provisions of LRFD Article 6.7.4.1. The design of
the spacing of diaphragms and cross frames is iterative. A good starting point is the traditional
diaphragm and cross frame spacing of 25 ft. Most economical steel girder designs use
spacings greater than 25 ft in the positive moment regions with the first diaphragm or cross
frame off of the bent in the negative moment regions spaced at less than 25 ft.
The following applies to diaphragms and cross frames:
1.
15-14
Location. Place diaphragms or cross frames at each support and throughout the span at
an appropriate spacing. Plan the location of the field sections to avoid conflict between
the connection plates of the diaphragms or cross frames and any part of the splice
material.
Steel Structures
February 2015
2.
Skew. Place all intermediate diaphragms and cross frames perpendicular to the girders
or parallel to the skew for a skew angle up to 20. For a skew angle greater than 20,
locate intermediate diaphragms and cross frames perpendicular to the girders and
stagger cross frames near the support (see the SD drawings). Evaluate the effects of
staggered cross frames. When locating a cross frame between two girders, the relative
stiffness of the two girders must be similar. Otherwise, the cross frame acts as a
primary member supporting the more flexible girder. This could be unavoidable on
bridges with exceptionally high skews where a rational analysis of the structural system
is required to determine actual forces.
3.
End Diaphragms. Place end diaphragms along the centerline of bearing on all bridges.
Set the top of the diaphragm below the top of the girder to accommodate the joint detail
and the thickened slab at the end of the superstructure deck, where applicable. Design
the end diaphragms to support the edge of the slab including live load plus impact. On
integral or semi-integral abutment bridges where the steel diaphragm is encased in
concrete or supplemented by a concrete diaphragm, using an end steel diaphragm
matching the intermediate diaphragm style is permitted.
4.
Interior Support Diaphragms and Cross Frames. Generally, place interior support
diaphragms and cross frames along the centerline of bearing, which provides lateral
stability for the bottom flange and bearings.
5.
Curved Girder Structures. Design diaphragms or cross frames connecting horizontally

curved girders as primary members oriented radially. Refer to Section 15.3 for
additional information on curved girders.
6.
Detailing. Typically, detail diaphragms and cross frames to follow the cross slope of the
deck; i.e., the diaphragm or cross frame is parallel to the bottom of the deck. The
practice allows the fabricator to use a constant drop on each connection plate (i.e., the
distance from the bottom of the flange to the first bolt hole on the connection plate is
constant). Allow the contractor to substitute diaphragms or cross frames fabricated as a
rectangle (as opposed to a skewed parallelogram). If used, the drops vary across the
bridge.
The following identifies typical practices on the selection of diaphragms and cross frames:
1.
X-Frames. For relatively narrow girder spacings relative to the girder depth, an X-frame
could be more appropriate than a K-frame.
2.
Inverted K-Frames. Preferred for the majority of plate girder bridges.
3.
Channel/Bent Plate Diaphragms. Preferred for rolled beams or webs less than 48 in.
Use full depth end diaphragms for rolled beam bridges at seat abutments to provide
sufficient lateral restraint.
See Figure 15.5 and the SD drawings for typical diaphragms, cross frames and additional
information.
Steel Structures
15-15
February 2015
Figure 15.5 TYPICAL DIAPHRAGMS AND CROSS FRAMES

15-16
Steel Structures
15.5.4
February 2015
Lateral Bracing
Reference:
LRFD Article 6.7.5
The LRFD Specifications require the investigation for lateral bracing for all construction stages.
If the bracing is included in the structural model used to determine force effects, design the
lateral bracing for all applicable limit states.
In general, lateral bracing is only required on very deep girders where the bottom flange cannot
accommodate the cross bending from wind. The vast majority of steel I-girder bridges (short
through medium spans) do not require lateral bracing; however, the structural engineer must
verify that lateral bracing is not required. Typical diaphragms and cross frames transfer lateral
loads adequately to eliminate the need for lateral bracing.
For box girders, internal top lateral bracing is typical.
LRFD Article 4.6.2.7 provides various alternatives relative to lateral wind distribution in
multigirder bridges.
15.5.5
Inspection Access (Box Girders)
Detail all new steel box girder bridges with access openings to allow inspection of the girder
interior. Provide lighting and power when required by the Structures Design Manager or as
noted in the project documents. Do not locate access openings over travel lanes or railroad
tracks and, preferably, not over shoulders. Locate the inspection accesses such that the
general public cannot gain easy entrance. Provide one secured access opening at each end of
the bridge when the total span length is 100 ft or more.
See Section 2.11 for more information.
15.5.6
Jacking
Reference:
LRFD Article 3.4.3
Integral abutments and integral bents do not require jacking provisions.

Provide details allowing replacement or realignment of bearings for bridges on elastomeric pads
at expansion bearings. For bearings similar to sample details in the SS sheets, assume that the
bridge is lifted in. and that girders are lifted in pairs. Provide jacking stiffeners or diaphragm
connections capable of supporting the bridge during bearing replacement.
Provide a jacking plan sheet for HLMR, isolation or other specialty bearings. The jacking plan
sheet and other plan sheets must include the necessary bearing stiffeners, jack locations and
clearances, factored reactions and jacking height. Design all cross frames and diaphragms for
the jacking loads. Provide only conceptual falsework requirements when required.
Steel Structures
15-17
February 2015
Include live load when preparing the jacking plan for bridges with no readily available detour.
Include the live load reactions on the jacking plan sheet. See Chapter 19 for additional bearing
information.
15.6
I-SECTIONS IN FLEXURE
Reference:
15.6.1
LRFD Article 6.10
Limit States
Reference:
15.6.1.1
LRFD Article 6.10.1
Positive Moment Region Maximum Moment Section
For a composite girder, consider the positive moment region maximum moment section to be
compact in the final condition (see LRFD Article 6.10.7.1). The cured concrete deck in the
positive moment region provides a large compression flange, and the deck laterally braces the
top flange. Very little, if any, of the web is in compression.
15.6.1.1.1
Top Flange (Compression Flange)
In the final condition after the deck has cured, the top flange adds little to the resistance of the
cross section. During curing of the concrete deck, however, the top flange is very important.
The strength limit state during construction when the concrete is not fully cured could govern the
design of the top flange in the positive moment region, as specified in LRFD Article 6.10.3.4.
15.6.1.1.2
Bottom Flange (Tension Flange)
The bottom flange, if properly proportioned, is not governed by the construction phase. The
bottom flange is typically governed by the final condition. The Service II load combination
permanent deformation provisions of LRFD Article 6.10.4.2 could govern and must be checked.
15.6.1.2
Negative Moment Region Bent Section
The negative moment region bent section is typically a noncompact section during all
conditions. The concrete deck over the bent is in tension in the negative moment region and,
thus, considered cracked and ineffective for nominal resistance calculations (i.e., strength load
combinations). Thus, a good portion of the steel cross section is in compression. To qualify as
compact, the web is usually too thick to be cost effective. Thus, the cost effective section is
normally a noncompact section.
15-18
Steel Structures
February 2015
Both top and bottom flanges in the negative moment region are typically governed by the
strength limit state in the final condition. Furthermore, the bottom flange in compression is
typically governed by the location of the first intermediate diaphragm off the bent because it
provides the discrete bracing for the flange.
15.6.1.3
Negative Flexural Deck Reinforcement
Reference:
Provide longitudinal steel not less than 1% of the total cross sectional area of the deck slab
(excluding the wearing surface) in negative moment regions with longitudinal tensile stress in
the slab, due to factored construction loads or the Service II load combination. Also ensure that
sufficient negative moment steel is provided for the applied loads.
15.6.1.4
Rigidity in Negative Moment Regions
Reference:
LRFD Articles 6.10.1.5 and 6.10.1.7
LRFD Article 6.10.1.5 permits the assumption of uncracked concrete in the negative moment
regions for member stiffness. The stiffness is used to obtain continuity moments due to live
load, future wearing surface and parapet weights placed on the composite section.
For the service limit state control of permanent deflections under LRFD Article 6.10.4.2 and the
fatigue limit state under LRFD Article 6.6.1.2, the concrete slab can be considered fully effective
for both positive and negative moments for members with shear connectors throughout the full
girder length and satisfying LRFD Article 6.10.1.7.
15.6.2
Shear Connectors
Reference:
15.6.2.1
LRFD Article 6.10.10
Requirements
Use shear connectors over the full length of the girder. The preferred size for shear studs for
use on the flanges of girders is -in. diameter. The minimum number of studs in a group is
three in a single transverse row. Increase the stud length in 1-in. increments when necessary to
maintain a 2-in. minimum penetration of the stud into the deck slab. Provide a minimum 3-in.
cover over the top of the shear stud. On relatively thin elements, less than 1 in., use -in.
diameter studs. Do not place shear studs on splice plates. Additional requirements are in the
Steel Structures
15-19
15.6.2.2
February 2015
Modified Requirements for Precast Decks
Space groups of shear connectors at less than 4 ft. Provide the number of shear connectors
required for strength and fatigue. Use n equal to the number of studs according to group and
the pitch, p, equal to the center to center spacing between groups. The minimum transverse
and longitudinal spacing between studs is 3.0 stud diameters. The maximum center to center
requirement of 24 in between groups of studs is waived.
On deck replacement projects, use a finite fatigue life of 50 years to design the shear studs.
15.6.3
Stiffeners
Reference:
LRFD Article 6.10.11
Refer to the WS sheets for standard stiffener details and the SD drawings for diaphragm
connection stiffener layout.
15.6.3.1
Reference:
Intermediate Transverse Stiffeners

Weld intermediate transverse stiffeners near side and far side to the compression flange. Do
not weld intermediate transverse stiffeners on straight girders to tension flanges. For the
distance between the end of the web to stiffener weld and the near toe of the web to flange fillet
weld, provide between 4tw and 6tw or 4-in. maximum.
The width of the projecting stiffener element, moment of inertia of the transverse stiffener and
stiffener area must satisfy the requirements of LRFD Article 6.10.11.1.
Orient intermediate transverse stiffeners normal to the web.
15.6.3.2
Diaphragm Connection Stiffener
Diaphragm connection stiffeners are transverse stiffeners used to connect diaphragms or cross
frames. Where the angle of crossing is between 70 and 90, skew the stiffeners so that the
diaphragms of cross frames can be connected directly to the stiffeners; otherwise, place the
stiffeners normal to the web.
15.6.3.3
Reference:
Bearing Stiffeners
Provide bearing stiffeners for all plate girders to prevent the possibility of web buckling. Provide
bearing stiffeners on both web faces and at the bearing points of rolled beams and plate girders.
15-20
Steel Structures
February 2015
Design the weld connecting the bearing stiffener to the web to transmit the full bearing force
from the stiffener to the web due to the factored loads.
Detail bearing stiffeners with the stiffener ends bearing on the loaded flange being fit to bear, or
weld with a full penetration butt weld. The opposite end must also be fillet welded to the girder
flange.
Elimination of the bearing stiffener is permitted on the exterior side of exterior girders at
temporary supports used for ABC bridges. Design the remaining bearing stiffeners and webs
for the temporary loading condition according to AASHTO requirements.
15.7
CONNECTIONS AND SPLICES
Reference:
15.7.1
LRFD Article 6.13
Bolted Connections
Reference:
LRFD Article 6.13.2
Design all bolted connections as slip critical at the Service II limit state, except for secondary
bracing members.
LRFD Table 6.13.2.8-3 provides values for the surface condition. Use Class B surface condition
for the design of slip critical connections. Class B is applicable to unpainted, blast cleaned
surfaces and to blast cleaned surfaces with a Class B coating.
15.7.2
Welded Connections
Reference:
15.7.2.1
LRFD Article 6.13.3
Welding Process
The governing specification for welding new steel girders is the AASHTO/AWS D1.5, Bridge
Welding Code. However, the specification does not provide control over all of the welding
issues that could arise on a project. Consult the following additional reference specifications as
needed:
AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code Steel for welding of tubular members and
strengthening or repair of existing structures
AWS D1.4 Structural Welding Code Reinforcing Steel if the welding of reinforcing
steel must be covered by a specification
Welding processes include:
Steel Structures
15-21
February 2015
Shielded metal arc

Submerged arc
Gas metal arc
Flux cored arc
15.7.2.2
Welding Types and Symbols
The primary types of welds used in bridge fabrication are fillet welds and groove welds.
Welding symbols must comply with AWS A2.4:2007 Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing,
and Non-Destructive Examination. Welding symbols provide an instruction on the type, size
and other characteristics of the desired weld. When the symbols are properly used, the
meaning is clear and unambiguous. If not used exactly as prescribed, the meaning could be
ambiguous, leading to problems for all involved. The AISC Steel Construction Manual and most
steel design textbooks have examples of welding symbols that, although technically correct, are
more complicated than the typical structural engineer needs. With minor modifications, the
examples in Figure 15.6 suffice for the majority of bridge fabrication circumstances.
15.7.2.3
Field Welding
Field welding is not permitted except at bearing sole plates.
15.7.2.4
Design of Welds
The weld strength calculations of LRFD Section 6 assume that the strength of a welded
connection is dependent only on the weld metal strength and the area of the weld. The area of
the weld that resists load is a product of the theoretical throat multiplied by the length. The
theoretical weld throat is the minimum distance from the root of the weld to the theoretical face.
See Figure 15.6. Fillet welds resist load through shear on the throat; groove welds typically
resist load through tension, compression or shear depending upon the application.
Often, the best approach is to only show the type and sizes of the weld required and leave the
details for the specific weld geometry to the fabricator.
When considering design options, note that the most significant factor in the cost of a weld is
the volume of the weld material that is deposited. Oversizing a welded joint is unnecessary and
uneconomical. Welds sized in a single pass are preferred because the welds are most
economical and least susceptible to resultant flaws. The maximum weld size for a single pass
fillet weld applicable to all weld types is 5/16 in. The AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code, Table
3.7, provides more specific maximum single pass fillet weld sizes for various welding processes
and positions of welding. Design the weld economically, but the minimum weld size is in.
and, in no case, less than the requirements of LRFD Article 6.13.3.4 and/or AWS D1.5, Table
2.1, for the thicker of the two parts joined. Show the weld terminations.
15-22
Steel Structures
February 2015
Figure 15.6 WELDING SYMBOLS

Steel Structures
15-23
February 2015
The following types of welds are prohibited:
Field welded girder splices

Intersecting welds
Intermittent fillet welds
Partial penetration groove welds (except for the connection of tubular members in hand
rails)
Review the accessibility of welded joints to assure constructability. Provide sufficient clearance
to allow placement of the welding rod at the joint. Often, a large scale sketch or an isometric
drawing of the joint reveals difficulties in welding or where critical weld stresses must be
investigated.
15.7.3
Field Splices
Reference:
LRFD Article 6.13.6
Do not use welded field splices.

In general, locate field splices in main girders at low stress areas and near the points of dead
load contraflexure for continuous spans. Long spans can require field splices located in higher
moment areas.
Calculate design loads for bolts by an elastic method of analysis. Provide at least two lines of
bolts on each side of the web splice and four lines in flange splices. Do not place shear studs
on splice plates.
Locate field splices such that the maximum shipping width for a horizontally curved girder is
10 ft within a single field section.
15-24
Steel Structures
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
BRI
DGE DECKS
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
16.1
DECK PROTECTIVE MEASURES ............................................................................ 16-1

16.1.1
Reinforcing Corrosion Protection................................................................. 16-1

16.1.1.1
16.1.1.2
16.1.1.3
16.1.1.4
16.1.1.5
16.1.2
16.1.3
16.1.4
Prestressing Strand ..................................................................................... 16-2

Healer/Sealers or HMWMs .......................................................................... 16-2
Deck Overlay Systems ................................................................................ 16-2
16.1.4.1
16.1.4.2
16.1.4.3
16.1.4.4
16.2
Epoxy Coated ............................................................................ 16-1

Galvanized ................................................................................. 16-1
Stainless Steel ........................................................................... 16-1
Fiber Reinforced Polymer .......................................................... 16-2
Cathodic Protection ................................................................... 16-2
Thin Bonded Polymer Overlay ................................................... 16-3

Polyester Polymer Concrete Overlay ......................................... 16-3
Concrete Overlays ..................................................................... 16-3
Waterproof Membrane/Asphalt Overlay..................................... 16-4
DESIGN DETAILS ..................................................................................................... 16-4

16.2.1
16.2.2
16.2.3
16.2.4
Empirical Deck Design ................................................................................ 16-4

Traditional Design Using the Strip Method .................................................. 16-5
Cast-In-Place Decks .................................................................................... 16-5
Full Depth Precast Deck Panels .................................................................. 16-6
16.2.4.1
16.2.4.2
16.2.4.3
16.2.5
16.2.6
Screed Deflections ...................................................................................... 16-7

Deck Haunches ........................................................................................... 16-7
16.2.6.1
16.2.6.2
16.2.6.3
16.2.7
16.2.8
16.2.9
16.2.10
16.2.11
16.2.12
16.2.13
16.2.14
16.2.15
Post-Tensioning ......................................................................... 16-6

Lap Splices and Closure Pours ................................................. 16-7
Alternative Details ...................................................................... 16-7
Haunch Dimensions for Steel Girders........................................ 16-8

Haunch Dimensions for Precast Concrete Girders .................... 16-8
Reinforcing for Deep Haunches ................................................. 16-8
Stay in Place Forms .................................................................................... 16-8

Skewed Decks ............................................................................................. 16-10
Deck Pouring Sequence for Composite Bridge Decks ................................ 16-10
Full Depth Precast Deck Panel Placing Sequence...................................... 16-12
Transverse Construction Joints ................................................................... 16-12
Longitudinal Construction Joints.................................................................. 16-12
Longitudinal Deck Joints.............................................................................. 16-14
Transverse Edge Beam ............................................................................... 16-14
Deck Overhang/Bridge Parapet................................................................... 16-14
16.2.15.1 Overhang Width and Thickness ................................................. 16-14
16.2.15.2 Construction ............................................................................... 16-14
Bridge Decks
16-i
February 2015
16.2.15.3 Structural/Performance Design of Bridge Parapet ..................... 16-16

16.2.15.4 Parapet Joints ............................................................................ 16-16
16.3
PEDESTRIAN BRIDGE DECKS ............................................................................... 16-17
16.4
APPROACH SLABS ................................................................................................. 16-17
16.5
DECK DRAINAGE ..................................................................................................... 16-17

16.5.1
Drainage System Design and Coordination ................................................ 16-17

16.5.1.1
16.5.1.2
16.5.1.3
16.5.2
16.5.3
Drainage Systems ....................................................................................... 16-18

Deck Drainage Design Elements................................................................. 16-19
16.5.3.1
16.5.3.2
16.5.3.3
16.5.3.4
16.5.3.5
16.5.3.6
16.6
Structural Engineer/Hydraulics Engineer ................................... 16-17

Structural Engineer/Roadway Designer ..................................... 16-18
Structural Engineer/Environmental Services Division ................ 16-18
Deck Slope ................................................................................ 16-19

Sag Vertical Curves ................................................................... 16-19
Superelevation Transitions ........................................................ 16-19
Inlets/Downspouts/Pipes ........................................................... 16-19
Structural Considerations .......................................................... 16-20
Maintenance Considerations ..................................................... 16-21
BRIDGE DECK APPURTENANCES ......................................................................... 16-21

16.6.1
Bridge Parapets ........................................................................................... 16-21

16.6.1.1
16.6.1.2
16.6.1.3
16.6.1.4
16.6.2
16.6.3
16.6.4
Test Levels ................................................................................ 16-21

Bridge Parapet Types/Usage ..................................................... 16-21
Guardrail to Bridge Parapet Transitions..................................... 16-22
Bridge Parapet/Sidewalk ........................................................... 16-22
Protective Fencing ....................................................................................... 16-22

Utility Attachments ....................................................................................... 16-22
Sign Attachments/Luminaire/Traffic Signal/Underdeck Lighting Attachments16-22
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 16.1
Figure 16.2
Figure 16.3
Figure 16.4
HAUNCH DIMENSION FOR STEEL PLATE GIRDERS ............................. 16-9

HAUNCH DIMENSION FOR CONCRETE I-GIRDERS ............................... 16-9
HAUNCH REINFORCING ........................................................................... 16-10
DECK POURING SEQUENCE (Continuous Steel Girder with
Potential Uplift at Abutment #1) ................................................................... 16-11
Figure 16.5 SUPPORT FOR FINISHING MACHINE ...................................................... 16-13
Figure 16.6 TRANSVERSE EDGE BEAM ...................................................................... 16-15
Figure 16.7 TYPICAL OVERHANG FORMING SYSTEM (Concrete and
Steel Girders) ............................................................................................... 16-16
16-ii
Bridge Decks
February 2015
Chapter 16
BRIDGE DECKS
Sections 3, 4 and 9 of the LRFD Specifications present design requirements for bridge decks.
Section 3 specifies loads, Section 4 specifies the modeling and analysis, and Section 9
specifies bridge deck design. This chapter discusses bridge deck provisions in Sections 3, 4
and 9 of the LFRD Specifications that require amplification or clarification. This chapter also
addresses specific practices for the design and detailing of bridge decks. This chapter
documents criteria on the design of bridge decks that are constructed compositely in
conjunction with concrete or steel girders.
16.1
DECK PROTECTIVE MEASURES
Coat all miscellaneous steel placed in the deck except for hangers, brackets and other
accessories used for forming the deck and placed in the bottom half of the deck.
16.1.1
Reinforcing Corrosion Protection
Reference:
LRFD Articles 2.5.2.1 and 5.12
Use coated or corrosion resistant reinforcing in the bridge deck, approach slabs and all
reinforcing extending into the deck from precast or CIP construction.
16.1.1.1
Epoxy Coated
Epoxy coated reinforcing is effective in increasing the corrosion resistance of reinforcing. The
epoxy coating increases development and lap lengths. Damage in the coating can reduce the
effectiveness. Field repair or touch up of damaged areas according to project specifications is
required.
16.1.1.2
Galvanized
Galvanized reinforcing is effective in increasing the corrosion resistance of reinforcing.

Damage in the coating can reduce the effectiveness. Properly applied galvanized coatings are
not easily damaged during handling and placement. Field repair or touch up of damaged areas
according to project specifications is required.
16.1.1.3
Stainless Steel
Stainless steel reinforcing is corrosion resistant and can improve ductility. The effectiveness is
not reduced through chipping or scratching before concrete placement.
Bridge Decks
16-1
16.1.1.4
February 2015
Fiber Reinforced Polymer
FRP reinforcing is corrosion resistant. Chipping or scratching of FRP reinforcing before

concrete placement does not reduce the effectiveness. Field bending is normally not possible,
and bends in FRP reinforcing normally reduce the strength. Use a special provision for use of
FRP reinforcing, and obtain approval from the Structures Design Manager. ACI 440.R-06
Guide for the Design and Construction of Structural Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars and
the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Guide Specifications for GFRP-Reinforced Concrete Bridge
Decks and Traffic Railings, First Edition, provide information on the use of FRP reinforcing.
16.1.1.5
Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection can halt the progress of corrosion without the removal of chloride
contaminated concrete. Corrosion requires an anode, which is a point on the reinforcing where
ions are released. Cathodic protection is either the application of direct current to artificial
anodes such that the steel becomes cathodic or the installation of passive sacrificial anodes.
Cathodic protection is seldom used because of several disadvantages, including the need for:
Expertise in design and construction

Periodic adjustment and maintenance
Power requirement
For more information, see the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Cathodic Protection of
Concrete Bridge Decks, 1994, AASHTO Task Force 29.
16.1.2
Prestressing Strand
Uncoated prestressing strand in partial depth deck panels is permitted. Uncoated prestressing
strand in full depth panels is permitted when the prestressing strand is only secondary
reinforcement to limit panel cracking during shipping and handling. Uncoated strand in the castin-place portion of decks is not permitted.
16.1.3
Healer/Sealers or HMWMs
One method of slowing the entry of chloride ions into concrete is by sealing the concrete
surface. Healer/sealers or HMWMs have a service life of 3 to 5 years but are a low cost
preventive maintenance alternative for sound decks. The entire surface is treated and applied
as recommended by the manufacturer.
16.1.4
Deck Overlay Systems
Deck overlay systems provide additional deck protection and corrosion protection. Use initial
overlays on all bridges except for bridges using stainless steel reinforcing or FRP reinforcing in
the deck. Thin bonded polymer overlays are standard for typical bridges. Research indicates
16-2
Bridge Decks
February 2015
that the life and performance of the overlay is more dependent on the surface preparation and
contractor skill than with the actual type of overlay. Coordinate with the Structures Design
Manager to determine the appropriate overlay system.
All overlay systems have limited lifespans and require replacement throughout the life of the
structure.
Account for the dead load of the system in design. The standard FWS load defined in Section
11.2.2 typically controls the design. Verify that the system chosen does not exceed the design
FWS load. If the design FWS is exceeded, recheck the system with the increased weight.
16.1.4.1
Thin Bonded Polymer Overlay
A thin bonded polymer overlay is a two part polymer resin system applied as a wearing surface
and saturated with a broadcast aggregate before it cures. The minimum thickness is in. Use
a thin bonded polymer Type I overlay for interstate bridges and a Type II overlay for
noninterstate bridges. Extend the overlay to include approach slabs.
16.1.4.2
Polyester Polymer Concrete Overlay
PPC is a combination of a polymer resin (polyester/styrene) and well graded durable

aggregates. Unlike concrete overlays, polymer overlays provide a waterproof barrier. The
minimum thickness is in. but can vary from in. to 12 in. A high molecular weight
methacrylate (HMWM) primer is needed to keep the polyester/styrene resin from contacting the
alkaline concrete deck. The primer also seals any cracks in the deck.
Traffic can be placed on the overlay usually on the same day of construction. Provide a special
provision when specifying polyester polymer concrete overlays.
16.1.4.3
Concrete Overlays
Concrete overlays are typically used on bridges where the deck cannot be replaced. Typical
structures using concrete overlays include precast segmental boxes, CIP segmental boxes and
CIP boxes. Numerous types of concrete overlays are available low slump high density
concrete (LSDC), latex modified concrete (LMC), microsilica modified concrete (MMC) and fiber
reinforced concrete (FRC). All properly applied concrete overlays provide a durable, smooth
and economical riding surface that is resistant to chloride penetration and delamination.
Provide a special provision when specifying concrete overlays. Concrete overlays require
approval from the Structures Design Manager.
16.1.4.3.1
Low Slump High Density Concrete
Typically, the permeability is greater than MMC and less than normal concrete mixes. The
strength is typically similar to MMC and greater than normal concrete.
Bridge Decks
16-3
16.1.4.3.2
February 2015
Latex Modified Concrete
Rapid set latex modified concretes are available to reduce cure time. Typically, the permeability
is greater than MMC and less than normal concrete mixes. The strength is typically less than
MMC and equal to normal concrete.
16.1.4.3.3
Microsilica Modified Concrete
Microsilica is a pozzolanic material that is much finer than cement particles, which allows the
material to produce a denser matrix. One of the biggest advantages of a MMC overlay is the
reduced permeability to chloride penetration. MMC also enhances compressive strength.
Although MMC is highly resistant to chloride penetration, the permeability of MMC also depends
on the quality of construction and proper curing of the deck. Shrinkage cracking is the most
common problem. Durability is sensitive to evaporation rates after placement.
Due to curing and quality concerns, do not use MMC unless approved by the Structures Design
Manager.
16.1.4.3.4
Fiber Reinforced Concrete
FRC overlays provide the highest tensile strength of all concrete overlay systems. Compressive
strength and permeability are similar to normal concrete.
16.1.4.4
Waterproof Membrane/Asphalt Overlay
Waterproof membranes with asphalt overlays are not typically used on new bridges. Visual
inspection of a bridge deck covered with asphalt is impossible. The overlay adds dead load to
the bridge, which can reduce live load capacity, and the overlay traps moisture in the concrete
further aggravating corrosion of the slab reinforcing. However, on certain bridges such as side
by side box girders, a waterproof membrane with asphalt overlay has demonstrated better
performance than concrete or polymer overlays. The concrete and polymer overlays have
developed cracking at the joints between the box girders due to the differential movement of the
boxes. Refer to Section 2.7.3 for additional information on asphalt overlays.
16.2
16.2.1
DESIGN DETAILS
Empirical Deck Design
Reference:
LRFD Article 9.7.2
Use the modified empirical deck design as defined in the SD drawings for all new full depth, CIP
decks. The modified empirical design requires a thicker deck for wider girder spacing and
increases the required reinforcing.
16-4
Bridge Decks
February 2015
Evaluate stresses in CIP decks on bridges moved into place, and increase deck reinforcing as
required according to the analysis results.
16.2.2
Traditional Design Using the Strip Method
Reference:
LRFD Articles 9.7.3, 4.6.2.1.1, 4.6.2.1.3 and Appendix A4
Use the traditional deck design using the strip method based on LRFD Articles 9.7.3 and 4.6.2.1
for deck design using precast elements.
Apply the strip method to concrete decks using the design table for deck slabs in the Appendix
to Section 4 of the LRFD Specifications (LRFD Table A4-1). An introduction to the LRFD table
discusses the application and the inherent assumptions.
Apply LRFD Table A4-1 to design the concrete deck reinforcing. LRFD Table A4-1 tabulates
the resultant live load moments based on the unit width for reinforcing design as a function of
the girder or web spacings, S. The table distinguishes between positive moments and negative
moments and tabulates negative moments for various design sections as a function of the
distance from the girder or web centerline to the design section. LRFD Article 4.6.2.1.6
specifies the design sections.
16.2.3
Cast-In-Place Decks
The following criteria apply to composite bridge decks:

1.
Thickness. The minimum thickness is 8 in. Refer to the SD drawings for minimum
thicknesses based on the girder spacing.
2.
Cover. Refer to the SD drawings for cover requirements.
3.
Steel Reinforcing Strength. Use fy equal to the yield strength of the reinforcing used, but
not greater than 60 ksi for deck design checks. Use fy equal to the yield strength of the
reinforcing used, but not greater than 90 ksi for composite girder strength design checks
where the longitudinal deck reinforcing is part of the structural system and when the
following conditions are met:
4.
All deck reinforcing is the same grade.

Service load checks using fy equal to the yield strength of the reinforcing used
but not greater than 60 ksi do not control the girder design.
Minimum reinforcing requirements defined in the LRFD Specifications are met.
Minimum reinforcing requirements defined in Chapter 15 are met.
The Structures Design Manager has approved the use of higher reinforcing
strengths for design or the deck reinforcing is ASTM A955 Grade 75 or ASTM
A706 Grade 80.
Exposure Condition. Use a Class 2 exposure factor in LRFD Equation 5.7.3.4-1 for all
bridge decks.
Bridge Decks
16-5
February 2015
5.
Placement of Top and Bottom Transverse Reinforcing. Offset the top and bottom
transverse reinforcing, preferably at half the spacing. Do not place the top mat directly
above the bottom mat.
6.
Reinforcing Size. The minimum longitudinal and transverse reinforcing is #4 reinforcing.

The maximum transverse reinforcing is #6 reinforcing. The maximum longitudinal
reinforcing in negative moment regions requiring continuity reinforcing is #8 reinforcing;
elsewhere, use #6 reinforcing.
7.
Sacrificial Wearing Surface. The top reinforcing concrete cover includes a -in.
sacrificial wearing surface. For both the deck and superstructure, include the sacrificial
wearing surface weight as a dead load, but do not include the structural contribution in
the structural design.
8.
Placement of Transverse Reinforcing on Skewed Bridges. The following applies:
Skews 20: Place the transverse reinforcing parallel to the skew.

Skews > 20: Place the transverse reinforcing perpendicular to the longitudinal
reinforcing.
See Section 16.2.8 for a definition of skew angle and for structural considerations related
to skewed reinforcing placement.
9.
Shear Connectors. Use stirrups or shear studs extending from concrete girders and
shear studs extending from steel girders over the full length of the girders. Extend shear
connectors at least 2 in. into the deck not including the haunch. See Section 15.6.2 for
more discussion on shear connectors.
10.
Precast Concrete Deck Panel Half Depth. Use of stay in place, precast concrete
partial depth panel forms is permitted. Use the panels defined on the WS sheets for
panel lengths up to 11-6. Precast partial depth panel lengths larger than 11-6 are not
permitted.
16.2.4
Full Depth Precast Deck Panels
The minimum thickness is 8 in. Refer to the SD drawings for design details. Provide a
connection between panels either by post-tensioning or with lap splices with a closure pour or
alternative details providing reinforcing across the joint. Make all panels composite with the
girders.
16.2.4.1
Post-Tensioning
The effects of creep from post-tensioned decks on girders is difficult to quantify. According to
PCI recommendations, ignore the losses in post-tensioning associated with panel creep
restrained by the girders. The deck/girder interaction tends to restrain the creep while also
transferring post-tensioning force into the girder. Research and numerical analysis demonstrate
losses in deck compression due to creep. Research also suggests that the 0.25-ksi
16-6
Bridge Decks
February 2015
compression requirement of LRFD Article 9.7.5.3 could be conservative. Creep in the new deck
system can transmit forces into the girder system. The increase in stress in the girder is
typically small. Structural engineers concerned with the increase in girder stress can estimate
the effects of creep using a procedure similar to the procedure defined in LRFD Article C4.6.6,
which discusses the effects of temperature differential across a structural system. Replace the
temperature differential terms with the creep differential.
Design the post-tensioning system to provide a minimum 0.25 ksi across the joint after all losses
except losses due to restraint of creep. Post-tension the system before grouting the haunch
and filling the shear stud blockouts.
16.2.4.2
Lap Splices and Closure Pours
Design lap splices according to the LRFD Specifications. When sizing the closure pour width,
consider the panel size tolerance and layout tolerance. Use a closure pour at least 3 in. larger
than the required splice length.
16.2.4.3
Alternative Details
A variety of methods to connect full depth precast deck panels are available. Do not use details
relying on a shear key alone. Methods using dropped in lapped bars are permitted.
16.2.5
Screed Deflections
Ignore the future wearing surface when calculating screed deflections, unless the future wearing
surface is placed on the bridge during initial construction.
Do not use the long term multipliers when listing screed deflections on prestressed girder
bridges. Evaluate the impacts of phased construction on the screed deflections. See Section
14.6.4 for more discussion on deflections.
Calculate screed deflections based on the defined pour sequence. Evaluate the impacts of
pouring the entire deck in a single pour during design. Use this information when reviewing
contractor requests for alternative pour sequences.
16.2.6
Deck Haunches
Haunches consist of concrete between the top of a steel flange or concrete girder and the
bottom of the bridge deck. Haunches account for construction variations, tolerances and beam
camber. The haunch varies across the width of the flange based on the cross slope. The
haunch also varies along the length of the girder due to flange thickness variation, camber
variation and roadway profile.
Refer to the SD drawings for a detailed description on how to calculate the required haunch.
The haunch thickness calculation is based on providing at least a -in. haunch at the minimum
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February 2015
haunch location for CIP decks and a 1-in. haunch at the minimum haunch location for partial
or fully precast decks.
Include the girder haunch in the load calculations as dead load by applying the maximum
haunch dimension throughout the span; however, ignore the haunch in the calculation of the
section resistance.
Define the control dimension, A (see Figures 16.1 and 16.2), at the centerline of bearing. The
dimension varies along the span to compensate for variations in camber and superelevation.
Detail the haunch flush with the vertical edge of the top flange between girders and at the
overhang. See Figures 16.1 and 16.2.
16.2.6.1
Haunch Dimensions for Steel Girders
Figure 16.1 illustrates the controlling factors used to determine the haunch dimension for steel
plate girders. Calculate the required haunch using the procedure defined on the SD drawings.
When using rolled beams, set the haunch to provide adequate tolerance for geometric effects
and beam rolling tolerances.
16.2.6.2
Haunch Dimensions for Precast Concrete Girders
Figure 16.2 illustrates the controlling factors used to determine the haunch dimension for
precast concrete girders. Calculate the haunch using the procedure defined on the SD
drawings.
16.2.6.3
Reinforcing for Deep Haunches
Provide additional reinforcing in haunches when H is greater than 4.0 in. on concrete girders
and when (H TFT) is greater than 4.0 in. on steel girders, where TFT is the top flange
thickness in inches. For the additional reinforcing, provide a minimum of #4 reinforcing spaced
at a maximum of 12 in. Provide a minimum horizontal length of 12 in. on each end of the bar in
the deck. See Figure 16.3.
16.2.7
Stay in Place Forms
Do not use stay in place metal forms. Use of stay in place precast concrete deck forms is
permitted. Refer to the WS sheets for standard panels.
16-8
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February 2015
Figure 16.1 HAUNCH DIMENSION FOR STEEL PLATE GIRDERS
Figure 16.2 HAUNCH DIMENSION FOR CONCRETE I-GIRDERS

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February 2015
Figure 16.3 HAUNCH REINFORCING
16.2.8
Skewed Decks
Reference:
Skew is defined as the angle between the alignment crossed and a line normal to the alignment
carried by the structure. See Section 10.4.6. A crossing angle less than 90 equates to a left
skew. A crossing angle greater than 90 equates to a right skew.
The LRFD Specifications suggest that the effects of skew angles not exceeding 25 can be
neglected for concrete decks, but the LRFD Specifications assume the typical case of bridges
with relatively large span length to bridge width ratios. Further, the commentary indicates that
the 25 limit is somewhat arbitrary. Therefore, use a 20 threshold for the consideration of
skew in reinforcing detailing. See Section 16.2.3.
16.2.9
Deck Pouring Sequence for Composite Bridge Decks
Reference:
LRFD Article 2.5.3
Include a deck pouring sequence for all CIP concrete decks. Determine the pouring sequence
to avoid or minimize the dead load tensile stresses in the slab caused by the pouring sequence.
The pour sequence must also account for rotation of the girders at supports. Arrange the
sequence to cause the least disturbance to the portions poured previously. Typically, the
positive moment regions are placed before the negative moment regions and the integral
diaphragms are placed last to permit girder rotation. The default pouring direction is uphill. The
negative moment regions for steel girders extend between the points of dead load contraflexure.
For precast concrete girders, use a minimum of 15 ft on each side of the center of support or
20% of the span length, whichever is greater.
16-10
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February 2015
Allow the contractor to combine pours for integral abutments and integral bent diaphragms with
the deck pours when the diaphragm pours remain plastic during the deck pour or when the
diaphragm is placed immediately following the deck pour.
In continuous steel girder bridges, the pouring sequence changes the stresses when compared
to stresses associated with the instantaneous placement typically assumed in design. The
pouring sequence can also change the required girder camber and screed deflections.
Consider the pouring sequence in the design of the girders. Typically, the plans permit
combining all pours into a single pour. Verify that the girder design, camber and screed
deflections are compatible with a single continuous pour. If not, place a note on the plan sheet
indicating that the pouring sequence cannot be altered without also modifying the girder
camber, the screed deflections and verifying the design.
Figure 16.4 illustrates a sample pouring sequence diagram for a continuous bridge with
potential uplift at abutment 1. In this example, minimal rotation exists at abutment 1 and the
girder, diaphragm and abutment were designed to account for the restraint loads and, by
placing the end diaphragm first, the potential for uplift is eliminated.
Figure 16.4 DECK POURING SEQUENCE

(Continuous Steel Girder with Potential Uplift at Abutment #1)
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February 2015
16.2.10 Full Depth Precast Deck Panel Placing Sequence

Provide a placing sequence for full depth precast deck panel. Also, provide a construction
sequence for all activities associated with placing and connecting the panels to each other and
the girder.
16.2.11 Transverse Construction Joints

Place transverse construction joints parallel to the skew. Do not place the joints over girder field
splices.
16.2.12 Longitudinal Construction Joints

Avoid longitudinal construction joints in bridge decks. Only use longitudinal construction joints
when unavoidable (e.g., widenings, phased construction, very wide structures). The following
applies to longitudinal construction joints.
For deck widths greater than 120 ft (i.e., where the finishing machine span width must exceed
120 ft), make provisions to permit placing the deck in practical widths If a longitudinal
construction joint is necessary, avoid locating the joint underneath a wheel line. Closure pours
are not required but can be useful for phased construction projects. A closure pour serves two
useful purposes:
Defers final connection of the phases until after the deflection from deck slab weight has
occurred
Provides the width needed to provide a smooth transition between differences in final
grades that result from differential deflection between the phases
When a closure pour is used, the following applies:
16-12
Use a minimum closure pour width of 3 ft.

Locate lap splices in the transverse reinforcing within the longitudinal closure pour.
Allow transverse shrinkage of the deck concrete to occur by leaving the joint open as
long as the construction schedule permits.
Do not tie contact lap splices or couple reinforcing between different phases until placing
adjacent phases of the deck.
Consider the deflections of the bridge on either side of the closure pour to ensure proper
transverse fit up.
Do not rigidly connect diaphragms/cross frames in the closure pour bay of structural
steel girders or prestressed concrete girders until after placing adjacent phases of the
deck. If concrete diaphragms are used for prestressed girders, construct the concrete
diaphragms in the closure pour bay of prestressed concrete girders after adjacent
portions of the bridge are complete. Pour the diaphragms as part of the closure pour.
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February 2015
Support the finishing machine on an overhang jack connected to the girder loaded by the
deck pour. Do not place one edge of the finishing machine on a previously poured deck.
Indicate in the plan sheets or the project specifications that this method of constructing
the closure pour is not allowed. See Figure 16.5.
Figure 16.5 SUPPORT FOR FINISHING MACHINE
All structures deflect and vibrate when subjected to live loading, and many bridges with staged
construction or bridge widenings are constructed with traffic on the previously constructed or
existing structure. Fresh concrete in the deck is subjected to deflections and vibrations caused
by traffic. Studies such as NCHRP 86 Effects of Traffic-Induced Vibrations on Bridge-Deck
Repairs have shown that:
Good quality reinforced concrete is not adversely affected by jarring and vibrations of
low frequency and amplitude during the period of setting and early strength
development.
Traffic induced vibrations do not cause relative movement between fresh concrete and
embedded reinforcing.
Investigations of the condition of widened bridges have shown that the performance of
attached widenings, with and without the use of a closure pour placed under traffic, is
satisfactory.
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February 2015
16.2.13 Longitudinal Deck Joints

Reference:
Do not use open longitudinal joints. Obtain approval from the Structures Design Manager for a
specific case where a longitudinal joint provides a benefit.
16.2.14 Transverse Edge Beam

Reference:
Provide a transverse edge beam to support wheel loads near the transverse edge of deck when
the deck is not supported by an integral concrete diaphragm. See Figure 16.6 for a steel girder
example. Prestressed girders also require an edge beam when the deck is not supported by an
integral concrete diaphragm.
16.2.15 Deck Overhang/Bridge Parapet

Reference:
Overhang Width and Thickness

The deck overhang is the distance between the centerline of the exterior girder to the outside
edge of deck. The overhang width for a balanced design in a girder bridge is approximately
30% of the girder spacing. Typical overhang widths are less than 40% of the girder spacing for
I-girders and less than 50% for box girders. The maximum overhang width is 5.5 ft. The
thickness of the overhang is constant and matches the deck thickness between girders.
Refer to Section 15.1.2 for additional information.
Construction
During construction, overhang jacks are connected to the girder at the top flange and braced
against the web or bottom flange. The overhang and construction loads can result in lateral
distortion of the bottom flange and web of the girder. Strut B in Figure 16.7 is required at a
minimum 8-ft spacing unless the contractor provides calculations demonstrating that
displacements in the deck forming is accounted for and that the stresses do not exceed limits
defined in the LRFD Specifications.
Refer to the SD drawings for girder design loads associated with overhang jacks.
16-14
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February 2015
Figure 16.6 TRANSVERSE EDGE BEAM

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February 2015
Figure 16.7 TYPICAL OVERHANG FORMING SYSTEM

(Concrete and Steel Girders)
16.2.15.3
Reference:
Structural/Performance Design of Bridge Parapet

LRFD Articles 13.6.1, 13.6.2 and 13.7.2
Use the barriers defined in the WS sheets. The WS sheets for bridge parapets meet the
structural design requirements to sustain TL-2 and TL-4 collision forces in LRFD Article A13.2.
The SD drawings list the minimum deck thickness and deck moment capacity required at the
face of the barrier in the deck. Check the deck overhang at the girder according to AASHTO
requirements.
16.2.15.4
Parapet Joints
Provide joints in parapets and curbs at expansion joint locations. Extend the expansion joint
seal or hardware up into the barrier at least 12 in. or to the top of curbs. Provide joints in the
barrier over bents. Use the Type D detail defined in the WS sheets. Consider additional Type
D joints on spans over 200 ft.
16-16
Bridge Decks
16.3
February 2015
PEDESTRIAN BRIDGE DECKS
Pedestrian bridges and bridge decks are discussed in Chapter 22. Refer to Section 22.6.2.6 for
specific deck requirements.
16.4
APPROACH SLABS
Approach slabs are an extension of the deck used to transition from the bridge to the roadway.
The minimum approach slab length is 25 ft. Provide approach slabs and sleeper slabs on all
bridges. Use the approach slab design defined in the WS sheets for standard approach slabs.
Longer approach slabs require a project specific design. The WS sheets also represent the
minimum required reinforcing for approach slabs of any length.
16.5
DECK DRAINAGE
Reference:
LRFD Article 2.6.6
The bridge deck drainage system includes the bridge deck, sidewalks, parapets, gutters and
inlets. The primary objective of the drainage system is to remove runoff from the bridge deck
before it collects in the gutter to a point that exceeds the allowable design spread (typically, the
design year runoff water must be restricted to the shoulder portion of the deck) and to eliminate
or minimize water flowing over expansion joints. Proper bridge deck drainage provides many
other benefits, including:
Efficiently removing water from the bridge deck to enhance public safety by decreasing
the risk of hydroplaning
Enhancing long term maintenance of the bridge
Preserving the structural integrity of the bridge
Enhancing aesthetics (e.g., the avoidance of staining substructure and superstructure
members)
Reducing erosion on bridge end slopes
16.5.1
Drainage System Design and Coordination
16.5.1.1
Structural Engineer/Hydraulics Engineer
The hydraulics engineer:
Calculates the flow of water on the deck based on the design frequency
Determines if a free falling or piped drainage system is required
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February 2015
Determines the hydraulic inlet spacing and size of inlets on the bridge deck to intercept
the calculated flow to meet the allowable water spread criteria and deck drain size
limitations provided by the structural engineer
Eliminates deck drains when possible
The structural engineer evaluates the impacts of the proposed bridge deck drainage design on
the structural design of the bridge. The potential impacts include:
Location of downspouts with respect to structural elements

Compatibility of deck reinforcing with inlet location, spacing and size
Providing a piped drainage design underneath the bridge
After the structural engineer and hydraulics engineer have identified the final design details, the
structural engineer incorporates the drainage design information into the structural design of the
bridge and designs the deck drains, pipes, cleanouts, support system and outlets according to
Section 16.5.3.
16.5.1.2
Structural Engineer/Roadway Designer
The roadway designer is responsible for the roadway profiles and drainage design for any runoff
approaching or leaving the bridge deck. Refer to Section 16.5.3 for drainage related criteria for
the roadway profile. Refer to the WS sheets for standard approach slab drains and grates.
At a minimum, provide approach slab drains at all locations where runoff flows from the
approach slab to the roadway section, and verify that roadway drains are provided at all
locations where runoff flows from the roadway section to the approach slab.
16.5.1.3
Structural Engineer/Environmental Services Division
The structural engineer coordinates with the Environmental Services Division to ensure that the
proposed disposal of bridge deck water meets all project environmental requirements. For
example, requirements include applicable best management practices for erosion control and
the impact of water disposal on water quality requirements.
16.5.2
Drainage Systems
Use a free falling drainage system when all of the following are satisfied:
16-18
The free falling discharge is not over travel lanes, shoulders, bicycle facilities or
sidewalks beneath a bridge and does not cause any erosion below.
The free falling discharge does not fall or blow onto substructure elements.
The free falling discharge does not free fall over the traveled way portion of an
underpassing highway, sidewalk or erodible embankment.
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February 2015
Use a piped system when a free falling system is not permitted. A piped system delivers deck
drainage to an underdeck drainage system that is sized for the flow and meets environmental
requirements. Typically, the drainage is routed to the roadway storm drain system. Do not run
the drain pipe inside structural elements.
16.5.3
Deck Drainage Design Elements
16.5.3.1
Deck Slope
Proper deck drainage requires a minimum profile grade of 0.5%. For crest vertical curves, an
average profile grade from the high point to the ends of the bridge of 0.5% typically provides
adequate drainage. When the average is less than 0.5%, coordinate with the roadway designer
to determine if the vertical curve can be adjusted. In locations where the vertical curve cannot
be adjusted, provide drains at a 50-ft spacing. Evaluate the potential for ponding due to flat
profiles and residual camber or long term deflections. Adjust the profile or provide deck drains
when potential ponding is identified.
16.5.3.2
Sag Vertical Curves
Coordinate with the roadway designer and relocate low points in sag vertical curves off the
bridge. When a relative low point cannot be relocated off the bridge, provide deck drains at the
low point to collect and remove the drainage.
16.5.3.3
Superelevation Transitions
Coordinate with the roadway designer and move superelevation transitions off the bridge where
possible. If a superelevation transition is located on the bridge, check for low points due to the
superelevation transition causing the edge of deck to rise faster than a vertical curve or vertical
slope. When the low point is located on the bridge, provide a deck drain to collect and remove
the drainage.
16.5.3.4
Inlets/Downspouts/Pipes
Use a rigid steel pipe for downspouts, pipes and cleanouts, either galvanized or painted, with a
diameter not less than 6 in. (preferably 8 in.) and a minimum wall thickness of in. Provide
cleanouts at each turn in the pipe and every 100 ft, where practical.
Consider the following when locating inlets and downspouts:
1.
Location With Respect To Structural Elements. Extend freefall downspouts a minimum

of 6 in. below structural elements. Do not locate freefall downspouts within 5 ft of the
end of any substructure unit or where water could easily blow over and run down a
substructure element. Downspouts must not encroach upon the required vertical or
horizontal clearances.
Bridge Decks
16-19
2.
February 2015
Location With Respect To Ground. A free fall exceeding 25 ft sufficiently disperses the
falling water so that minimal erosion damage occurs beneath the bridge. Where less
than 25 ft of free fall is available, coordinate with the roadway designer to provide
erosion protection on natural ground beneath the outlet. Free falls of less than 25 ft are
acceptable where the water free falls onto slope paving, riprap or flowing water.
Use the following guidelines for underdeck piping:

1.
Aesthetics. Avoid piping exposed to view, which detracts from the appearance of the
structure.
2.
Hydraulic Design. For multiple inlets, flat horizontal slopes or runs of 50 ft or more, 8-in.
piping is preferred. Design the runs with as steep a grade as conditions allow with a
maximum of 4 inlets per run. Locate inlets upgrade from the bent or abutment outlets
when possible. Design all bends to be smooth and on an 18-in. minimum radius for 6-in.
diameter pipe and a 24-in. minimum radius for 8-in. diameter pipe. Do not use mitered
bends. Minimize the length of horizontal (i.e., 2% minimum) runs.
3.
Expansion Joints. Show expansion couplings on the plans where drain pipes cross
expansion joints at hinges and abutments.
4.
Cleanout Openings. When the piping system consists of a single run from inlet to outlet,
maintenance personnel usually clean from the outlet end with a power driven plumbers
auger. For this situation, do not use a cleanout opening because the opening could
result in a blind alley for the auger and make cleaning from the outlet impossible. For a
more complex piping system, properly placed cleanout openings can facilitate cleaning
by providing additional access points in the line.
16.5.3.5
Structural Considerations
Inlet sizing and placement must be compatible with the structural reinforcing and other
components of a bridge deck. Evaluate the inlet size and provide additional reinforcing or slab
thickness if required.
Design the drainage system to deter runoff from contacting vulnerable structural members and
to minimize the potential for eroding embankments.
The structural considerations for a piped system include:
1.
16-20
Expansion, Deflection and Rotation. Provide special attention to where drainage pipes
cross points of expansion or where the superstructure is more flexible than the
substructure. Where horizontal pipes cross a point of expansion, the pipe must be
capable of expanding, contracting and deflecting with thermal movements of the bridge.
Provide pipe expansion joints when required. When the superstructure is flexible
compared to the substructure, a vertical pipe must have some flexibility to account for
structure rotation.
Bridge Decks
2.
February 2015
Pipe Supports. Support pipes from the deck or cross frames. Use pipe hangers with
rollers and vertical adjustment capability to facilitate erection of the pipe and to set the
proper pipe grade. The maximum spacing of hangers is 25 ft but no longer than that
required by design. Assume that the pipe is full of water when designing hanger
spacings.
16.5.3.6
Maintenance Considerations
Provide easy access, adequate space and safe working conditions for maintenance to maintain
the drainage features of the bridge.
Daylight outlets above the ground to provide access for back flushing, rodding or air pressure
cleaning equipment.
16.6
BRIDGE DECK APPURTENANCES
16.6.1
Bridge Parapets
Reference:
16.6.1.1
LRFD Article 13.7
Test Levels
LRFD Article 13.7.2 identifies six test levels for bridge parapets, adopted from NCHRP 350
Recommended Procedures for the Safety Performance Evaluation of Highway Features and the
AASHTO Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware (MASH). TL-1 and TL-2 are typically used in
work zones in Utah. UDOT parapets meet the performance criteria for TL-4. Coordinate with
the Structures Design Manager if a TL-5 or TL-6 barrier is required.
16.6.1.2
Bridge Parapet Types/Usage
The following identifies typical parapet usage:

1.
42-in. Concrete Single Slope Parapet. Use on new and replaced bridge parapet
installations on state highways. The single slope parapet meets the TL-4 performance
criteria. Refer to the WS sheets for parapet details. The minimum deck reinforcing at
the face of the 42-in. single slope parapet must provide a minimum nominal moment
capacity, Mr, greater or equal to:
Bridge Decks
14.5 kip-ft/ft at parapet interior sections (parapet reinforcing into the deck of #4 at
12 in.) or end sections (parapet reinforcing into the deck of #4 at 4 in.) supported
by an integral end diaphragm
43.0 kip-ft/ft at end sections (parapet reinforcing into the deck of #4 at 4 in.) not
supported by an integral end diaphragm
16-21
February 2015
Mr limits assume 4.0-ksi parapet concrete. Revise limit if higher strength concrete is
used. The 42-in. single slope standard parapet has the following properties when fc is
4.0 ksi. Lc = 13.04 ft for an interior section and Lc = 4.33 ft for an end section. Refer to
LRFD A13.3.1-2 for information on parapet design capacity.
2.
Aesthetic Rail. This is a decorative bridge parapet that meets the TL-4 performance
criteria. Use the aesthetic rail when required by the bridge owner. Do not use the
aesthetic rail on bridges owned by the state. Refer to the WS sheets for parapet details.
16.6.1.3
Guardrail to Bridge Parapet Transitions
The roadway designer is responsible for any transitions to the bridge parapet. Verify that the
transition is addressed in the roadway plans.
16.6.1.4
Bridge Parapet/Sidewalk
Reference:
LRFD Articles 13.4 and 13.7.1.1
The roadway designer determines the roadway typical section and the need for a sidewalk on a
bridge. Refer to the DD series in the UDOT Standard Drawings for more information on
required sidewalk and parapet geometry. Refer to the WS sheets for typical parapet and
sidewalk details.
16.6.2
Protective Fencing
Use protective fencing across bridges when protection to facilities adjacent to or beneath the
structure is warranted. Fencing is typically required for:
All overpasses with sidewalks

All overpasses over railroads
Protective fencing can be considered at other locations on a case by case basis. Use the
fencing details on the WS sheets.
16.6.3
Utility Attachments
See Section 2.8.
16.6.4
Sign Attachments/Luminaire/Traffic Signal/Underdeck Lighting

Attachments
If the traffic and safety engineer proposes to attach a sign to a bridge, the traffic and safety
engineer must coordinate with the structural engineer, who assesses the structural impact on
the bridge. If the sign attachment is approved, the structural engineer designs the attachment
16-22
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February 2015
details. See Section 2.2.3 for additional information. Attachment of guide signs to bridges is
typically not permitted.
The traffic and safety engineer determines the need for traffic signals and highway lighting on or
under a bridge. The traffic and safety engineer performs the design work to determine the type,
size and location of the luminaires or signals and the provision of electricity. The structural
engineer designs the structural support details for the luminaire and/or traffic signal that is
attached to the bridge.
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16-23
16-24
February 2015
Bridge Decks
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
FOUNDATI
ONS
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
17.1
DESIGN ..................................................................................................................... 17-1

17.1.1
17.1.2
Design Methodology .................................................................................... 17-1

Bridge Design/Geotechnical Design Interaction .......................................... 17-1
17.1.2.1
17.1.2.2
17.1.3
17.1.4
Bridge Design/Hydraulic Design Interaction ................................................ 17-4

Total and Differential Settlement ................................................................. 17-4
17.1.4.1
17.1.4.2
17.1.4.3
17.2
Pile Types/Selection .................................................................................... 17-9

17.2.1.1
17.2.1.2
17.2.1.3
17.2.1.4
17.2.1.5
17.2.2
17.2.3
Pile Length ................................................................................. 17-11

Reinforced Pile Tips ................................................................... 17-11
Battered Piles ............................................................................ 17-11
Force Effects ............................................................................................... 17-12

17.2.3.1
17.2.3.2
17.2.4
Steel Pipe Piles .......................................................................... 17-9

Steel H-Piles .............................................................................. 17-10
Prestressed Concrete Piles ....................................................... 17-10
Pile Selection ............................................................................. 17-10
Pile Capacity Verification ........................................................... 17-11
Design Details ............................................................................................. 17-11

17.2.2.1
17.2.2.2
17.2.2.3
Downdrag Loads ........................................................................ 17-12

Uplift Forces ............................................................................... 17-12
Piles Placed within Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls ............................. 17-12
DRILLED SHAFTS .................................................................................................... 17-13

17.3.1
17.3.2
17.3.3
17.3.4
17.4
Estimating Settlement ................................................................ 17-4

Effects of Foundation Settlement ............................................... 17-6
Mitigation of Foundation Settlement .......................................... 17-9
DRIVEN PILES .......................................................................................................... 17-9

17.2.1
17.3
Preliminary Geotechnical Design Recommendations ................ 17-2

Geotechnical Report .................................................................. 17-2
Usage .......................................................................................................... 17-13

Drilled Shaft Axial Compressive Resistance at the Strength Limit State ..... 17-13
Structural Design ......................................................................................... 17-13
Design Details ............................................................................................. 17-14
SPREAD FOOTINGS, PILE FOOTINGS AND PILE CAPS ...................................... 17-16
Foundations
17-i
17.4.1
17.4.2
17.4.3
17.4.4
17.4.5
17.4.6
17.4.7
17.4.8
17.5
Thickness .................................................................................................... 17-16

Depth ........................................................................................................... 17-16
Joints ........................................................................................................... 17-17
Stepped Footings ........................................................................................ 17-17
Rocking Spread Footings ............................................................................ 17-17
Bearing Resistance and Eccentricity ........................................................... 17-18
Sliding Resistance ....................................................................................... 17-18
Reinforcing .................................................................................................. 17-18
LATERAL LOADING OF DEEP FOUNDATION ELEMENTS................................... 17-21

17.5.1
17.5.2
Pile/Drilled Shaft Supported Footings.......................................................... 17-21

Pile/Drilled Shaft Extension Bents ............................................................... 17-21
17.5.2.1
17.5.2.2
17.5.3
17.6
February 2015
Closed Form Linear Models ....................................................... 17-21

Nonlinear Models ....................................................................... 17-23
Minimum Penetration................................................................................... 17-23
LIQUEFACTION ........................................................................................................ 17-24
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 17.1 ADJACENT SUPPORT ANGULAR DISTORTION/
DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT ................................................................... 17-6
DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT LIMITS FOR STRUCTURAL CHECKS ..... 17-6
Figure 17.3 SINGLE SUPPORT ANGULAR DISTORTION/
DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT LIMITS FOR STRUCTURAL CHECKS ..... 17-7
DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT ................................................................... 17-8
Figure 17.5 DRIVEN PILE SELECTION GUIDE ............................................................. 17-10
Figure 17.6 DRILLED SHAFT (Socketed in Rock) .......................................................... 17-15
Figure 17.7 STEPPED FOOTING DETAILS ................................................................... 17-17
Figure 17.8 EXAMPLE ANALYSIS OF SPREAD FOOTING ON COMPETENT SOIL ... 17-19
Figure 17.9 EXAMPLE ANALYSIS OF A PILE CAP ....................................................... 17-20
Figure 17.10 METHOD OF MODELING DEEP FOUNDATION STIFFNESS
(Closed Form Linear Model)......................................................................... 17-22
(Nonlinear Model) ......................................................................................... 17-23
Figure 17.12 LIQUEFACTION MITIGATION PROCEDURE ............................................. 17-25
17-ii
Foundations
February 2015
Chapter 17
FOUNDATIONS
Section 10 of the LRFD Specifications presents structural design requirements for foundations.
This chapter discusses foundation provisions in Section 10 of the LFRD Specifications that
require amplification or clarification. This chapter also addresses specific practices for the
design and detailing of foundations.
17.1
DESIGN
This chapter provides foundation design information directed to structural engineers. The
UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction, which is the responsibility of the Geotechnical
Design Division, discusses the geotechnical considerations for bridge foundation type selection
and design.
17.1.1
Design Methodology
The LRFD Specifications distinguish between the strength of the in situ materials (soils and rock
strata) and the strength of the structural components. The LRFD Specifications address in situ
materials in Section 10 and structural components in Sections 5 and 6.
Target safety levels for the geotechnical aspects of each type of foundation are comparable to
foundations designed with the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. The
target safety levels for the geotechnical aspects of each type of foundation are not calibrated to
the geotechnical aspects used for structural components. Structural components use a
common safety level. Due to the unknown nature of in situ materials, the target safety levels
are typically higher and rely on past performance instead of significant physical testing used to
set structural component safety levels.
17.1.2
Bridge Design/Geotechnical Design Interaction
The primary functions of the foundation are to transfer structure loads to stable ground with
adequate bearing resistance and to limit settlement. Structure loads are transferred to the
ground through shallow or deep foundations. Shallow foundations use spread footings near the
ground surface. Deep foundations use piles or drilled shafts that extend through weak or
unstable ground layers to transfer structure loads to a stronger stable subsurface layer through
end bearing or to multiple subsurface layers through friction or combined friction and end
bearing. Knowledge of the subsurface soil conditions, ground water conditions and scour is
necessary to evaluate the strength and stability of the bearing layers.
Foundations
17-1
February 2015
The geotechnical engineer is responsible for developing a subsurface exploration plan,

preparing preliminary geotechnical design recommendations and preparing the Geotechnical
Report. Use the information contained in the Geotechnical Report to design bridge foundations
and other structures. The successful integration of the geotechnical design recommendations
into the bridge design requires close coordination between the geotechnical engineer and the
structural engineer.
17.1.2.1
Preliminary Geotechnical Design Recommendations
The preliminary Geotechnical Report provides recommendations based on existing soil

information and the preliminary subsurface investigation conducted for the project. The
geotechnical engineer and structural engineer use the information to select the bridge
foundation and initiate the preliminary structure design. Use the geotechnical recommendations
in conjunction with the input of the hydraulics engineer (as applicable) to establish support
locations.
Before preliminary bridge design, review the preliminary Geotechnical Report and Structures
Foundation Type Memo to gain knowledge of the anticipated soil conditions at the bridge site
and the recommended general foundation types. The Structures Foundation Type Memo
recommends either shallow or deep foundations. A shallow foundation recommendation
provides a preliminary footing elevation, expected allowable bearing pressures and settlement
information. A deep foundation recommendation includes pile or drilled shaft sizes, depths,
expected capacity and settlement information. Use the Structures Foundation Type Memo to
estimate the size of foundation members and to prepare the preliminary bridge design.
Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer to refine and revise the recommendations as the
design progresses.
17.1.2.2
17.1.2.2.1
Geotechnical Report
Subsurface Exploration
The geotechnical engineer performs a detailed subsurface exploration based on the anticipated
bridge abutment/bent locations and anticipated foundation type. The geotechnical engineer
determines the proposed boring locations.
Typically, the structural modeling and analysis of the bridge proceed based on the preliminary
Structures Foundation Type Memo while the geotechnical engineer finalizes the subsurface
exploration and Structures Foundation Type Memo. In the interim, the structural engineer
collaborates with the geotechnical engineer to determine preliminary foundation modeling
parameters. The structural engineer determines, verifies and provides foundation loads (vertical
and horizontal) or calculated bearing pressures to the geotechnical engineer. The structural
engineer also provides the elevation at which the foundation loads or bearing pressures are
applied.
When the geotechnical subsurface exploration has been completed, the geotechnical engineer
performs laboratory testing and geotechnical design. The geotechnical engineer issues a
Structures Foundation Type Memo and a Geotechnical Report based on the field exploration,
17-2
Foundations
February 2015
laboratory testing, geotechnical design, preliminary bridge design and the loads provided by the
structural engineer.
17.1.2.2.2
Foundation Design
The structural engineer uses the Geotechnical Report to design foundations for bridges and
other structures.
For deep foundations, the Geotechnical Report provides tip elevations, pile capacity, anticipated
settlement and p-y soil models of the subsurface soils. The geotechnical engineer and/or the
structural engineer perform lateral soil structure interaction analysis using the p-y soil models
with computer programs such as StrainWedge, LPile Plus or similar pile analysis programs.
Use the information to compute lateral displacements and analyze the structural adequacy of
the columns and foundations. Use the lateral soil structure interaction analysis to select the
appropriate method (calculated point of fixity, stiffness matrix, linear stiffness springs or p-y
nonlinear springs) to model the bridge foundation in the structural design software.
For shallow foundations, the Geotechnical Report provides the estimated footing elevation,
strength and service loads, bearing resistance, estimates on settlements and lateral resistance.
Use the information to finalize the design of the footing and verify that members are not
overstressed.
The Geotechnical Report can also include notes and tables for inclusion in the plan set or
specifications. Refer to the SS and WS sheets for typical geotechnical information presented in
the plan set.
17.1.2.2.3
Seismic Design
Refer to Chapter 13 for specific design requirements.

Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer to develop drilled shaft or pile response models for
the anticipated displacements. Include the lateral soil structure interaction analyses in the
model used to determine Extreme Event I loadings. The geotechnical engineer also provides
any lateral soil forces that act on the foundation as a result of seismically induced stability
movements of earth retaining structures (e.g., embankments, retaining walls) or lateral soil
movements attributable to lateral spread. Evaluate the loads due to lateral spread separately
from the inertial response of the bridge.
If structural members are overstressed or if deflections exceed acceptable limits from any
loading combination, redesign the foundation. Redesign can include the adjustment of support
member spacing or modification of member sizes. When a redesign of the foundation is
required, the structural engineer submits the redesign information (new foundation layout, sizes,
foundation load combinations, etc.) to the geotechnical engineer. The geotechnical engineer
analyzes the new foundation and submits the necessary information to the structural engineer.
Foundations
17-3
17.1.3
February 2015
Bridge Design/Hydraulic Design Interaction
Bridges and other structures exposed to stream flow can be subject to local and/or contraction
scour. The structural engineer works closely with the hydraulics engineer to determine the
extent of scour, which often requires an interactive design process. When a redesign of the
foundation is required, the structural engineer must resubmit the redesign information (e.g., new
foundation layout, sizes, foundation load combinations) to both the hydraulics engineer and the
geotechnical engineer. The geotechnical engineer analyzes the new foundation and resubmits
the necessary information to the structural engineer. The hydraulics engineer analyzes the new
foundation and provides local and contraction scour information and flowline elevations.
The structural engineer is responsible for providing a stable foundation based on the anticipated
scour. Scour can undermine footings, damage piles, reduce the capacity of piles and change
the lateral load response of the foundation systems. Refer to Section 17.4.2 for additional
guidance when placing spread footings in or near waterways.
17.1.4
Total and Differential Settlement
Reference:
LRFD Articles 3.12.6, 10.6.2.2 and 10.7.2.3
Settlement occurs due to a number of reasons. Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer to
estimate total and differential settlement.
Construction sequencing impacts differential
settlement. Inform the geotechnical engineer of the planned construction sequence. Define the
construction sequence in the plan set when a specific sequence is required to control total and
differential settlement.
Uniform settlement impacts vertical clearances and roadway geometry but has no impact on the
structure itself.
Differential settlement introduces loads into the structure and redistributes loads within the
structure. The load redistributes due to the rigidity of the structural system. Account for the
redistribution of load in design. The redistribution reduces settlement and increases loads in
elements that do not settle.
There is no specified limit in the UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction on total settlement
and differential settlement. Normally, the total settlement is restricted to 1 in., which by default
restricts differential settlement to 1 in. DB project documents often set project specific limits.
17.1.4.1
Estimating Settlement
Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer to determine total settlement and differential
settlement. The following sections discuss the simplified estimate and the construction point
estimate.
17-4
Foundations
17.1.4.1.1
February 2015
Simplified Estimate
Apply all loads in a phase at the same time. Set a total settlement estimate and estimate the
potential differential settlement. The practice is the typical procedure and is appropriate for
most projects.
Compare the settlement limit to estimated settlement using the simplified estimate.
17.1.4.1.2
Construction Point Estimate
The construction point estimate results in the same total settlement as the simplified method but
permits a more detailed evaluation of the settlement impacts. The simplified estimate applies to
all loads at the same time. In reality, loads increase as construction proceeds. Consequently,
settlements also increase as construction progresses. The construction point estimate
evaluates settlement at several critical construction points.
Identify the construction points to evaluate. Typical construction points are:
1.
Embankment or Foundation Construction. Settlement due to placing embankments,

driving piles, installing drilled shafts, etc., do not impact the structure because formwork
elevations for substructure elements are set after the foundation is in place.
2.
Substructure Construction. Settlement during foundation construction can impact

reinforcing lengths in subsequent construction tasks and bearing seat elevations.
Mitigate settlements during the substructure construction stage by providing plan sheets
that require placement of pedestals for bearing seats after the initial settlement has
occurred and provide details that permit variation in element heights.
3.
Superstructure Construction. Settlements during superstructure construction can impact

load distribution throughout the structure, final ride and aesthetics. Settlements due to
superstructure construction can be further segregated to specific loads if needed (i.e.,
girder placement, deck placement, placement of final wearing surface or topping).
4.
Between Construction Phases at any of the Previously Listed Construction Points.

Settlement between phases is the most common source of structural distress due to
differential settlement.
The consideration of relevant settlements in conjunction with the construction sequence, type of
superstructure and bearings can lead to a more rational consideration of spread footings on
soils for highway bridges rather than an uninformed decision to select a more costly deep
foundation system. See Selection of Spread Footings on Soils to Support Highway Bridge
Structures, Samtani, Nowatzki and Mertz, FHWA, 2010.
Consider using a construction point estimate when the majority or all of the settlement occurs
before superstructure construction or when phased construction is planned.
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17-5
17.1.4.2
February 2015
Effects of Foundation Settlement
In the LRFD Specifications, the differential settlement of two foundations is a superstructure

load. The following sections define the types of differential settlements and required actions
during design.
17.1.4.2.1
Differential Settlement Between Adjacent Supports
Angular distortion is the differential settlement between adjacent supports divided by the
distance between the supports. See Figure 17.1. An adjacent support in this context is the
support at the other end of the span. The limits in Figure 17.2 are only for checks for load
induced due to settlement and normally do not govern design. Rideability and aesthetics
typically govern the allowable amount of settlement. In addition, project specific criteria can also
limit the angular distortion to values much less than the values in Figure 17.2.
d
Hi
Hr
=
=
=
=
d/S
Hi Hr
INITIAL ELEVATION DIFFERENCE
FINAL ELEVATION DIFFERENCE AFTER SETTLEMENT

DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT
Angular Distortion
(), Radians
Required Action
Simple span
> 0.008
Redesign foundation to reduce angular distortion
Continuous span
> 0.004
Redesign foundation to reduce angular distortion
Case
Simple span
0.004 0.008
Include load effects in design
Continuous span
0.002 0.004
Include load effects in design
Simple span
< 0.004
Ignore load effects in design
Continuous span
< 0.002

DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT LIMITS FOR STRUCTURAL CHECKS
17-6
Foundations
February 2015
Project requirements associated with rideability or aesthetics typically govern the allowable
amount of settlement. For example, a 100-ft long single span structure could structurally
accommodate over 9 in. of settlement, but rideability, aesthetics or other project requirements
often limit the settlement to 1 in.
17.1.4.2.2
Differential Settlement Within a Single Support
A single support may not settle in a uniform manner from one end of the support to the other.
The limits in Figure 17.3 are only for checks for load induced settlement and can be superseded
by requirements associated with rideability or aesthetics.
17.1.4.2.3
Differential Settlement Between Adjacent Elements
Allowances must be made to permit adjacent elements to settle at different rates without
causing structural distress or damaging utilities running across joints between the elements.
The limits in Figure 17.3 are only for checks for loads induced due to settlement. Rideability
and aesthetic limits could govern the allowable amount of settlement. In addition, project
specific criteria can also limit the angular distortion to values less than the values in Figure 17.3.
Case
Continuous footing
Phased continuous
footing
Discontinuous
footings supporting
columns
Angular Distortion ()
or Differential
Displacement (d)
Required Action
d > 0.5 in.
Include load effects in design, or redesign

foundation to reduce differential settlement
d 0.5 in.
> 0.001 radians

between phases
0.001 radians
> 0.001 radians

between phases
0.001 radians
Note: See Figure 17.4 for illustrations.

DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT LIMITS FOR STRUCTURAL CHECKS
Foundations
17-7
February 2015
d
S
d
S
Figure 17.4 SINGLE SUPPORT ANGULAR DISTORTION/DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT
17-8
Foundations
17.1.4.2.4
February 2015
Additional Effects of Settlement
When evaluating settlements, also consider the following effects:

1.
Joint Movements. Excessive differential settlement can damage deck joints or make
deck joints more prone to damage from tire impacts or snow plow impacts.
2.
Profile Distortion. Excessive differential settlement can cause undesirable distortion of

the roadway profile for vehicles traveling at high speed.
3.
Aesthetics. Excessive differential settlement can create a perception of lack of safety.
17.1.4.3
Mitigation of Foundation Settlement
Settlement can be mitigated using a variety of methods from load reduction to ground
modification. Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer to determine the best mitigation
method when predicted settlements are unacceptable. Available ground modification methods
include:
Chemical grouting
Overexcavation and replacement
Surcharging
Installation of stone columns
Compaction grouting
Deep dynamic compaction
17.2
DRIVEN PILES
Piles transfer loads to deeper suitable strata. Piles function through skin friction, end bearing or
a combination of both skin friction and end bearing.
17.2.1
Pile Types/Selection
Avoid the use of differing pile types and sizes within the same bridge.
17.2.1.1
Reference:
Steel Pipe Piles

LRFD Articles 6.9.5 and 6.12.2.3
Steel pipe piles are viable for the majority of bridge locations. Steel pipe piles are especially
advantageous in waterways where the predicted scour is deep, at sites prone to settlement and
at sites prone to liquefaction.
Foundations
17-9
February 2015

1.
Diameter. Use pipe pile diameters of 12 in. to 48 in. The wall thickness typically is not
less than 1:48 of the pipe diameter.
2.
Interior Filler. Fill steel pipe piles with concrete to strengthen and stiffen the pipe and
use reinforcing to connect the pile to the cap/footing. Reinforcing can also increase the
moment capacity when extended past the maximum moment location.
17.2.1.2
Steel H-Piles
Use steel H-piles where cost effective. The geotechnical engineer in coordination with the
structural engineer determines the steel H-pile shape based on the loads and soil capacity. Do
not use steel H-piles when artesian groundwater conditions are present.
Orientation of steel H-piles (strong vs weak axis) is a design decision. Typically, orient all piles
in the same direction. Typically, at bridge abutments, orient the piles with the strong axis
perpendicular to the centerline of bearing. Pile deflection at pile yield is typically larger for
bending about the strong axis.
17.2.1.3
Prestressed Concrete Piles
Use prestressed concrete piles where cost effective. Where prestressed concrete piles are
used, typical sizes are 12 in. to 18 in. square or octagonal sections. Use of round reinforcing
cages in piles that are not round is permitted. UDOT standard prestressed concrete pile details
are not available.
17.2.1.4
Pile Selection
The geotechnical engineer generally selects the pile type. Figure 17.5 provides guidance in
selecting pile types. Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer to determine any reduction in
effective thickness due to corrosion.
Pile Type
Soil Conditions and Structural Requirements
Steel pipe pile (closed end)
Loose to medium dense soils or clays where skin friction is

the primary resistance and lateral stiffness in both directions
is desirable, especially in rivers where deep scour or
liquefaction is anticipated and high lateral stiffness is needed
Steel H-pile
Rock or dense soil where end bearing is desirable and lateral

flexibility in one direction is not critical
Prestressed concrete pile
Loose to medium dense soils or clays where skin friction is

the primary resistance
Figure 17.5 DRIVEN PILE SELECTION GUIDE

17-10
Foundations
17.2.1.5
February 2015
Pile Capacity Verification
Dynamic pile monitoring is required according to the standard pile specification. During the
installation of production piles, dynamic pile monitoring ensures that driving occurs according to
the established criteria. The monitoring provides information on soil resistance at the time of
monitoring and on driving performance. Dynamic pile monitoring also reveals driving stresses,
which helps prevent pile damage. Geotechnical engineers use data obtained during pile driving
monitoring to verify pile resistance.
UDOT permits static load tests to determine pile capacity. The geotechnical engineer
determines the number and location of the static load tests. Present the test locations and sizes
in the contract documents. Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer to develop a special
provision when specifying static load tests.
17.2.2
Design Details
Reference:
LRFD Article 10.7.1
Use the WS sheets when preparing plan sheets. Show applicable pile loads on the plans.
Geotechnical engineers use the information to evaluate pile driving results during driving and to
permit flexibility in accepting piles during construction.
17.2.2.1
Reference:
Pile Length
LRFD Articles 10.7.1.10, 10.7.1.11 and 10.7.1.12
Determine pile length based on the Geotechnical Report. Specify the same length for all piles
for a specific bent or abutment, where practical. Show pile lengths in whole foot increments.
Show the estimated pile tip elevations and minimum penetration on the driven pile plan sheets.
The minimum penetration reflects the penetration required, considering scour, liquefaction and
settlement, to support both axial and lateral loads.
17.2.2.2
Reinforced Pile Tips
Use reinforced pile tips to minimize pile damage where hard layers are anticipated and as
recommended in the Geotechnical Report. Show the type of pile tip reinforcing on the driven
pile plan sheet.
17.2.2.3
Battered Piles
Do not use battered piles because battered piles:
Increase restraint forces in integral abutment bridges

Attract significant load due to temperature effects when used with integral abutments
Foundations
17-11
February 2015
Attract significant load during seismic events

Increase bending loads due to settlement
Are challenging to control during difficult driving conditions
Obtain approval from the Structures Design Manager when the project could significantly benefit
from the use of battered piles.
17.2.3
Force Effects
Section 17.5 discusses pile analysis for lateral loading and resistance.
17.2.3.1
Downdrag Loads
Evaluate the force effects of downdrag or negative loading on the foundations. Downdrag acts
as an additional axial load on the pile and could cause additional settlement. Do not include
transient loads, including live load, when evaluating the structural capacity of the pile for
downdrag loads.
Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer to determine the dead load capacity of the pile when
considering downdrag loads. The structural capacity of the pile normally controls the dead load
limit in conjunction with downdrag. Normally, the downdrag load is subtracted from the braced
pile capacity to determine the maximum factored dead load, QDL. QDL is the maximum factored
dead load according to the downdrag load case and is listed in the pile data table on the driven
pile plan sheet. Refer to the WS sheets for typical driven pile plan sheets.
Where the pile is a true end bearing pile, the maximum factored dead load, QDL, could be a
function of the geotechnical pile capacity. The geotechnical engineer makes the determination
and supplies the appropriate QDL limit.
Do not use friction reducing rings to attempt to reduce downdrag.
17.2.3.2
Uplift Forces
Design piles for no uplift for strength and service load cases. Avoid uplift where practical when
checking extreme event load cases. Design piles to resist uplift forces. Design the connection
of the pile to the cap or footing to resist the extreme event uplift forces when present.
17.2.4
Piles Placed within Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
Piles placed within the MSE backfill require special consideration. Specify on the project plan
sheets that the piles are placed before the construction of the wall. Do not use pile sleeves to
reduce downdrag loads on the pile. Modify the soil reinforcement when piles are located within
the MSE wall. See Section 18.1.4 and Section 22.4.6.
17-12
Foundations
17.3
17.3.1
February 2015
DRILLED SHAFTS
Usage
Section 10.10 presents practices for selecting drilled shafts as the foundation type.
Drilled shafts derive load resistance either as end bearing drilled shafts transferring load by end
bearing or as friction drilled shafts transferring load by side resistance or a combination of both.
Use drilled shafts where driven piles are not economically viable due to high loads or
obstructions to driving. Limitations on vibration or construction noise can also dictate the
selection of drilled shafts.
17.3.2
Drilled Shaft Axial Compressive Resistance at the Strength Limit State
Reference:
The LRFD Specifications provide procedures to estimate the axial resistance of drilled shafts in
cohesive soils and cohesionless soils in LRFD Articles 10.8.3.5.1 and 10.8.3.5.2. In both cases,
the resistance is the sum of the drilled shaft and tip resistances. LRFD Article 10.8.3.5.4
discusses the determination of axial resistance of drilled shafts in rock.
17.3.3
Structural Design
Because even soft soils provide sufficient support to prevent lateral buckling of the drilled shaft,
design drilled shafts surrounded by soil according to the criteria for short columns in LRFD
Article 5.7.4.4 when soil liquefaction is not anticipated. If the drilled shaft is extended above
ground to form a bent, design the drilled shaft as a column. Similarly, consider the effects of
scour around the drilled shafts in the analysis.
Drilled shaft casings can be temporary, removed after the construction of the drilled shaft or left
in place. Use casings to maintain the excavation, especially when placing a drilled shaft within
the water table. Indicate on the drilled shaft plan sheet when casing is required by design. The
casing is normally neglected in the determination of the structural resistance of the drilled shaft.
When the casing is used in the structural capacity, a special provision is required and the
minimum casing thickness is in. The special provision must define the casing material and
any special procedures or submittals required. Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer to
determine any reduction in effective casing thickness due to corrosion. In seismic analysis and
design, use a strain compatibility method to determine the stiffness and strength of the cased
drilled shaft.
Section 17.5 discusses drilled shaft analysis for lateral loading and resistance.
Foundations
17-13
17.3.4
February 2015
Design Details
Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer to determine the most efficient diameter. When the
drilled shaft supports a single column, a drilled shaft size that is 18 in. larger than the maximum
column dimension provides flexibility for drilled shaft location areas and allows for easier
placement of concrete where the column reinforcing and the drilled shaft reinforcing overlap.
Use a drilled shaft at least 6 in. larger than the minimum column dimension.
Typically, terminate drilled shafts 6 in. to 12 in. below the finished grade or at 12 in. above the
water elevation anticipated during construction when the drilled shaft supports a single column.
Set the top of drilled shaft at the bottom of footing elevation when using a footing cap.
Chapter 14 discusses practices for reinforcing structural concrete, which apply to the design of
drilled shafts. Additional reinforcing criteria include:
Use a minimum reinforcing of 0.8% of the gross concrete area. Extend the drilled shaft
reinforcing a minimum of 10 ft beyond the point of fixity for all load cases including
seismic induced liquefaction load cases.
For confinement reinforcing, use spirals (up to #7) or butt welded hoops.
In the design and detailing of drilled shafts, provide 3 in. of cover. Maintain the annular
space around the cage with noncorrosive spacers.
Detail drilled shafts and columns to accommodate concrete placement considering the
multiple layers of reinforcing including lap splices. Maximize lateral reinforcing spacing
to permit better consolidation of concrete during drilled shaft construction.
Provide 5-in. or larger spacing for vertical reinforcing and a 5-in. pitch or spacing for
spirals or hoops reinforcing, where practical.
Refer to Section 13.7.5.3 for detailing requirements at the drilled shaft to column
interface.
See the SS and WS sheets and SD drawings for additional information. Figure 17.6 illustrates a
drilled shaft supporting a single column and socketed into rock. Drilled shafts used in
conjunction with pile caps or pile footings use similar details except at the top of the drilled shaft.
When pile caps or pile footings are used, extend drilled shaft reinforcing into the pile cap or pile
footing.
Detail drilled shafts and columns to accommodate concrete placement through the layers of
reinforcing. Stagger lap splices in the drilled shaft locations and provide adequate openings.
Use of cased drilled shafts with relatively open reinforcing cages minimizes concrete
consolidation problems.
Where casing through overburdened soils is required, design the rock socket as one size and, if
necessary, increase the cased drilled shaft diameter to easily permit the rock drill to extend
though the casing.
Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer to determine the most cost effective solution from a
project wide perspective. Multiple small drilled shafts used in conjunction with a pile cap or
footing are usually more cost effective than a single large drilled shaft. Single drilled shafts can
accelerate construction and minimize the work zone size.
17-14
Foundations
February 2015
Figure 17.6 DRILLED SHAFT

(Socketed in Rock)
Foundations
17-15
February 2015
Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer to determine required integrity testing. Crosshole
sonic logging is a type of integrity testing. Where integrity testing is required, provide a special
provision defining the required integrity testing and methods of repair when shaft integrity testing
indicates voids or caving.
17.4
SPREAD FOOTINGS, PILE FOOTINGS AND PILE CAPS
Use spread footings, pile footings and pile caps to transfer wall or column loads to the ground or
to piles or drilled shafts:
17.4.1
Spread footings are concrete slabs transferring load directly to the soil.
Pile caps are concrete beams transferring load to a single row of piles or drilled shafts.
Pile footings are concrete slabs transferring load to multiple rows of piles or drilled
shafts.
Thickness
Reference:
The development length of the column/wall reinforcing or the shear requirements can govern
the footing thickness. Generally, avoid shear reinforcing for the Strength I design loads in
footings. If Strength I shear governs the thickness, a thicker footing without shear reinforcing,
instead of a thinner footing with shear reinforcing, is usually more economical.
Use a minimum footing thickness greater than the following:
17.4.2
2 ft
Thickness of the wall in the plastic hinge direction
Column diameter
Maximum dimension of the column in the plastic hinge direction
Depth
Reference:
LRFD Articles 5.8.3, 5.13.3.6 and 5.13.3.8
Embed spread footings a sufficient depth to provide:
17-16
Adequate bearing, scour and frost heave protection

3-ft minimum to the bottom of footing
1-ft minimum cover over the footing (2 ft preferred)
Maximum cover over footing of 3-6 or Lp (plastic hinge length) when plastic hinging is
anticipated
Foundations
February 2015
In waterways:
17.4.3
Typical practice is to not use spread footings. Where used, locate the top of a spread
footing on soil at least 1 ft below the design scour depth.
Locate the bottom of a spread footing on rock 1 ft below the surface of the scour
resistant rock. Collaborate with the hydraulics engineer to determine scour depth.
Some rock formations are highly erodible.
Where practical, locate the top of a footing on piles or drilled shafts below the scour
depth. In areas with excessive scour, design the piles to accommodate the anticipated
scour.
Avoid pile caps or footings that pose an obstacle to water traffic or are exposed to view
during low flow.
Joints
Footings do not generally require construction joints. Where used, offset footing construction
joints at least 2 ft from expansion joints or construction joints in walls. Use 3-in. deep keyways
at cold joints.
17.4.4
Stepped Footings
Stepped footings are permitted but must meet the requirements shown in Figure 17.7.
Figure 17.7 STEPPED FOOTING DETAILS
17.4.5
Rocking Spread Footings
Use of rocking spread footings designed to the requirements in the AASHTO Guide
Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design is permitted when the footing does not extend
below a roadway section.
Foundations
17-17
17.4.6
February 2015
Bearing Resistance and Eccentricity
Reference:
LRFD Article 10.6.3
Provide bearing resistance information on the foundation plan sheets. Refer to the Foundation
Design and Detailing Checklist for required foundation plan information.
Figure 17.8 presents a schematic example of the analysis of a spread footing on soil.
Figure 17.9 presents a schematic example of the analysis of a pile cap to support a bent.
17.4.7
Sliding Resistance
Reference:
Do not consider passive pressure from soil around the footing when evaluating sliding
resistance. The use of passive pressure from keys beneath footings to develop passive
pressure against sliding is permitted; however, keys are not commonly used for bridges. When
it becomes necessary to use a key, consult with the geotechnical engineer and Structures
Design Manager.
Use seismic passive pressure from fill around column footings when evaluating sliding from
seismic loads in locations not subject to scour.
17.4.8
Reinforcing
Reference:
LRFD Articles 5.10.8 and 5.13.3
Design spread footings, pile caps and pile footings to meet all applicable requirements in
Chapter 14. Unless other design considerations govern, reinforce footings as follows:
17-18
Extend vertical reinforcing from columns or walls to the bottom mat of reinforcing and
hook the reinforcing on the bottom end regardless of the footing thickness.
The minimum spacing of reinforcing in either direction is 6 in. on center.
LRFD Article 5.13.3 specifically addresses concrete footings. For items not included,
use the other relevant provisions of LRFD Section 5. For narrow footings with loads
transmitted by walls or wall like bents, the critical moment section is at the face of the
wall or bent stem; the critical shear section is a distance equal to the larger of dv (dv is
the effective shear depth of the footing) or 0.5dv cot ( is the angle of inclination of
diagonal compressive stresses as defined in LRFD Article 5.8.3.4) from the face of the
wall or bent stem where the load introduces compression in the top of the footing
section. For other cases, either use LRFD Article 5.13.3 or a 2D analysis for greater
economy of the footing.
Foundations
February 2015
PR = PC + PFooting
eL =
MC + VCD f
PR
VR = VC
L = L 2eL
In two dimensions, bearing pressure:
p R =
PR
(L) (B)
Where:
L = L 2eL
B = B 2eB
Note:
See LRFD Articles 10.6.1.3 and 10.6.3.3.
Figure 17.8 EXAMPLE ANALYSIS OF SPREAD FOOTING ON COMPETENT SOIL

Foundations
17-19
February 2015
PR = Pc + Pfooting + Pseal Buoyancy

Assumptions: Pile footing is rigid (footing is considered rigid if Le/Df 2.2). Pile connections
are pinned for nonseismic loads, or shear force in pile is small.
VR = Vc Vpassive soil pressure on footing and seal
Note: Ignore passive soil pressure for

nonseismic loads.
MR = Mc + Vc (Df + Ds)
Pile Loads:
Pmax =
PR
MR d 2
+
# of piles
di2
Pmin =
PR
MR d 2
# of piles
d i2
Figure 17.9 EXAMPLE ANALYSIS OF A PILE CAP
17-20
Foundations
17.5
February 2015
LATERAL LOADING OF DEEP FOUNDATION ELEMENTS
17.5.1
Pile/Drilled Shaft Supported Footings
Pile and drilled shaft supported footings typically behave as fixed supports, and the lateral
stiffness of deep foundation elements does not typically need to be considered in the
nonseismic design of the elements. Lateral stiffness of the deep foundation elements could
need to be included in the seismic analysis of the bridge when the structural engineer
anticipates soft soils, liquefaction or other factors that affect the lateral stiffness of the footing.
Use the modeling techniques addressed in Section 17.5.2 to determine the lateral stiffness of
deep foundation elements.
17.5.2
Pile/Drilled Shaft Extension Bents
Include the lateral stiffness of deep foundations in both the nonseismic (small lateral deflection)
and seismic (large lateral deflection) where a column rests directly on a single drilled shaft or if
piles are extended up to the bent cap. Include the effects of scour, liquefaction and frozen soil,
when applicable, in the lateral stiffness analysis.
Several methods of analysis are available for calculating the lateral stiffness of deep foundation
elements. Not all of the methods discussed below are applicable to all situations. Review the
methods and be aware of each methods limitations.
17.5.2.1
Closed Form Linear Models
For small lateral deflections, closed form solutions have been developed based upon a beam on
an elastic foundation model. The methods provide a depth to effective fixity for moment (lm) and
deflection (ls) wherein the actual soil pile system is replaced by an equivalent fixed base
cantilever. LRFD Article C10.7.3.13.4 provides the equations describing the systems for both
cohesive and cohesionless soils. The equations are often referred to as the 4th root or 5th root
equation, depending upon the soil type. The equations typically provide sufficiently accurate
results for most situations where the deflections are small and the response is elastic.
Closed form solutions also exist for large deflection stiffness determination but, like most hand
methods, are not readily capable of addressing soil layering and other real world variability.
Nonetheless, the methods provide a good means of checking the more sophisticated computer
generated results. Figure 17.10 shows a closed form linear model.
Foundations
17-21
February 2015
LS
LM
Cohesive soil
constant, kh
1 .4
4 EI
kh
0.44
4 EI
kh
Cohesionless soil
constant, nh
1. 8
5 EI
nh
0.78
5 EI
nh
Coefficient nh (kips per cubic ft)

Relative Density
Loose Medium
kh
Dense
Above ground water
14
42
112
Below ground water
28
68
= Coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction

for fine grained soil
= 160 m c
b
In which: m =
=
=
b =
c =
(in -k / ft 2 )
0.32 for c < 1 ksf
0.36 for 1 < c < 4 ksf
0.40 for c > 4 ksf
width of pile (ft)
soil cohesion

(Closed Form Linear Model)
17-22
Foundations
17.5.2.2
February 2015
Nonlinear Models
As the lateral demands increase, the soil and pile/drilled shaft can behave in a nonlinear
manner. Numerical modeling of the soil pile/soil drilled shaft interaction is often required. The
numerical approaches are capable of incorporating the nonlinear soil and structure response,
but rely upon computer software. The most commonly used software is FB-Pier and L-Pile.
Use the results of nonlinear models to provide a depth to effective fixity. Nonlinear models are
also used to develop an equivalent soil spring model, such as that shown in Figures 17.10 and
17.11. The data listed in the figures is adequate for preliminary design. Coordinate with the
geotechnical engineer to obtain final design data.

(Nonlinear Model)
17.5.3
Minimum Penetration
Collaborate with the geotechnical engineer when using short piles with large lateral loads.
Typically, the geotechnical engineer specifies the minimum penetration into the soil so that the
deflected shape of the pile subjected to lateral loads crosses a zero deflection point at two
places.
Foundations
17-23
17.6
February 2015
LIQUEFACTION
Liquefaction effects caused by seismic induced ground motion reduce the vertical and lateral
resistance of the deep foundation member. The Geotechnical Report includes the soil
liquefaction potential, liquefied soil properties, deformations due to lateral soil flow and
settlement and subsequent downdrag loads.
Consider liquefaction as specified in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic
Bridge Design. See Figure 17.12.
Run models with and without soil liquefaction when liquefaction is anticipated. Include
foundation downdrag loads due to liquefaction in the vertical loads due to seismic response
when developing the Extreme Event I load combination.
Inelastic pile response to lateral spread or lateral flow is permitted for normal bridges using steel
pipe piles or steel H-piles. Collaborate with the Structures Design Manager to determine the
foundation design criteria for critical or essential bridges in areas with lateral spread or lateral
flow. Use SDC D for all locations where liquefaction is possible (Article 3.5 in the AASHTO
Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design).
Do not use shallow foundations in liquefiable soils where lateral spread is possible.
17-24
Foundations
February 2015
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEER
EVALUATES LIQUEFACTION
AND APPROACH FILL
DEFORMATION POTENTIAL
(LATERAL DISPLACEMENTS
AND SETTLEMENT)
NO
DO NOT MITIGATE
LATERAL SPREAD
LARGE
EMBANKMENT
DEFORMATION
POTENTIAL?
YES
GEOTECHNICAL AND
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS
DETERMINE DAMAGE
POTENTIAL TO STRUCTURE
NO
DO NOT MITIGATE
LATERAL SPREAD
SIGNIFICANT
POTENTIAL
FOR DAMAGE TO
BRIDGE?
YES
IS
STRUCTURE
LOCATED ON A
DESIGNATED LIFELINE ROUTE?
YES
NO
OTHER CRITERIA
(FOR CONSIDERATION):
DOCUMENT LIQUEFACTION
AND LATERAL SPREAD
DAMAGE POTENTIAL
BUT DO NOT MITIGATE
LATERAL SPREAD
NO
ADT ON OR UNDER BRIDGE

IS ADT ON OR UNDER BRIDGE
CONSIDERED HIGH
ECONOMIC RECOVERY ROUTE

IS BRIDGE ON OR OVER A CRITICAL ROUTE
(EMERGENCY OR ECONOMIC)
DOES THE RATIO OF MITIGATION COST

TO STRUCTURE REPLACEMENT COST
JUSTIFY MITIGATION
DOES
STRUCTURE
QUALIFY FOR MITIGATION?
(DECISION BY
STRUCTURES DESIGN
MANAGER/PROJECT
MANAGER)
YES
PROCEED WITH MITIGATION
DESIGN
Figure 17.12 LIQUEFACTION MITIGATION PROCEDURE

Foundations
17-25
17-26
February 2015
Foundations
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
SUBSTRUCTURES
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
18.1
ABUTMENTS ............................................................................................................. 18-1

18.1.1
Abutment Design and Detailing Criteria ...................................................... 18-1

18.1.1.1
18.1.1.2
18.1.1.3
18.1.2
18.1.3
Seismic Analysis and Design ...................................................................... 18-4

Abutments Types ........................................................................................ 18-4
18.1.3.1
18.1.3.2
18.1.3.3
18.1.4
18.2
Integral Abutments ................................................................... 18-4

Semi-Integral Abutments.......................................................... 18-5
Seat Abutments........................................................................ 18-6
Walls at Abutments ..................................................................................... 18-6

18.1.4.1
18.1.4.2
18.1.4.3
18.1.5
18.1.6
18.1.7
18.1.8
18.1.9
18.1.10
18.1.11
All Abutments ........................................................................... 18-1

Integral and Semi-Integral Abutments...................................... 18-2
Seat Abutments........................................................................ 18-3
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls ........................................ 18-6

Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil Walls ......................................... 18-7
Soil Nail Walls .......................................................................... 18-7
Spread Footings at Abutments .................................................................... 18-7

Piles at Abutments ...................................................................................... 18-8
Drilled Shafts at Abutments ......................................................................... 18-8
Abutment Construction Joints ..................................................................... 18-9
Wingwalls .................................................................................................... 18-9
Drainage ...................................................................................................... 18-10
Geofoam Backfill ......................................................................................... 18-10
BENTS ....................................................................................................................... 18-10

18.2.1
18.2.2
Seismic Considerations ............................................................................... 18-11

Bent Caps.................................................................................................... 18-11
18.2.2.1
18.2.2.2
18.2.2.3
18.2.3
Drop Caps ................................................................................ 18-11

Integral Caps ............................................................................ 18-11
Straddle Caps .......................................................................... 18-12
Columns and Walls ..................................................................................... 18-12

18.2.3.1
18.2.3.2
18.2.3.3
18.2.3.4
Column Reinforcing.................................................................. 18-13

Transverse Reinforcing ............................................................ 18-13
Longitudinal Reinforcing........................................................... 18-13
Column Construction Joints ..................................................... 18-14
18.2.4
18.2.5
18.2.6
Extended Pile Bents .................................................................................... 18-14

Bent Foundations ........................................................................................ 18-14
Dynamic Load Allowance ............................................................................ 18-14
Substructures
18-i
18.2.7
18.2.8
February 2015
Moment Magnification ................................................................................. 18-15

Distribution of Live Load .............................................................................. 18-15
LIST OF FIGURES
18-ii
Substructures
February 2015
Chapter 18
SUBSTRUCTURES
Section 11 of the LRFD Specifications presents design requirements for substructure elements
(e.g., abutments, bents, walls). This chapter discusses substructure provisions in Section 11 of
the LFRD Specifications that require amplification or clarification. This chapter also addresses
specific practices for the design and detailing of substructures.
18.1
ABUTMENTS
Abutments are substructure elements at the ends of bridges. The abutment serves two primary
purposes:
Provides a transition from the bridge to approach roadway support

Provides vertical support for the superstructure
An abutment can include a footing or pile cap, stem wall, backwall and wingwalls. End
diaphragms of integral and semi-integral abutments are part of the superstructure. In addition to
providing a transition and vertical support, abutments can provide resistance to seismic
movements and damping during a seismic event.
An abutment can be one of the following basic types:
Integral
Semi-integral
Seat
The following sections discuss the abutment types and design requirements.
18.1.1
Abutment Design and Detailing Criteria
18.1.1.1
All Abutments
The following applies to the design and detailing of abutments:

1.
Thickness. Limit the minimum thickness of any abutment element to 12 in.
2.
Pile Cap Width. Limit the minimum pile cap width to the maximum of 3 ft, 2.5 times the
pile diameter, or the drilled shaft diameter plus 12 in. The drilled shaft diameter plus 12in. requirement does not apply when using a pinned connection between the cap and
drilled shaft. Reinforcing extending into the cap for a pinned connection must be at least
9 in. from the face of the pile cap. Refer to the SD drawings for a typical pinned detail.
Substructures
18-1
February 2015
The SD drawings show a column to bent connection, but the concept for drilled shaft to
pile cap is similar.
3.
Pile Cap Height. Limit the minimum pile cap height to the maximum of 2-6, the stem
thickness or the drilled shaft diameter when the shaft uses a fixed connection. The
maximum pile cap height for an integral abutment bridge without a defined construction
sequence and procedure is 8 ft. Greater heights are permitted when a specific
construction sequence and procedure is defined.
4.
Abutment Fill Slopes. Limit the steepest abutment slope in front of the abutment to
1H:1V when located in fill slopes and 2H:1V in cut slopes, unless superseded by the
Geotechnical Report. Typical side slopes are 2H:1V.
5.
Slope Protection. Use slope protection on all slopes steeper than 2H:1V when the slope
is located under the bridge. When transitioning from 1H:1V to 2H:1V in the slope,
terminate the protection when the slope reaches 1H:1V and the 1H:1V slope is not
under the bridge. Do not use slope protection, and use slopes 2H:1V or flatter, when the
area under the bridge is primarily a wildlife crossing.
6.
Vertical Expansion Joints. Use vertical expansion joints when the wall or abutment
length exceeds 125 ft. Use a water stop or other means of control to prevent leakage at
the joint.
7.
Abutment Bearing Area. Use level abutment bearing areas. On seat type abutments,
set the bearing area a minimum of 1 in. above the top of abutment seat. Slope the
abutment seat between the bearing areas a minimum of 2% perpendicular to the
backwall.
8.
Approach Slab Seat. Provide a minimum 12-in. approach slab seat. Connect all
approach slabs to the abutment. Use a minimum of 0.79 in2/ft of reinforcing across the
joint between the approach slab and the deck.
9.
Dead Load. Include one half of the dead load of the approach slab as an abutment dead
load.
10.
Live Load. Include one half of the live load of the approach slab as an abutment live
load. Do not apply a horizontal earth load due to live load surcharge to abutments with
approach slabs. Do not apply a horizontal earth load due to live load surcharge to
wingwalls less than one-half of the approach slab length and located beneath the
approach slab.
11.
Pile Extensions. Refer to WS sheets for standard pile extension lengths and details.
12.
Design Loads. Refer to the SD drawings for minimum design loads.
18.1.1.2
Integral and Semi-Integral Abutments
The following are specific requirements for integral or semi-integral abutments:

18-2
Substructures
February 2015
1.
End Diaphragm. Detail the end diaphragm to match the width of the abutment. Cast the
end diaphragm and end portion of the deck after or concurrently with the deck.
2.
Cover to Girder. Provide a minimum of 6 in. from the end of the girder to the back face
of the end diaphragm. Provide a minimum of 4 in. from the end of the girder to the
approach slab seat blockout. Increase the abutment width, or clip the top flange of steel
girders or prestressed girders on skewed supports to meet the requirement. Do not clip
the girder web or bottom flange.
3.
Steel Girder Anchorage. Provide holes at a 12-in. maximum spacing through the webs
of steel girders and place #6 or larger reinforcing through the hole. Position the holes so
that, when the reinforcing is inserted, the reinforcing is within the integral diaphragm
reinforcing cage. For bridges on large skews, ensure that reinforcing does not conflict
with bearing stiffeners.
4.
Prestressed Girder Anchorage. Place #6 or larger reinforcing through the holes

provided in the girder. Refer to the WS sheets for the standard hole spacing. Position
the holes so that, when the reinforcing is inserted, the reinforcing is within the integral
diaphragm reinforcing cage.
5.
Deck Slab Reinforcing. Use L- or U-shaped reinforcing extending from the end
diaphragm into the top of the slab at a 12-in. spacing or less.
6.
Design Details. Refer to the SD drawings for typical integral abutment and semi-integral
abutment details.
7.
Expansion Joints. Provide expansion joints at the roadway end of the approach slab
when using integral and semi-integral abutments. Refer to Chapter 19 for a discussion
on expansion joints and SD drawings for joint information.
18.1.1.3
Seat Abutments
Do not use seat type abutments without the approval of the Structures Design Manager. The
following are specific requirements for seat abutments:
1.
Seat Width. Limit the minimum seat width to the maximum of 24 in. or as specified in
other design requirements. The seat width is the dimension from the backwall to the
front face of the abutment measured perpendicular to the backwall.
2.
Bearing Seat. Detail to minimize the effects of leaking joints.
3.
Girder to Backwall.
Provide sufficient distance to accommodate temperature
movements. Provide restrainers or alternative methods to prevent the girder from
impacting the backwall during a seismic event.
4.
Backwall. Do not detail the backwall to fuse in a seismic event. Backwall yielding is
permitted for bridges classified as normal under seismic loading.
Substructures
18-3
18.1.2
February 2015
Seismic Analysis and Design
Refer to Chapter 13 for a detailed discussion on seismic design. Design abutments for all
seismic forces. Refer to the SD drawings for minimum design requirements.
18.1.3
Abutments Types
18.1.3.1
Integral Abutments
Use integral abutments for bridges meeting the following conditions:
The displacement due to temperature loads is less than or equal to 3 in.

The abutment is on a single row of steel pipe piles or H-piles.
If on drilled shafts or precast piles, the temperature displacements must be
accommodated elastically.
Refer to the SD drawings for definitions of expansion lengths. No expansion length limits are
provided for integral abutments used in conjunction with an intermediate expansion joint.
Evaluate the anticipated abutment movement and provide appropriate details.
Finwalls can be added to engage passive earth pressure during transverse displacements in a
seismic event. Place interior finwalls perpendicular to the abutment. Align finwalls on the
exposed edge of a bridge with the edge of the approach slab above the finwall. Wingwalls can
be added to finwalls to retain fill.
Wingwalls and/or finwalls are typically cantilevered from the abutment and move with the
structure. Orient wingwalls and finwalls parallel to the bridge to minimize passive earth
pressures due to thermal movement. Support flared wingwalls or wingwalls parallel to the
abutment on independent foundations.
Integral abutments are the most redundant and robust abutment type and provide good seismic
performance. Integral abutments on high skews can transmit significant torsional forces into the
girders and deck near the abutments. Use of integral abutments on skewed and/or curved
structures results in unbalanced soil pressures because the lines of action of the soil pressures
on the two abutments do not coincide. Use of integral abutments on structures with high skews
and sharp curvature is permitted, but evaluate the effects of the unbalanced loads on the
superstructure and intermediate supports. Several mechanisms resist the unbalanced loads:
Rotation in the abutment that shifts the center of gravity of the soil pressure
Translation of the abutment engaging the piles, soil friction and passive pressure on
wingwalls
Interaction with twisting of the bents and the abutments
Refer to the SD drawings for a schematic of the unbalanced loading.
18-4
Substructures
18.1.3.2
February 2015
Semi-Integral Abutments
Use semi-integral abutments for bridges meeting the following conditions:
An integral abutment is not permitted

The temperature movements at the abutment do not exceed 0.03H, where H is the
height of the semi-integral abutment diaphragm and the temperature movement is:
L/2 T
Where:
L
T
=
=
=
the coefficient of thermal expansion

the distance from abutment to abutment
the temperature change, which is set at 80 for this check
Consider the use of semi-integral abutments when the following conditions are met:
Bridges with spliced post-tensioned concrete I-girders

ABC bridges to accelerate construction by eliminating the end diaphragm closure pour
Finwalls can be added to engage passive earth pressure during transverse displacements in a
seismic event. Place interior finwalls perpendicular to the abutment. Shear keys can also be
added to transfer transverse forces to the substructure.
Wingwalls are typically cantilevered from the abutment and do not move with the superstructure.
Semi-integral abutments allow the bridge to move over the abutment. The superstructure rests
on expansion bearings that minimize loads and movements transferred to the substructure.
Use shear keys to provide lateral resistance. Use bolsters or longitudinal shear keys to limit
longitudinal movement when required. Because the superstructure rests on bearings, the
superstructure can be raised and bearings replaced or shimmed to accommodate differential
settlement.
Semi-integral abutments are not as redundant or robust as integral abutments. A higher risk of
abutment failure during a seismic event exists. Semi-integral abutments on high skews can
transmit significant torsional forces into the girders and deck near the abutments. Use of semiintegral abutments on skewed and/or curved structures results in unbalanced soil pressures
because the lines of action of the soil pressures on the two abutments do not coincide. Use of
semi-integral abutments on structures with high skews and sharp curvature is permitted, but
evaluate the effects of the unbalanced loads on the superstructure and intermediate supports.
Several mechanisms resist the unbalanced loads:
Rotation in the abutment that shifts the center of gravity of the soil pressure
Translation of the abutment engaging soil friction and passive pressure on wingwalls
Interaction with twisting of the bents and the abutments
Substructures
18-5
February 2015
Lateral translation of the bridge due to unbalanced soil loads is more likely on semi-integral
abutments without shear keys due to the lack of engagement of the substructure and piles.
Shear keys can be added, but evaluate the possibility of the shear keys binding.
Refer to the SD drawings for a schematic of the unbalanced loading.
18.1.3.3
Seat Abutments
Seat abutments are only permitted when an expansion joint is required at the abutment. The
Structures Design Manager must approve the use of seat abutments.
Seat abutments consist of a footing, stem wall, seat and backwall. Bearings support the
superstructure on the abutment seat. The backwall retains the backfill above the abutment seat
so that the backfill is not in contact with the superstructure. The approach slab extends over the
top of the backwall. Use an expansion joint between the approach slab and the superstructure
deck.
Seat abutments are the least redundant and least robust abutment type. Seat abutments have
the highest risk of abutment failure during a seismic event. Seat abutments on high skews do
not transfer as much torsional force into the girders and deck near the abutments as do integral
and semi-integral abutments. Seat abutments do not move with the bridge and do not develop
unbalanced soil pressures.
18.1.4
Walls at Abutments
18.1.4.1
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
MSE walls are retaining walls using precast panels or blocks attached to soil reinforcement
extending into the fill. The vertical spacing of reinforcing exceeds 1 ft. Section 22.4.6 presents
design practices for MSE walls and discusses the respective responsibilities of the wall
manufacturer and the designer in design and construction.
The use of a MSE wall as a support for a spread footing is a special application of the structural
system and requires coordination with the geotechnical engineer and approval from the
Structures Design Manager.
Spread footings on MSE walls can offer advantages when compared to conventional pile
supported abutments. Advantages include:
Eliminates or reduces the typical bump at the end of the bridge, because the footing
settles with the MSE wall in contrast to a deep foundation that does not settle at the
same rate as the surrounding MSE walls
Eliminates piles
Piles placed within the MSE backfill are permitted. Ensure that the piles are placed before the
construction of the wall. Meet the geometric requirements defined in the DD series in the UDOT
Standard Drawings.
18-6
Substructures
February 2015
Construction of MSE walls around piles can cause settlement and downdrag on the piles.
Depending on site materials, downdrag forces can be substantial and must be accounted for in
design.
Modify the soil reinforcing when piles are located within the wall. Do not bend the soil
reinforcing around the piles; the soil reinforcing must remain linear to develop the strength.
Also, do not attach the soil reinforcing to the piles. Allow a reinforcing skew of up to 15 from a
line perpendicular to the wall face when accounted for in the wall design.
18.1.4.2
Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil Walls
A GRS wall is a type of gravity retaining wall using precast panels or blocks in front of a
compacted granular fill with closely spaced (less than 12 in.) geosynthetic reinforcing extending
into the fill.
The use of a GRS wall as a support for a spread footing is a special application of the structural
system and requires coordination with the geotechnical engineer and approval from the
Spread footings on GRS walls can offer advantages when compared to conventional pile
supported abutments. Advantages include:
Eliminates or reduces the typical bump at the end of the bridge, because the footing
settles with the GRS wall in contrast to a deep foundation that does not settle at the
same rate as the surrounding GRS walls
Eliminates piles
Do not place piles within the GRS backfill.
18.1.4.3
Soil Nail Walls
Soil nail walls are retaining walls using precast panels, blocks or a shotcrete face attached to
soil nails extending into the fill. The main advantage of a soil nail wall is the top down
construction method. Section 22.4.9 presents design practices for soil nail walls.
Piles placed within the nail zone in a soil nail wall are permitted. Ensure that the piles or casing
elements are placed before the construction of the wall. Meet the geometric requirements
defined in the DD series in the UDOT Standard Drawings.
18.1.5
Spread Footings at Abutments
Only bearing pressure or settlement limitations control the size of spread footings at abutments.
There are no minimum size requirements, and the footing can be the same width as the cap
when soil conditions permit. Refer to Section 17.4 for additional information.
Substructures
18-7
18.1.6
February 2015
Piles at Abutments
Reference:
LRFD Article 10.7
The following discussion specifically addresses the use of driven piles with abutments. See
Section 17.2 for additional information on piles. The following criteria apply to piles for
abutments:
1.
Number. Use the most cost effective pile type and size, but do not use fewer than three
piles to support an abutment.
2.
Rows. Use a single row of piles for integral abutments. Use at least two rows for seat
abutments.
3.
Pile Spacing. Refer to the Geotechnical Report for minimum pile spacing. Placing a pile
beneath each girder is not required. Space the piles across the length of the abutment
to distribute abutment loads to each pile. Consider phasing requirements when
determining the pile spacing.
4.
Cap Overhang. Limit the minimum cap overhang to 12 in. plus half the pile diameter
measured from the centerline of the pile. Ensure that the cap overhang reinforcing is
adequately developed. Hooked or headed bars could be required to develop the cap
reinforcing.
18.1.7
Drilled Shafts at Abutments
Reference:
LRFD Article 10.8
The following discussion specifically addresses the use of drilled shafts with abutments. See
Section 17.3 for additional information on drilled shafts. The following criteria apply to drilled
shafts for abutments:
1.
Number. Use the most cost effective drilled shaft size. Use a minimum of two drilled
shafts for typical applications or when the skew is greater than or equal to 20. Use a
similar detail at the abutment if the bridge is a multispan bridge with single column bents,
the bridge has a skew less than 20, and the columns extend into a single drilled shaft.
2.
Rows. Use a single row of drilled shafts for integral abutments.
3.
Drilled Shaft Spacing.

spacing.
4.
Cap Overhang. Limit the minimum cap overhang to 12 in. plus half the drilled shaft
diameter measured from the centerline of the drilled shaft when using fixed shafts.
Ensure that the cap overhang reinforcing is adequately developed. Hooked or headed
bars could be required to develop the cap reinforcing.
18-8
Refer to the Geotechnical Report for minimum drilled shaft
Substructures
18.1.8
February 2015
Abutment Construction Joints
Contractors use construction joints to accommodate normal construction practices.

reinforcing to accommodate normal construction joints.
Detail
Vertical construction joints are common in phased construction. Make provisions for splicing or
mechanical reinforcing couplers on horizontal reinforcing.
Place vertical reinforcing
approximately 3 in. from the construction joint. Show keyways or roughened surfaces
consistent with the structural design of the joint. When the joint is exposed to public view in the
finished structure, provide a chamfered groove or similar technique to hide the joint. Allow a
vertical construction joint at the wingwall to abutment interface.
18.1.9
Wingwalls
Reference:
Provide wingwalls of sufficient length to retain the roadway embankment and to furnish
protection against erosion. The following applies:
1.
Orientation. Standard practice aligns wingwalls parallel with the shoulders on the bridge.
ABC bridges or bridges with specific aesthetic requirements use wingwalls aligned
parallel to the roadway or feature crossed. Flared wingwalls are the least common and
can be considered on ABC bridges or for bridges with specific aesthetic requirements.
2.
Length. For wingwalls parallel to the centerline of the bridge, the length is determined by
extending the wingwall 2 ft beyond the catch point between the embankment slope and
the approach slab. Do not cantilever wingwalls more than 20 ft behind the rear face of
the abutment without special design and detailing. Consider unattached or other
wingwall types for lengths greater than 20 ft.
3.
Thickness. Size the thickness of the wingwall to minimize cost but no less than 12 in.
4.
Independent Wingwalls. Independent wingwalls are not attached to the abutment.

Design independent wingwalls as retaining walls. See Section 22.4 for retaining walls.
Provide an expansion joint between the independent wingwall and abutment.
5.
Wingwall/Abutment Connection. The junction of the abutment and wingwall is a critical

design element. Typical practice is to use a 6-in. fillet at the junction of the back of the
abutment and wingwall. The minimum fillet is 3 in. Larger fillets are permitted. Use of
fillet reinforcing properly anchored into the wingwall and abutment can significantly
improve the capacity.
6.
Design Forces. The design forces for wingwalls are due to earth pressure only. Extend
the approach slab over the wingwall, which eliminates the live load surcharge in the
design of the wingwall. Also, consider seismic forces from the soil behind the wingwall.
Substructures
18-9
February 2015
18.1.10 Drainage
Provide positive drainage in the embankment behind the abutment and wingwalls by using
select backfill, porous backfill, weep holes, perforated drain pipe, a manufactured backwall
drainage system or a combination of the options.
Always consider ground water levels when evaluating an appropriate drainage system. Do not
install drainage systems that allow pressurized backwater to saturate the abutment backfill
during high water events.
Generally, for integral and semi-integral abutments, select backfill and porous backfill over a
permeable layer is sufficient to promote good drainage. Always provide drainage for abutments
on spread footings.
18.1.11 Geofoam Backfill

Geofoam backfill is used to reduce or eliminate fill settlement behind the abutment. Even if the
geofoam is detailed with a gap between the foam and abutment, assume that the geofoam
transmits lateral force to the abutment. Design the abutment for a minimum horizontal load
equal to 10% of the overlying dead load. If the slope of the geofoam surface behind the
abutment exceeds 1H:1V, evaluate the effects of soil loads transferred through the geofoam.
Geofoam backfill design is beyond the scope of the SDDM. Coordinate with the geotechnical
engineer and/or a geofoam specialist when designing and planning geofoam backfills.
18.2
BENTS
Reference:
LRFD Article 11.7
A bent is an intermediate support for the superstructure on multispan bridges. UDOT does not
use the term pier. Bents typically consist of a bent cap supported on single or multiple columns
or a bent wall resting on a spread footing or pile cap or drilled shafts. Both continuous and
individual footings for each column are permitted. Continuous footings require more design
effort to account for the complex interaction between column plastic hinges, piles and the pile
cap.
Structural engineers occasionally eliminate the bent cap by placing a column under every girder,
eliminating the need for a bent cap. Eliminating the bent cap is often not cost effective, and the
superstructure must be designed to transfer the transverse loads to the columns.
Aesthetics also have an important role in determining the size and shape of the columns and
bent cap.
18-10
Substructures
18.2.1
February 2015
Seismic Considerations
Refer to Chapter 13 for information on seismic design. The key element of seismic design is
proper confinement and detailing.
18.2.2
Bent Caps
Bent caps are usually reinforced concrete members that transfer girder loads into columns or
bent walls. Caps can be integral, drop or straddle caps. Drop caps are the most common.
Consider aesthetics when proportioning the bent cap. Refer to the SD drawings for bent
proportioning guidelines. Normally, the cap width is 6 in. wider than the columns. Smaller caps
are typically not possible due to seismic detailing requirements. Larger caps are permitted to
accommodate ABC construction and/or as required to satisfy the beam seat width requirements.
The bottom of the cap can be level, sloped or parallel to the slope of the deck.
The cap depth versus the cap span length affects the design of the bent caps. Where the
distance between the centerline of the girder bearing and the column is less than approximately
twice the depth of the cap, consider using the strut and tie model in LRFD Article 5.6.3 for the
design of the cap; otherwise, use the sectional (beam) model for moment and shear.
18.2.2.1
Drop Caps
In a drop cap, the bent cap is located beneath the girders. Drop caps are the most common cap
and are the preferred solution for most locations.
On prestressed girders made continuous, the preferred detail between the drop cap and integral
diaphragm permits rotation. Typically, the bent cap uses a key running down the center of the
cap with a single row of reinforcing connecting the diaphragm to the cap. Place a layer of rigid
plastic foam under the diaphragm outside of the key. Refer to the SS sheets for typical details.
Fixed connections are permissible, but the superstructure must be capacity protected for the
overstrength plastic hinge forces. The required bent cap and deck reinforcing to achieve
capacity protection can be significant.
Ignore the contribution of the diaphragm to the strength of the system when designing drop cap
reinforcing.
18.2.2.2
Integral Caps
In an integral cap, all or most of the bent cap is located beneath the deck and between the
girders. The girders frame directly into the cap. Integral caps are preferred for CIP box
superstructures. Integral bent caps can also minimize grade raises when the cap overhang
extends over a traveled way. Only use integral caps on steel girder or prestressed girder
bridges when no other viable option exists.
Substructures
18-11
February 2015
Integral caps are often post-tensioned to reduce the cap depth, reduce weight and improve long
term performance. The construction sequence must be carefully monitored on integral caps.
Design of the cap must permit future complete removal and replacement of the deck.
Do not use integral caps made of steel framing.
18.2.2.3
Straddle Caps
Use straddle caps when a column must be located outside of the footprint of the bridge due to
roadways under the cap or other structures or utilities. A straddle cap can be a drop cap or
integral cap. Consider pinned connections or isolation bearings to connect straddle caps to
columns. Pinned connections reduce the torsional shear forces in the straddle cap. Most
straddle caps use post-tensioning to minimize the depth, control cracking and enhance torsional
resistance. Consider precast straddle caps to eliminate shoring and construction over
roadways.
18.2.3
Columns and Walls
Column design requires coordination with adjacent structures and project specific aesthetic
requirements. Consider a single column bent for narrow bridges over waterways. Water
impacting a bent at an angle greatly increases scour, which does not adversely affect a single
round column. However, in this case, single columns are usually at least 6 ft in diameter. Refer
to the SD drawings for additional information on bent proportioning.
On columns that require protection by a railroad crash wall, separate the crash wall from the
column by a gap sized to accommodate the anticipated seismic event displacement. Form the
gap with rigid plastic foam or removable forms. Separating crash walls from the column can
improve the seismic response.
A bent wall is a continuous wall extending to almost the outside edge of bridge. Bent walls are
typically 2-6 wide with tied reinforcing. Bent walls are rarely used due to aesthetics, cost and
seismic response. The structural engineer can use bent walls for bridges over railroads to
satisfy AREMA crash wall requirements.
The following summarizes typical practices for the bent cross section:
1.
Round Columns. Limit the minimum column diameter to 3 ft. Typically, columns are
specified at even foot increments to reduce construction costs.
2.
Architectural Shape/Square. Design the column with a round cage for ease of
construction unless the round cage is not cost effective. When designed with a round
core, the corners must be lightly reinforced with reinforcing extending into the core,
which minimizes falling debris in a seismic event. Calculate the plastic hinge forces
using all of the reinforcing in the section. Spalling of the corner sections is permitted
during plastic hinging.
18-12
Substructures
February 2015
3.
Column Spacing. Space columns to minimize the project costs. Column spacing
exceeding approximately 25 ft center to center of columns or less than 15 ft center to
center of columns is normally not cost effective.
4.
Solid Walls. Limit the minimum thickness to 2 ft for the entire height of the wall.
18.2.3.1
Column Reinforcing
Chapter 14 discusses design practices for the reinforcing of structural concrete, which applies to
columns, including:
Concrete cover
Bar spacing
Lateral confinement reinforcing
Corrosion protection
Development of reinforcing
Splices
18.2.3.2
Transverse Reinforcing
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design supersede LRFD Article
5.10.11.
Typically, use spirals as transverse reinforcing steel in columns. Butt welded spliced hoops can
be used as an alternative. Stirrups and tie bars are appropriate for walls and columns when the
column proportions are not compatible with round reinforcing cages.
18.2.3.2.1
Spiral Splices
Almost all spiral reinforcing requires a splice. The AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD
Seismic Bridge Design provide requirements for splices in spiral reinforcing. The plan sheets
must identify plastic hinge regions where a spiral lap splice is not allowed. Refer to Chapter 14
for a discussion on the use of welded and mechanical splices.
At locations where the spiral reinforcing extends into a footing or cap, the spiral reinforcing can
be discontinuous. The practice allows easier placement of the top mat of footing or bottom mat
of cap reinforcing. Provide a detail or note in the plan sheets that shows an allowed
discontinuity in the spiral with a splice. Detail the spiral with 1 full flat turns with the tail
extending through the center of the column and anchored to the opposite side of the reinforcing
cage. See Section 14.4.1.8, Figure 14.5 for details.
18.2.3.3
Longitudinal Reinforcing
Use #7 or larger longitudinal column reinforcing. Detail the longitudinal reinforcing continuous
with a maximum spacing of 8 in. center to center. Fully develop the longitudinal column
Substructures
18-13
February 2015
reinforcing where the reinforcing enters into the bent cap and the spread footing, pile cap or
drilled shaft. Longitudinal column reinforcing extends into the bent cap to within 6 in. of the top
of the cap.
The preferred detail for longitudinal reinforcing is continuous, unspliced reinforcing. Provide a
note on the bridge plans delineating the no lap splice zones.
If longitudinal column reinforcing requires splices, do not locate splices within the plastic hinge
regions of the column. Refer to Section 14.4.1.8. Use a minimum stagger of 2 ft between
adjacent splices. Also, stagger splices in bundled bars at a minimum of 2 ft.
The contractor is not permitted to change the location or type of splice from the types in the
contract documents unless approved by the EOR.
18.2.3.4
Column Construction Joints
Use construction joints at the top and bottom of the column. Where columns exceed 25 ft in
height, permit intermediate construction joints. Where applicable, locate all construction joints
at least 12 in. above the water elevation expected during construction.
18.2.4
Extended Pile Bents
Do not use extended pile bents without approval from the Structures Design Manager. Under
certain conditions, extending a deep foundation above ground level to the superstructure
forming an extended pile bent can improve the economy of substructures.
Do not use pile bents where large lateral forces could develop due to collision, scour or stream
flow intensified by accumulated debris.
18.2.5
Bent Foundations
Refer to Chapter 17 for foundation information.
18.2.6
Reference:
The LRFD Specifications allow the dynamic load allowance (IM), traditionally called impact, to
only be omitted on foundation components that are entirely below ground level. Consider the
dynamic load allowance in the structural design of bent caps and columns.
18-14
Substructures
18.2.7
February 2015
Moment Magnification
Reference:
LRFD Article 5.7.4
Bents, bent columns and piles are referred to as compressive members, although the design is
normally controlled by flexure. In most cases, use the moment magnification approach in LRFD
Article 5.7.4.3. For exceptionally tall or slender columns/drilled shafts where the slenderness
ratio (Kl/r) is greater than 100, use a refined analysis, as outlined in LRFD Article 5.7.4.1.
Where P-delta design procedures are used, consider the initial out of straightness of columns
and the sustained dead load.
18.2.8
Distribution of Live Load
On bridges with integral diaphragms at the bents, distribute live load uniformly along the bent
cap over a 12-ft lane width. On bridges without integral diaphragms, distribute the live load as
girder reactions. Determine the girder reactions by any of the following methods:
Use a refined analysis.

Apply maximum and minimum girder reactions to the bent to maximize bent cap and
column demands.
Assume that the live load reaction per lane is uniformly distributed to a 12-ft lane and the
uniformly distributed live load is distributed to girders assuming a simple span between
the girders.
Substructures
18-15
18-16
February 2015
Substructures
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
EXPANSI
ON J
OI
NTS AND BEARI
NGS
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
19.1
EXPANSION JOINTS .................................................................................................. 19-1

19.1.1
19.1.2
Design and Detailing ..................................................................................... 19-1

Selection........................................................................................................ 19-3
19.1.2.1
19.1.2.2
19.1.2.3
19.1.2.4
19.1.3
19.2
Backer Rod with Sealant ............................................................... 19-3

Compression Seal ......................................................................... 19-3
Strip Seal ....................................................................................... 19-4
Modular Expansion........................................................................ 19-4
Example Problem Steel Girder Bridge with Concrete Deck ...................... 19-4
BEARINGS .................................................................................................................. 19-7

19.2.1
Design Guidance ........................................................................................... 19-7

19.2.1.1
19.2.1.2
19.2.1.3
19.2.1.4
19.2.1.5
19.2.1.6
19.2.1.7
19.2.2
Bearing Types and Selection ........................................................................ 19-10

19.2.2.1
19.2.2.2
19.2.2.3
19.2.2.4
19.2.3
Integral Abutment Bearing Design Criteria .................................... 19-7

Movements .................................................................................... 19-8
Effect of Camber and Construction Procedures ............................ 19-8
Serviceability, Maintenance and Protection Requirements ........... 19-8
Seismic Requirements .................................................................. 19-8
Anchor Bolts .................................................................................. 19-9
Sole Plates .................................................................................... 19-10
Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads .................................................... 19-11

Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing Pads ................................. 19-12
High Load, Multirotational Bearings .............................................. 19-12
Isolation Bearings .......................................................................... 19-13
Design of Elastomeric Bearing Pads ............................................................. 19-14

19.2.3.1 Elastomer ...................................................................................... 19-14
19.2.3.2 Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads .................................................... 19-14
19.2.3.3 Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing Pads ................................. 19-15
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 19.1 EXPANSION JOINT SELECTION ................................................................. 19-3
Figure 19.2 SUMMARY OF BEARING CAPABILITIES .................................................... 19-11
Figure 19.3 STRAINS IN A STEEL REINFORCED ELASTOMERIC BEARING PAD ...... 19-15
Expansion Joints and Bearings
19-i
19-ii
February 2015
February 2015
Chapter 19
EXPANSION JOINTS AND BEARINGS
Section 14 of the LRFD Specifications presents design requirements for expansion joints and
bearings. This chapter discusses expansion joint and bearing provisions in Section 14 of the
LFRD Specifications that require amplification or clarification. This chapter also addresses
specific practices for the design and detailing of expansion joints and bearings.
19.1
EXPANSION JOINTS
Reference:
19.1.1
LRFD Articles 14.4 and 14.5
Design and Detailing
Expansion joints in bridges accommodate the expansion and contraction of bridges due to
temperature variations. Integral and semi-integral abutment bridges require expansion joints at
the ends of the approach slabs. Nonintegral abutment bridges require expansion joints at
abutments and/or bents. The following general criteria apply to all expansion joints in bridges:
1.
Minimize Number. Use integral abutments unless substructure, geometry or other

design requirements dictate otherwise. Refer to Section 18.1 for limitations on abutment
types.
Minimize the number of expansion joints to minimize operational and
maintenance problems, but evaluate the cost differential between modular joints and
strip seals. When cost effective, use multiple strip seals instead of a single modular
joint. Girder ends, bearing seats and decks adjacent to joints tend to deteriorate due to
leaky joints. Bearing seats also collect debris and provide locations for animal and
human habitation. When evaluating multiple strip seals versus a modular joint, consider
the bearing type, girder type, drainage requirements and consequences of leaking joints.
2.
Tributary Expansion Length. Refer to the SD drawings for sketches of tributary length.
For all bridges except single span integral abutment bridges, the tributary expansion
length equals the distance from the expansion joint to the point of assumed zero
movement, which is the point along the bridge that is assumed to remain stationary
when expansion or contraction of the bridge occurs. The location of the point of zero
movement is a function of the longitudinal stiffness of the substructure elements and
bearing fixity at the locations.
3.
Service Requirements.
Consider the long term performance and maintenance
requirements of the expansion joints and the impacts of leaking joints on adjacent
elements. Failed joints contribute to many of the maintenance problems on bridges.
4.
Consistency of Joint Details. Use the same type of joint and joint construction details
throughout the bridge when conditions permit. Approaches to sleeper slab joints are
exempt when there is an expansion joint at the abutment.
19-1
February 2015
5.
Temperature Range. Use Procedure B of LRFD Article 3.12.2 for girder bridges with
concrete decks. Use Procedure A for all other bridges (e.g., trusses, segmental
concrete). Use the cold climate temperature ranges when using Procedure A.
Construction at extreme temperatures (i.e., at or near the minimum or maximum
temperatures of the assumed range) results in thermal movements in a single direction.
6.
Recess Detail. Recess embedded steel elements, such as approach slab protection
angles and strip seal expansion joint restrainers, in. from finished grade. The recess
provides protection from snow plow blades and accommodates milling of the concrete
adjacent to the joints.
7.
Effects of Skew. Include skew effects when sizing joints. Movement along the
centerline of the bridge results in a transverse movement in the joint. Thermal
movements of skewed bridges often include an asymmetrical movement (racking), which
can increase the movement demands in the joint. The acute corners of a bridge with
parallel skewed supports tend to expand and contract more than the obtuse corners,
causing the joint to rack.
8.
Other Geometric Considerations.

Consider geometric effects when evaluating
movements. Horizontally curved bridges and bridges with other special geometric
elements, such as splayed girders, do not necessarily expand and contract in the
longitudinal direction of the girders. A refined analysis of the entire bridge could be
necessary to characterize the thermal movement of complex bridges. The effect of
thermal movements on the joints of complex bridges is more pronounced compared to
bridges with simple geometrics. Use a refined analysis for horizontally curved, steel
girder bridges to estimate thermal effects, because even slight curvature can develop
significant movements in the radial direction.
9.
Blockouts. Provide details on the plans for blockouts in decks and approach slabs at
strip seal or modular expansion joints to allow for placement of the joint. During
construction, contractors install the expansion joint assembly and place the blockout
concrete after profile grinding is complete.
10.
Cover Plates Over Expansion Joints.

sidewalks.
11.
Creep and Shrinkage. Include the effects of creep and shrinkage in the total movement
for nonintegral prestressed concrete bridges. Assume that the joint is set 56 days after
casting and that creep/shrinkage continues for 20 years.
Use cover plates over expansion joints at
For steel girder structures and integral abutment prestressed girder bridges, creep and
shrinkage effects are minimal and can be neglected in expansion joint design.
12.
19-2
Setting Temperature. Determine gap widths at setting temperatures of 60. Determine

the minimum and maximum installation temperature and complete the table provided in
the WS sheets. See the design example in Section 19.1.3 for an illustration of typical
calculations.
13.
February 2015
Miscellaneous Details. Use deck drains to intercept drainage in advance of all

expansion joints and place the drain as close as possible to the joint.
19.1.2
Selection
Figure 19.1 presents the types of expansion joints and the maximum joint movement. Refer to
the SD drawings for expansion joint design and detailing information. Refer to the WS sheets
for the required expansion joint data table.
Select the type of expansion joint and the required movement rating based on the expansion
and racking demands, skew, gap widths and whether the joint is new or a retrofit. Gap width is
the perpendicular distance between the faces of the joint at the road surface. Use a minimum
gap of not less than 1 in. for steel or concrete bridges with expansion joints at bents or
abutments, as suggested in LRFD Article 14.5.3. Use a maximum gap width of 4 in. for strip
seals and 3 in. for individual components of modular joints.
Refer to the manufacturers literature for information on joint materials and movement capacity.
Joint Type
Total Joint Movement

(in.)
Backer rod with sealant
Compression seal
Strip seal
2 to 4
Modular expansion
>4
Figure 19.1 EXPANSION JOINT SELECTION
19.1.2.1
Reference:
Backer Rod with Sealant

Use a backer rod with sealant where expansion lengths are less than 100 ft. Use of the system
is viable on bridges with expansion lengths up to 200 ft. The joint width at the time of
installation dictates the movement capacity of the joint. The movement capacity is a function of
the installation width plus or minus some percent of original gap size. The joint sealant is easily
maintained because local joint failures can be easily repaired. The system can be bonded to
concrete or steel.
19.1.2.2
Compression Seal
Compression seals consist of preformed shapes compressed into the joint. Large compression
seals can be difficult to install at the hottest times of the year.
19-3
19.1.2.3
February 2015
Strip Seal
Reference:
A strip seal consists of a gland rigidly attached to a steel restrainer on both sides of the joint.
The material is premolded into a V-shape that opens as the joint width increases and closes as
the joint width decreases.
Strip seal joints are watertight when properly installed. However, the seals can be difficult to
replace. Avoid splices in the gland. Snowplows can damage the joint, especially if the skew is
20 or greater.
19.1.2.4
Modular Expansion
Reference:
Due to the expense and maintenance requirements, use modular joints only where necessary to
accommodate movements greater than 4 in. In selecting modular joint systems, use only types
that have been designed to facilitate the repair and replacement of components and that have
been verified by long term in service performance. Include a detailed description of the
requirements for the modular joint system in the specifications or plan sheets.
The following applies to the design of modular expansion joints:
1.
Joint Support. The blockouts and supports needed for modular joint systems are large
and require special attention when detailing. For modular joints supported from the top
of the girder, provide a detail of the supporting device in the contract documents.
2.
Splices. Where practical, use full length modular joints with no field splices across the
roadway width. If a field splice is required for phased construction of a CIP bridge deck,
space the support girders at a maximum of 2 ft from the splice location and outside of
the wheel path.
3.
Synthetic Rubber Seal. For the synthetic rubber seal, which is a strip seal gland in a
modular joint, use one piece across the roadway width, regardless of phased
construction considerations.
19.1.3
Example Problem Steel Girder Bridge with Concrete Deck
Structures react to temperature changes by expanding and contracting in all directions. The
expansion and contraction of unrestrained structures is easy to calculate using the following
equation:
T = L TMaxDesign TMinDesign
19-4
(LRFD Equation 3.12.2.3-1)
February 2015
Where:
L
=
=
=
=
Design expansion length

6.5 10-6 in./in./ F = coefficient of thermal expansion
6.0 10-6 for concrete girder bridges
6.5 10-6 for steel girder bridges
The exact proportions and directions of expansion and contraction of bridges is difficult to
predict for the following reasons:
Temperature differentials in the structure

Temperature differential between superstructure and substructure
Restraint from bearings
Restraint from soils and piles at integral or semi-integral abutments
Restraint from bents at fixed bearings
Location of center of expansion or contraction
For simplicity in calculating expansion and contraction effects, assume the following:
Temperature change is uniform across the structure when sizing bearings and
expansion joints.
No temperature differential exists between approach slabs and sleeper slabs.
The bridge side of the expansion joint moves in the longitudinal direction and the
abutment or sleeper slab does not move longitudinally.
Both sides of joints move equally in the direction parallel to the centerline of the joint.
When an expansion joint is located at the abutment, the assumption is not conservative.
Effects of restraint can be ignored.
The default maximum setting temperature is 90 F (can be superseded by specific joint
requirements).
The default minimum setting temperature is 40 F (can be superseded by specific joint
requirements).
Detailed analysis of thermal movements accounting for restraint effects is permitted. When
using a detailed analysis, the model must include the following:
Use volumetric expansion/contraction.

Model all restraint forces.
Use a temperature range of 80 F maximum and a 20 F minimum for substructures
against earth (e.g., pile caps, abutments, approach slabs, sleeper slabs).
Model rotational effects.
Model the entire structure.
A detailed analysis is typically not warranted. On longer structures, consideration of restraint

effects is appropriate when the design movement slightly exceeds the capacity of a strip seal.
In this case, consideration of restraint effects can reduce the demand to allow the use of a strip
seal.
19-5
Given:
February 2015
Steel plate girders supporting a reinforced concrete bridge deck in Salt Lake County
Expansion length, approach slab to sleeper slab joint at abutment #1 = 250 ft
Expansion length, approach slab to sleeper slab joint at abutment #4 = 250 ft
L = design expansion length = 250 ft
W = bridge width = 46-10
= skew angle = 30
Problem: Determine expansion joint movement requirements

Solution:
Estimated unfactored thermal movement:
T = L TMaxDesign TMinDesign
(LRFD Equation 3.12.2.3-1)
For a steel superstructure:
= 6.5 106 in. / in. / F
TMaxDesign = 120F based upon the bridge location

TMinDesign = -20F based upon the bridge location
T = (6.5 10-6 in./in./F) (250 ft) (12 in./ft) (120 (-20))
T = 2.73 in.
Use the factored movements in the joint data table defined in the WS sheets. The
supplier uses the data to size the gland.
= 1.2 2.73 = 3.28 in
Factored movement, TF
Factored movement perpendicular to joint, TF(perp) = 1.2 2.73 (cos 30) = 2.84 in.
= 1.2 2.73 (sin 30) = 1.64 in.
Factored movement parallel to joint, TF(trans)
A strip seal joint is acceptable because the estimated design thermal movement
perpendicular to the joint and parallel to the joint are within the range for strip seals.
Movement per 1F temperature change:
2.73 in./(120F (-20F)) = 0.02 in./F
Set the minimum joint opening as 1.0-in. minimum perpendicular to the joint
according to the LRFD Specifications. Use 1.0-in. perpendicular to the joint at
120F. Estimate the opening at the setting temperature and at the minimum
temperature:
@ -20F =
1.0 in. (assumed minimum gap) + 3.28 in. (estimated design

thermal movement) (cos 30) = 3.84 in.
@ 60F
1.0 in. + 1.2 (0.02 in./F)(120F 60F)(cos 30) = 2.22 in.
Complete the joint table and include on the joint detail sheet.
19-6
February 2015
JOINT DATA TABLE

TOTAL FACTORED DESIGN MOVEMENT
IN DIRECTION PERPENDICULAR
OF
TO THE
LOCATION
MOVEMENT
CENTERLINE OF
(INCH)
THE JOINT
(INCH)
PARALLEL
TO THE
CENTERLINE
OF THE
JOINT (INCH)
DESIGN OPENINGS
PERPENDICULAR TO THE OPENING
MAXIMUM MINIMUM
OPENING AT
OPENING, OPENING,
SETTING
AMIN
TEMPERATURE,
AMAX
(INCH)
(INCH)
T = 60F,
ASET
(INCH)
INSTALLATION LIMITS
MINIMUM
INSTALLATION
TEMPERATURE,
(F)
MAXIMUM
INSTALLATION
TEMPERATURE,
(F)
DIMENSION A
ADJUSTMENT
PER
10F
(INCH)
ABUT #1
3.28
2.84
1.64
3.84
1.00
2.22
40
90
0.2
ABUT #4
3.28
2.84
1.64
3.84
1.00
2.22
40
90
0.2
Conclusion:
19.2
The gap width of the seal varies from 1.0 in. to 3.84 in. A strip seal with a
longitudinal movement rating of 4 in. and transverse movement rating of +1.29 in.
and -0.94 in. satisfies the movement requirements. The required transverse
movement rating is directly controlled by the minimum and maximum setting
temperatures.
BEARINGS
19.2.1
Design Guidance
Reference:
LRFD Articles 14.4, 14.6, 14.7 and 14.8
Design all integral abutment bearings based on the requirements of Section 19.2.1.1. Design all
other bearings based on the LRFD Specifications.
19.2.1.1
Integral Abutment Bearing Design Criteria
Integral abutment bearings are bearings used to support the girder during construction. During
construction, the girder end at the abutment is encased in a concrete end diaphragm, which is
made integral with the abutment cap. Once the end diaphragm is placed, all future loads are
transferred to the abutment cap through the end diaphragm. Long term performance of the
bearing is not required because the end diaphragm is capable of transferring all loads to the
substructure after construction is complete. Design the bearings to the following criteria:
Use Method A.
Design for only the DL applied before the bridge is made integral.
Design the bearing for 50 of temperature change.
Provide a beveled sole plate when the expected bottom of girder slope at completion of
the deck placement exceeds 1.0%.
Note that rotation checks are implicit in the geometric and stress requirements; therefore, no
specific rotation check is required. Refer to the WS sheets for standard plain elastomeric
bearing pads for use with UBT girders.
19-7
19.2.1.2
February 2015
Movements
Bridge bearings accommodate the movements of the superstructure and transmit the loads to
the substructure. The consideration of movement is important for bearing design, which
includes both translations and rotations. The sources of movement include initial camber or
curvature, construction loads, misalignment, construction tolerances, settlement of supports,
thermal effects, creep, shrinkage, seismic and traffic loading.
19.2.1.3
Effect of Camber and Construction Procedures
The initial camber of bridge girders induces bearing rotation. Initial camber can cause a larger
initial rotation on the bearing, but the rotation could decrease as the construction of the bridge
progresses. Rotation due to camber and the initial construction tolerances are sometimes the
largest component of the total bearing rotation.
Evaluate both the initial rotation and the short duration of the initial rotation. At intermediate
stages of construction, add deflections and rotations due to the progressive weight of the bridge
elements and construction equipment to the effects of live load and temperature. Also, consider
the direction of loads, movements and rotations. Do not simply add the absolute maximum
magnitudes of the design requirements. Do not consider combinations of absolute maximums
that cannot occur.
19.2.1.4
Reference:
Serviceability, Maintenance and Protection Requirements

Bearings under deck joints can be exposed to dirt, debris and moisture that promote corrosion
and deterioration. Design bearings to minimize environmental damage and to allow easy
access for inspection.
The service demands on bridge bearings are severe and result in a service life that is typically
shorter than that of other bridge elements. Therefore, include allowances for bearing
replacement in the design. Bearings at integral abutments with a concrete diaphragm
surrounding the girder and resting on the abutment do not require a replacement strategy.
19.2.1.5
Reference:
Seismic Requirements
LRFD Articles 14.6.5 and 14.8.3.2
Bearing selection and design must be consistent with the intended seismic response of the
entire bridge system.
Bearings (other than seismic isolation bearings or structural fuse bearings) can be classified as
rigid or deformable. Rigid bearings transmit seismic loads without any movement or
deformations. Deformable bearings transmit seismic loads limited by plastic deformations or a
restricted slippage of bearing components. Only elastomeric expansion bearings where 1.2
19-8
February 2015
times the seismic movement is less than the bearing movement capacity are considered
deformable for seismic loads. All other expansion bearings are rigid and all fixed bearings are
rigid. Refer to Section 13.6.7 for a discussion on bearing modeling.
Where rigid bearings are used, assume that the seismic forces from the superstructure are
transmitted through diaphragms or cross frames and connections to the bearings, and then to
the substructure without reduction due to local inelastic action along the load path.
Do not use plain elastomeric pads as structural fuse bearings.
Use steel reinforced elastomeric pads with PTFE sliding surfaces as structural fuse bearings.
Design the substructure for a minimum of 20% of the DL, and do not include the substructure
element under the bearing as a resisting element in the seismic response of the bridge.
Do not use steel reinforced elastomeric pads without PTFE sliding surfaces as structural fuse
bearings, unless the seismic movements are less than the permitted temperature displacements
for the bearing. Design the substructure for a minimum of 20% of the DL, and do not include
the substructure element under the bearing as a resisting element in the seismic response of
the bridge.
Elastomeric bearing pads provide adequate seismic performance for most bridges. Do not rely
on the bearing to transmit seismic forces to the substructure if the bearing is not a structural
fuse bearing. Design anchor bolts or restrainer systems to transfer the seismic load to the
substructure.
Typically, use shear keys or dowels to transfer superstructure seismic forces to the
substructure. In unusual situations, use restrainers, shock transmission units or dampers to
control structure displacements and load transfer to substructure elements.
19.2.1.6
Anchor Bolts
Although the LRFD Specifications require anchor bolts in various circumstances, design needs
dictate anchor bolt use. Do not rely on a uniform distribution of loads to anchor bolts.
Use anchor bolts to transfer horizontal forces through bearing assemblies when external
devices such as shear keys are not present. In addition, use anchor bolts as hold downs for
bearings. Use shear keys in lieu of bolts when geometry permits.
Holes for anchor bolts in steel elements of bearing assemblies must be in. larger in diameter
than the diameter of the anchor bolt. The centerlines of anchor bolts are a minimum of 2 in.
from the edge of the girder. A larger offset could be necessary to facilitate installation.
Consider the space necessary for nuts, washers, base plate welds and construction tolerances
and establish anchor bolt locations accordingly. Maintain -in. clearance from the edge of the
elastomeric bearing to the edge of the anchor bolt.
Provide sufficient reinforcement around the anchor bolts to develop the horizontal forces and
anchor the bolts into the mass of the substructure unit. Identify potential concrete crack
surfaces next to the bearing anchorage and evaluate the shear friction capacity. Conflicts
19-9
February 2015
between anchor bolt assemblies and substructure reinforcement or superstructure cross frames
is common, especially for skewed bridges. Therefore, ensure that all reinforcing steel can fit
around the bearing assemblies and that the anchor bolts are accessible and do not interfere
with cross frames.
19.2.1.7
Sole Plates
The sole plate must be at least 1 in. wider than the elastomeric bearing. Use a minimum sole
plate thickness of 1 in. When the instantaneous slope of the grade plus the final in place
camber exceeds 1%, bevel the sole plate to match the grade plus final camber. For beveled
sole plates, maintain a minimum of 1-in. thickness at the edge of the sole plate. Refer to the
SS sheets for sample bearing details. In typical applications, the sole plate is shop welded and
the top plate is field welded to the sole plate, which permits adjustments to fit field conditions.
At expansion bearings with anchor bolts, provide slotted top plates. Determine the minimum
slot size according to the amount of movement and end rotation calculated. The slot length, L,
is:
L
(diameter of anchor bolt) + 1.2 (total movement) + 1.0 in.
The multiplier of 1.2 represents the load factor from LRFD Table 3.4.1-1 for TU, CR and SH.
Include the effect of girder end rotation at the level of the top plate when estimating the total
movement. Round the slot length up to the nearest in. To account for the possibility of
different setting temperatures during construction, provide offset dimensions on the plan sheets.
19.2.2
Bearing Types and Selection
Where possible, use steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pads for all girder bridges that are not
integral. Bridges with large bearing loads and/or multidirectional movement could require other
bearing devices such as pot, spherical or disc bearings.
Do not use roller bearings or rocker bearings. Do not use pot or disc bearings for seismic
applications where significant vertical acceleration is present. Where the use of pot or disc
bearings is unavoidable, provide an independent seismically resistant anchorage system.
Consider the impact on the lateral load path due to unequal participation of bearings considering
connection tolerances, unintended misalignments, the capacity of individual bearings and skew
effects.
Provide adequate support length for fixed bearings that are not fully integral. Provide
restrainers, shear keys or other methods of restraint when the bearing movement capacity is
less than 1.2 times the seismic displacement. In the restrained directions, detail bearings to
engage at essentially the same movement.
Bearing selection is influenced by many factors including loads, geometry, maintenance,
available clearance, displacement, rotation, deflection, availability, construction tolerances and
cost. In general, restrain vertical displacements, allow rotations to occur as freely as possible,
19-10
February 2015
and either accommodate or restrain horizontal displacements. Distribute the loads among the
bearings according to the superstructure analysis.
Figure 19.2 summarizes bearing capabilities. The values shown in the table are for preliminary
guidance only. The final step in the selection process consists of completing a design of the
bearing according to the LRFD Specifications. If the load falls outside of the optimal ranges,
contact the bearing manufacturer.
Load (kips)
Type
Plain elastomeric bearing
pad
Steel reinforced
elastomeric bearing pad
Steel reinforced
elastomeric bearing pad
with PTFE sliding surface
Pot
bearing
HLMR
Disc
bearings
bearing
Spherical
bearing
Translation
(in.)
Cost
Optimal
Design Range1
Min
Max
Rotation
limit
(rad)
0 to 220
0.0175
low
low
50 to 650
0.04
low
low
50 to 650
>3
0.04
low
low
270 to 2250
02
02
0.04
0.05
high
high
270 to 2250
02
02
0.03
high
high
270 to 2250
02
02
> 0.05
high
high
0 to 2250
03
0.04
high
high
Isolation bearing
Initial Maintenance
Higher and lower values could be applicable if necessary.
HLMR bearings have no inherent translational capability. Expansion bearings are achieved by using
HLMR bearings in conjunction with flat PTFE sliding surfaces.
Design isolation bearings to accommodate significant displacements during a seismic event.
Figure 19.2 SUMMARY OF BEARING CAPABILITIES
19.2.2.1
Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads
Plain elastomeric bearing pads are usually the preferred low cost option for integral abutments.
See Section 19.2.3 for a discussion on the design of plain elastomeric bearing pads.
19-11
19.2.2.2
February 2015
Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing Pads
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pads are usually the preferred low cost option for
nonintegral abutments and require minimal maintenance. Limit the height of steel reinforced
elastomeric bearing pads to 6 in. Provide horizontal restraint greater than the maximum
demands for fixed bearings. Refer to the SS sheets for sample details.
See Section 19.2.3 for a discussion on the design of steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pads.
Use a combination bearing where horizontal movements exceed 3 in. Combination bearings
use a steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pad to accommodate rotation and a stainless steel
plate/PTFE sliding surface to provide translational capability.
Size the steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pad and the required length of the sliding plate.
The bearing supplier sizes the top plate, PTFE surface and stainless steel plate based on loads
listed on the plan sheets.
19.2.2.3
High Load, Multirotational Bearings
HLMR bearings are generally avoided due to cost and maintenance concerns. HLMR bearings
are appropriate for bridges with large vertical loads; i.e., in excess of 650 kips. The choice
among HLMR bearings is based upon the rotational capabilities presented in Figure 19.2.
Do not include specific details for HLMR bearings in the plan set. Only show schematic bearing
details, combined with specified loads, movements and rotations. Provide a jacking plan sheet.
Refer to Chapters 14 and 15 for additional jacking information. The manufacturer designs the
bearing. Provide a special provision when specifying HLMR bearings.
19.2.2.3.1
Pot Bearings
Reference:
LRFD 14.7.4
Pot bearings consist of a pot/piston assembly within which an elastomeric disc is encapsulated
and fitted with an anti extrusion sealing device. Under load, the encapsulated elastomeric disc
acts similar to an uncompressible confined fluid, enabling the pot and piston to rotate relative to
each other. Pot bearings enable rotation in any direction. The pot and piston feature fittings for
securing the bearing to the bridge structure.
Fixed pot bearings are constrained horizontally. Free sliding pot bearings are fitted with a PTFE
sliding surface in contact with a steel plate, enabling the bearing to slide in all directions.
Guided sliding pot bearings are identical in construction to free sliding bearings but are also
fitted with one or more guides to limit the bearing movement to only one direction.
Pot bearings are able to support large compressive loads, but the elastomer can leak and the
sealing rings can suffer wear or damage.
19-12
19.2.2.3.2
Spherical Bearings
Reference:
LRFD Article 14.7.3
February 2015
Spherical bearings, termed bearings with curved sliding surfaces, include bearings with both
spherical and cylindrical sliding surfaces. Spherical bearings are able to sustain large rotations
but require proper clearances and very smooth and accurate machining.
A spherical bearing relies upon the low friction characteristics of a curved PTFE stainless steel
interface to provide a high level of rotational flexibility in multiple directions. An additional flat
PTFE stainless steel surface can be incorporated into the bearing to provide either guided or
nonguided translational movement capability. Woven PTFE is generally used on the curved
surfaces of spherical bearings. Woven PTFE exhibits enhanced creep (cold flow) resistance
and durability characteristics relative to unwoven PTFE. When spherical bearings are detailed
to accommodate translational movement, woven PTFE is generally also specified on the flat
sliding surface.
Most spherical bearings are fabricated with the concave surface oriented downward to minimize
dirt infiltration between PTFE and the stainless steel surface. Refined modeling of the overall
structure must consider that the center of rotation of the bearing is not coincident with the
neutral axis of the girder above.
19.2.2.3.3
Disc Bearings
Reference:
LRFD Article 14.7.8
A disc bearing is composed of an annular shaped urethane disc designed to provide moderate
levels of rotational flexibility. A steel shear resisting pin in the center provides resistance
against lateral force. A flat PTFE stainless steel surface can be incorporated into the bearing to
also provide translational movement capability, either guided or nonguided.
Disc bearings are susceptible to uplift during rotation. Do not use a PTFE sliding surface when
uplift is possible.
19.2.2.4
Isolation Bearings
Isolation bearings are used in high seismic zones to minimize force effects in the substructures
and superstructures due to ground movements.
Various types of isolation bearings are available, most of which are proprietary. See the
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design and the FHWA Seismic Retrofitting
Manual for Highway Structures: Part 1 Bridges for detailed information. Isolation bearings
increase the fundamental period of vibration of the bridge resulting in lower seismic forces.
Although the period shift lowers the seismic forces, the shift increases the seismic
displacements. Isolation bearings also provide improved damping characteristics to limit the
seismic displacement demands. Use the WS sheets to detail the isolation bearing requirements
19-13
February 2015
in the plans. Provide a jacking plan sheet. Refer to Sections 14.6.2 and 15.5.6 for additional
jacking information. Provide a special provision when specifying isolation bearings.
19.2.3
Design of Elastomeric Bearing Pads
Plain elastomeric bearing pads and steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pads have
fundamentally different behaviors and, therefore, the discussions are separate. Typically, orient
plain elastomeric bearing pads and steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pads so that the long
side is parallel to the pads principal axis of rotation. The orientation better accommodates
rotation.
Design the pad according to the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design
when using elastomeric expansion bearings without shear keys, guides or restrainers.
19.2.3.1
Reference:
Elastomer
Only use neoprene for plain elastomeric bearing pads and steel reinforced elastomeric bearing
pads.
All elastomers are visco elastic, nonlinear materials and, therefore, the properties vary with
strain level, rate of loading and temperature. Bearing manufacturers evaluate the materials on
the basis of Shore A durometer hardness, but the parameter is not a good indicator of the shear
modulus, G. Use a Shore A durometer hardness of 50 to 60, which produces shear modulus
values in the range of 0.095 ksi to 0.200 ksi at 73F (use the least favorable value for design).
The shear stiffness of the bearing is the most important property because the shear stiffness
affects the forces transmitted between the superstructure and substructure.
Elastomers are flexible under shear and uniaxial deformation, but are very stiff against volume
changes. The feature makes possible the design of a bearing that is flexible in shear but stiff in
compression.
Elastomers stiffen at low temperatures. The low temperature stiffening effect is very sensitive to
the elastomer compound. The increase in shear resistance is controlled by selection of
elastomer grade according to guidance in the LRFD Specifications.
19.2.3.2
Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads
Plain elastomeric bearing pads can support modest gravity loads, but can only accommodate
limited translation. Plain elastomeric bearing pads are best suited for bridges with small
expansion lengths or integral abutment applications.
Plain elastomeric bearing pads rely on friction at the top and bottom surfaces to restrain bulging
due to the Poisson effect. Friction is unreliable. Local slip during vertical loading results in a
larger elastomer shear strain from compression than that which occurs in steel reinforced
19-14
February 2015
elastomeric bearing pads. The increased elastomer strain limits load capacity and the pad must
be relatively thin to carry the maximum allowable compressive load. Use a maximum friction
coefficient of 0.20 for the design of plain elastomeric bearing pads that are in contact with clean
concrete or steel surfaces. If the shear force is greater than 0.20 of the simultaneously
occurring compressive force, then secure the plain elastomeric bearing pad against horizontal
movement.
19.2.3.3
Reference:
Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing Pads

LRFD Article 14.7.5
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pads have uniformly spaced layers of steel and elastomer.
The bearing accommodates translation and rotation by deformation of the elastomer. The
elastomer is flexible under shear stress but stiff against volumetric changes. Under uniaxial
compression without steel reinforcement, the flexible elastomer shortens in height significantly
and sustains large increases in plan dimension but, with the stiff steel layers, lateral expansion
is restrained. The restraint induces a bulging pattern as shown in Figure 19.3 and provides a
large increase in stiffness under compressive load. The result permits a steel reinforced
elastomeric bearing pad to support relatively large compressive loads while accommodating
large translations and rotations. If the shear force is greater than 0.20 of the simultaneously
occurring compressive force, then secure the bearing against horizontal movement.
Figure 19.3 STRAINS IN A STEEL REINFORCED ELASTOMERIC BEARING PAD
19-15
February 2015
Large rotations and translations require thicker bearings. Translations and rotations can occur
about the longitudinal or transverse axis of a steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pad.
Use Method A or B to design steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pads. The Method B design
procedure allows significantly higher average compressive stresses than Method A. The higher
allowable stress levels are justified by an additional acceptance test, specifically a long duration
compression test. List the design method used on the plan sheet.
Assume that slippage will not occur unless a combination bearing is specified.
Use a setting temperature of 60F for the installation of the bearings unless the time of
construction is known, for which the setting temperature can be modified accordingly. Use 80%
of the total movement range for checking movement in a single direction. The value assumes
that the bearing is installed within 30% of the average of the maximum and minimum design
temperatures.
The following also applies:
1.
Load. Verify availability of steel reinforced elastomeric pads when the design load
exceeds 650 kips. Steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pads can become excessively
large if the pads are designed for loads greater than approximately 650 kips.
2.
Orientation. Orient elastomeric steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pads so that the
long side is parallel to the principal axis of rotation where practical.
3.
Holes in Elastomer. Do not use holes in steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pads.
4.
Edge Distance. Use 3 in. as the minimum edge distance from the edge of the pad to the
edge of the concrete seat for steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pads resting directly
on a concrete bridge seat.
5.
Length. The minimum steel reinforced elastomeric bearing pad length or width is 6 in.
6.
Shims/Elastomer Cover. Provide a minimum of in. of cover from the edges of the
steel shims to the outside edge of the elastomer.
19-16
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
ACCELERATED BRI
DGE CONSTRUCTI
ON
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
20.1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 20-1

20.1.1
20.1.2
20.1.3
20.2
Policy ............................................................................................................. 20-1

Benefits ......................................................................................................... 20-1
Definitions...................................................................................................... 20-2
DECISION MAKING PROCESS .................................................................................. 20-4

20.2.1
Accelerated Bridge Construction Rating Procedure ...................................... 20-4

20.2.1.1
20.2.2
20.3
Accelerated Bridge Construction Decision Flowchart ................................... 20-6
ACCELERATED BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHOD SELECTION ....................... 20-7

20.3.1
20.3.2
Guidelines to Determine Appropriate ABC Method ....................................... 20-7

Offline Construction ....................................................................................... 20-7
20.3.2.1
20.3.2.2
20.3.2.3
20.3.2.4
20.3.3
20.3.4
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Projects ............................... 20-8

Lateral Slides ............................................................................... 20-9
Longitudinal Launches ................................................................. 20-10
Crane Based Projects .................................................................. 20-11
Online Construction ....................................................................................... 20-12

20.3.3.1
Prefabricated Elements................................................................ 20-12
Required Information on Plans ...................................................................... 20-13

20.3.4.1
20.4
Accelerated Bridge Construction Measures................................. 20-4
Prefabricated Element Sheet Requirements................................ 20-14
TECHNICAL ................................................................................................................ 20-14

20.4.1
20.4.2
20.4.3
20.4.4
20.4.5
Materials ........................................................................................................ 20-14

Load and Resistance Factors ........................................................................ 20-14
Load Rating Existing Structures .................................................................... 20-14
Utilities ........................................................................................................... 20-15
Prefabricated Elements ................................................................................. 20-15
20.4.5.1
20.4.5.2
20.4.5.3
20.4.5.4
Element Size and Weight Guidelines........................................... 20-16

Prefabricated Element Design ..................................................... 20-16
Lifting Hardware ........................................................................... 20-17
Tolerances ................................................................................... 20-17
20-i
20.4.6
Connections .................................................................................................. 20-18

20.4.6.1
20.4.6.2
20.4.6.3
20.4.6.4
20.4.6.5
20.4.6.6
20.4.7
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Units ..................................................... 20-23

Hydraulic Support Units ................................................................................. 20-24
Planning ........................................................................................................ 20-24
Plan Requirements ........................................................................................ 20-24
Bridge Removal ............................................................................................. 20-24
Design Approach ........................................................................................... 20-25
20.5.6.1
20.5.6.2
20.5.6.3
20.5.6.4
20.5.6.5
20.5.6.6
20.5.6.7
20.5.6.8
20.5.6.9
20.5.6.10
20.5.6.11
Load Conditions, Loads Cases and Load Factors ....................... 20-25

Connection to Bridge During the Move ........................................ 20-25
Stroke Demand ............................................................................ 20-26
Bearing on Self Propelled Modular Transporter Supports ........... 20-26
System Response During a Bridge Lift ........................................ 20-26
Tolerances ................................................................................... 20-29
Connection to Substructure ......................................................... 20-30
Bearings ....................................................................................... 20-31
Monitoring .................................................................................... 20-31
Deck/Parapet Reinforcing Requirement ...................................... 20-31
Prestressed Girder Stress Limits During the Move ...................... 20-31
LATERAL SLIDE BRIDGE MOVES ............................................................................ 20-32

20.6.1
Types of Slides .............................................................................................. 20-32

20.6.1.1
20.6.1.2
20.6.2
20-ii
CIP Construction Under Existing Bridges .................................... 20-21

Spread Footings and Spread Footings on Stabilized Earth ......... 20-22
Piles ............................................................................................. 20-22
Micropiles ..................................................................................... 20-22
Drilled Shafts ............................................................................... 20-22
Re-Use of Existing Substructures ................................................ 20-23
BRIDGE MOVES USING SELF PROPELLED MODULAR TRANSPORTER

UNITS OR SIMILAR SYSTEMS .................................................................................. 20-23
20.5.1
20.5.2
20.5.3
20.5.4
20.5.5
20.5.6
20.6
Emulative ..................................................................................... 20-18

Pin/Friction ................................................................................... 20-18
Commercial Grouted Splice Couplers.......................................... 20-18
Corrugated Pipe Voids ................................................................. 20-20
Post-Tensioning ........................................................................... 20-20
Shear Key .................................................................................... 20-21
Substructure Design ...................................................................................... 20-21

20.4.7.1
20.4.7.2
20.4.7.3
20.4.7.4
20.4.7.5
20.4.7.6
20.5
February 2015
Rolling .......................................................................................... 20-32

Sliding .......................................................................................... 20-32
Types of Jacks .............................................................................................. 20-32

20.6.2.1
20.6.2.2
20.6.2.3
20.6.3
Vertical Loads .............................................................................. 20-33

Horizontal Loads .......................................................................... 20-34
Plan Requirements ...................................................................... 20-34
Approach Slab ............................................................................. 20-35
Vertical Clearance ....................................................................... 20-35
MISCELLANEOUS BRIDGE MOVE METHODS......................................................... 20-35

20.7.1
20.7.2
20.7.3
20.7.4
20.8
Pull Jacks ..................................................................................... 20-32

Push Jacks .................................................................................. 20-33
Push/Pull Jacks ........................................................................... 20-33
Key Design Considerations ........................................................................... 20-33

20.6.3.1
20.6.3.2
20.6.3.3
20.6.3.4
20.6.3.5
20.7
February 2015
Crane............................................................................................................. 20-35
Gantry Crane ................................................................................................. 20-36
Strand Jacks.................................................................................................. 20-36
Launches ....................................................................................................... 20-36
TEMPORARY SUPPORT STRUCTURES .................................................................. 20-36

20.8.1
20.8.2
Staging Area Supports .................................................................................. 20-36

During Move or on SPMT Supports .............................................................. 20-36
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 20.1 APPROXIMATE GROUTED SPLICE COUPLER DIMENSIONS .................. 20-19
Figure 20.2 MINIMUM CORRUGATION SIZES FOR CORRUGATED
STEEL PIPES................................................................................................ 20-20
Figure 20.3 METHOD B LIFT STRESSES ....................................................................... 20-28
Figure 20.4 SHEAR KEY FOR SEMI-INTEGRAL ABUTMENT ........................................ 20-30
20-iii
20-iv
February 2015
February 2015
Chapter 20
ACCELERATED BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
The LRFD Specifications do not specifically address accelerated bridge construction. Selected
applications of the LRFD Specifications do apply to ABC as noted in this chapter, which
addresses practices and criteria for design considerations for ABC.
20.1
20.1.1
INTRODUCTION
Policy
ABC is a tool for accelerating project delivery. The advantages include reducing construction
schedules to lessen impacts to the traveling public and minimizing total project costs. Total
project costs include both direct construction costs and indirect costs such as maintenance and
user costs associated with delays. Evaluate ABC on all projects through a thorough
understanding and analysis of the impacts to the public considering maintenance of traffic,
construction schedule and project specific critical features (e.g., environmental or railroad
constraints).
Use ABC in all projects where a reduction in total project cost (price plus time) is available. See
Section 20.2 for the ABC decision making process.
20.1.2
Benefits
ABC techniques provide many benefits, including:
Improves quality
Accelerates project delivery
o
Removes the bridge as a critical element of the construction schedule
o
Reduces construction time for environmental requirements and weather
limitations
Encourages innovation
o
Uses alternative bridge design and construction methods to meet the project
goals
Minimizes duration of maintenance of traffic
o
Adds value to the project by reducing impacts on the public
o
Improves worker safety and safety to the traveling public
o
Increases public support
o
Increases political capital
Reduces project cost
o
Reduces user costs
o
Reduces oversight and inspection costs through reduction in project duration
o
Uses typical details and standards to lower project costs
20-1
20.1.3
February 2015
Definitions
Chapter 1 provides a list of definitions. The following apply specifically to ABC projects:
1.
ABC Communication Plan.

during a bridge move.
2.
Bridge Move Plan. A plan indicating a timeline for all bridge movement activities,
itemizing potential threats to the movement schedule and identifying actions needed if
an event disrupts the schedule of the bridge move.
3.
Bridge Staging Area. Area in which a new bridge is constructed.
4.
Bridge Temporary Works. Any structure used to provide temporary support to a bridge
or bridge component.
5.
Contingency Plans. Alternative plans and solutions to possible unexpected events

during all aspects related to the construction and placement of the structure including
move schedule.
6.
Design Build. A contracting method in which UDOT hires a contractor to develop and
execute all project plans.
7.
Design Builder. The firm contracted to develop and construct all project plans.
8.
Design Bid Build. The traditional contracting method in which UDOT develops a
complete plan set before soliciting bids.
9.
Engineer for Contractor. The engineer hired by the contractor to prepare and submit
stamped drawings as required.
10.
Fatal Flaws. Any obstacles to project completion that cannot be mitigated.
11.
Final Bridge Location. The location where the new bridge is installed and placed into
service.
12.
Ground Bearing Capacity. The capacity of the ground to resist applied loads.
13.
Heavy Lifter. The firm employed by the contractor to provide heavy lifting equipment,
operation and engineering.
14.
Lessons Learned Meeting.

project.
15.
Monitoring. The act of measuring the changes in the geometry of the new bridge as a
result of temporary support conditions, movement operations and setting the bridge in its
final location.
16.
Other Lift System. Any additional equipment, other than the SPMTs and SPMT
blocking, that is required to move the new bridge.
20-2
A plan to maintain contact between all parties involved
A meeting held to retain the knowledge gained from a
February 2015
17.
Permanent Substructure. The foundation upon which the new bridge will permanently
rest.
18.
Prebid Meeting. A meeting held to show contractors the proposed project details and
solicit input before bidding.
19.
Preconstruction Meeting. A meeting held with the selected contractor to coordinate

contract items necessary for the successful completion of the project. Typical
discussions include schedule, roles and responsibilities, lines of communication, contact
information and project specific topics.
20.
Reference Points. Fixed points identified on the new bridge that are observed during the
move to monitor deflections.
21.
Safety Plan. A plan to protect all personnel, spectators and property during construction
and movement of the new bridge.
22.
Self Propelled Modular Transporter. Self propelled multi-axle platform vehicle with self
leveling capabilities, able to move in any direction and place loads within millimeters.
23.
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Axle Line. A row of paired wheels (4 wheels or 2
axles) positioned along a line across the narrowest dimension of an individual SPMT
unit.
24.
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Axle Load. The amount of force exerted by each
axle (2 wheels) of the SPMTs.
25.
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Blocking. The apparatus between the top platform
of the SPMTs and the bottom of the new bridge.
26.
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Carrier Beam. Part of the SPMT blocking; the
carrier beam is positioned perpendicular to the girders if the SPMTs are positioned
parallel to the girders.
27.
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Support Point.

supports the new bridge.
28.
Stroke. The distance that jacks or SPMTs can raise or lower the platform in a single
operation.
29.
Temporary Substructure.
constructed.
30.
Travel Path. The route along which the SPMT or other equipment carries the new
bridge from the BSA to the final bridge location.
Point where the SPMT blocking
The temporary supports upon which the new bridge is
20-3
20.2
February 2015
DECISION MAKING PROCESS
This section presents the ABC decision making process and the use of the process during
project development. ABC is a tool to support project delivery goals. The ABC decision making
process consists of two steps completing the ABC rating procedure and then using the rating
in the ABC decision flowchart to determine if an ABC approach is required. The range of scores
used in the ABC decision flowchart is set to ensure that accelerated construction is typical when
the measured benefit is more significant than the measured cost with respect to accomplishing
the project goals.
20.2.1
Accelerated Bridge Construction Rating Procedure
An ABC rating procedure spreadsheet is available to assist engineers in the implementation of

the rating process. The evaluation spreadsheet is available on the website. Use the ABC rating
procedure spreadsheet and the flowchart to determine if an ABC approach is required. Do not
change the weighting factors for individual projects. The spreadsheet combines the weighting
factors and assigned values to obtain an ABC rating.
The ABC rating procedure requires that structural engineers assign a value to each of the ABC
measures. See Section 20.2.1.1 for descriptions of the ABC measures. The values are a
function of the bridge location. The spreadsheet includes guidelines for assigning values. Use
the standard weighting factors for each of the ABC measures. The weighting factors are subject
to change to coincide with future changes in policies.
The spreadsheet multiplies the values assigned to each project decision by the corresponding
weighting factor. The ABC rating score is the ratio of the weighted score to the maximum score
shown as a percentage.
Scores higher than 20 require an ABC approach. The ABC threshold of 20 is intended to
capture any project receiving a score of 5 in any one of the four most heavily weighted
categories.
The higher ABC threshold score of 50 is intended to capture any project receiving an average
score of 3.5 in the four most heavily weighted categories.
Use the ABC rating score to enter the flowchart and work toward a conclusion.
20.2.1.1
Accelerated Bridge Construction Measures
Nine measures of project constraints are applicable to the ABC decision making process:
20-4
Average daily traffic

Delay/detour time
Bridge classification
User costs
Economy of scale
February 2015
Use of typical details

Safety
Environmental issues
Railroad impacts
20.2.1.1.1
ADT accounts for the volume of traffic traversing the bridge site. Use a value equal to the total
number of vehicles on the bridge and on the roadway under the bridge (if applicable). The
measure incorporates the value of maintaining the interstate highway network by assigning the
maximum score when the bridge is on an interstate highway or over an interstate highway.
20.2.1.1.2
Delay/Detour Time
Delay/detour time accounts for the time impact that a project has on vehicles passing through
the construction site and, therefore, the construction time delays due to detours and congestion.
Obtain the estimated delay times from the TOC.
20.2.1.1.3
Bridge Classification
Bridge classification accounts for bridges that are on or over a designated evacuation route or
part of a critical lifeline route used in an emergency such as a major earthquake.
20.2.1.1.4
User Costs
User costs account for the financial impact of a construction project on the traveling public. The
major contributing factors in calculating user costs are delay time and ADT. The duration of the
impact to users is also a key component in measuring the impact of construction. Use the
standard methods for calculating user costs. Calculate the user costs in coordination with the
Structures Project Engineer and the TOC to determine the total project cost for each
construction option evaluated (e.g., SPMT bridge move, prefabricated elements, conventional
construction).
20.2.1.1.5
Economy of Scale
Economy of scale accounts for the repetition of the elements and processes. Repetition of
elements or processes can lower the overall cost of a project, and can lower costs on future
projects. The total number of spans accounts for repetition of substructure and superstructure
elements.
20-5
20.2.1.1.6
February 2015
Use Consistent Details
Use consistent details for ABC projects. All bridges can be built using ABC; however, the
complexity of the bridge geometry often renders the use of typical details impractical or
expensive. Evaluate the bridge site conditions and determine the level of complexity as
complexity relates to various ABC techniques. The use of consistent details leads to more
repetition of elements, faster construction times, higher quality and reduced prices. Refer to the
SD drawings and the WS sheets for typical details.
20.2.1.1.7
Safety
Safety accounts for the increase in safety provided to the traveling public and the work force at
the construction site when using ABC. ABC reduces the exposure time of travelers and workers
in work zones. Project sites requiring complex MOT schemes for extended periods are
undesirable.
20.2.1.1.8
Environmental Challenges
Environmental issues account for the project impact to the surrounding environment. The
presence of endangered species or annual spawning seasons often leads to short construction
windows. Projects can also have limitations due to wetlands, air quality, extreme weather or
noise. ABC can reduce impacts to the surrounding environment to an acceptable level.
20.2.1.1.9
Railroad Impacts
Railroad impacts account for the impact of railroad traffic on the project. Use the number of
trains and type of train traffic to measure the impact.
20.2.2
Accelerated Bridge Construction Decision Flowchart
The ABC decision flowchart uses the ABC rating score and then addresses yes/no factors to
consider before making a final decision on the construction approach. The factors include:
20-6
Project schedule
Environmental issues
Total project cost
Site conditions
High level indirect costs (e.g., political capital, safety, possible impacts to stakeholders)
20.3
20.3.1
February 2015
ACCELERATED BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHOD SELECTION

Guidelines to Determine Appropriate ABC Method
Many types of ABC methods are available. Determining the appropriate method of ABC for a
specific project is highly dependent on the MOT requirements at the site, the site geometrics
and project funding.
ABC methods are in two main categories:
1.
Offline Construction. Constructs the bridge outside of the final location using normal
construction and/or prefabricated elements. Once construction is essentially complete,
the bridge is moved into place. Offline construction is divided into four subcategories
SPMT moves, lateral slides, longitudinal launches and crane based. The heavy lift ABC
checklist provides a comprehensive summary of expectations for engineers and
stakeholders.
2.
Online Construction. Constructs the bridge in its final location using prefabricated
elements to accelerate construction. Prefabricated elements range from localized use of
prefabricated elements to structures entirely composed of prefabricated elements.
20.3.2
Offline Construction
Use offline construction when MOT requirements are too stringent for the use of prefabricated
elements or when it is more cost effective to use offline construction. Offline construction uses
prefabricated bridge systems. Prefabricated bridge systems are bridge superstructure systems
fully constructed offline with the exception of closure pours, when required. The systems can
use any type of girder (i.e., steel, concrete, composite). Prefabricated bridge systems are a
large category of structures, including prefabricated segmental bridges.
Constructing the entire bridge offsite yields additional benefits, including:
Permits longer cure times for all concrete components

Provides efficient use of construction equipment
Provides better control over the environment at the construction site
Lowers lifecycle costs
Promotes public support
Budget issues associated with offline construction are difficult to quantify because cost is
significantly affected by project specific issues. Typically, the following is true:
SPMT systems have high mobilization costs and are normally more expensive than a
lateral slide for a single move. SPMT per move costs are reduced when using the
SPMT systems for multiple bridge moves in a single project.
Lateral slides minimize bridge move costs. Costs are not significantly reduced with
multiple moves.
20-7
February 2015
Longitudinal launches require the most design effort, and range between the cost of a
lateral slide and the cost of a SPMT move.
Crane based system placement costs are normally higher than lateral slides but less
than SPMT moves.
20.3.2.1
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Projects
SPMT projects are effective when the ADT crossing over and under the bridge is high. SPMT
projects construct the bridge offsite where construction does not impact traffic. The contractor
moves the bridge into place after the superstructure and substructure construction is complete.
Section 20.5 presents specific SPMT design requirements and SPMT information.
20.3.2.1.1
Selection Criteria
SPMTs aid bridge replacement in two ways:
Provides faster removal of the existing bridge compared to in place demolition

Transports a bridge from the staging area to the final bridge location
SPMTs are especially advantageous for bridge replacements that require minimal roadway
closure time. A project requires minimal closure time if:
The bridge or cross street has high traffic volumes

The bridge or cross street is on an emergency evacuation route
The bridge is over a railroad or navigable waterway
Schools or hospitals are accessed via the bridge or underneath the roadway
The bridge is a primary emergency response route
Overhead or adjacent work space constraints such as power lines prevent the use of
conventional in place construction with cranes
Air or noise quality constraints limit the type or timing of construction activities
Endangered species on the site limit the timeline for construction activities
Weather constraints such as cold weather limit the length of time for construction
activities
20.3.2.1.2
Site Conditions
To construct a new bridge and move the bridge using SPMTs, the project site must include a
staging area with adequate space to build the bridge upon a temporary substructure. Soil
conditions must be sufficient to support all loads during construction at the bridge staging area
and during transport of the new bridge. The travel path from the bridge staging area to the final
bridge location must provide adequate clearance, grade and ground bearing capacity to allow
the SPMT to transport the new bridge. The final bridge location must be accessible by the
SPMT.
20-8
February 2015
Contractors prefer a minimum 50-ft zone around the perimeter of the bridge footprint. The 50-ft
zone is required for staging and crane pads.
The grading and geometry along the travel path is also critical. SPMT systems can
accommodate significant grade changes with a well planned system. Use of SPMTs is difficult
and requires significant planning and engineering if:
Grades along the travel path exceed 4%

Superelevation transition is along the travel path
Travel path is along a road with a split profile
Travel path traverses a large area of noncompacted ground
Travel path crosses structures or sensitive utilities
Travel path goes under existing structures
20.3.2.1.3
Budget Challenges
The initial cost of a SPMT project is dictated by the base rate for reserving the equipment.
Associated with the base rate is the mobilization time, which is usually ten days before
operation and three days after operation. The amount of effort the heavy lifter must contribute
to engineering also increases the cost of a project. Additional engineering requirements, such
as site preparation at the bridge staging area and travel path, also add to the cost of a project.
20.3.2.2
Lateral Slides
Lateral slides are effective when the ADT under the bridge is low and the ADT over the bridge is
high. Lateral slides construct the bridge adjacent to the existing bridge and over the feature
crossed. The contractor slides or rolls the bridge into place after the superstructure and
substructure construction is complete.
Section 20.6 presents specific lateral slide design requirements and slide equipment
information.
20.3.2.2.1
Selection Criteria
Lateral slides are effective for projects if:
The road crossed has low traffic volumes or low off peak hour demands
The bridge is on an emergency evacuation route
The bridge is over a waterway
Schools or hospitals are accessed via the bridge
The bridge is a primary emergency response route
20-9
20.3.2.2.2
February 2015
Site Conditions
To construct a new bridge and move the bridge using a lateral slide, the project site must
include an area adjacent to the bridge with adequate space to build the bridge. High skews and
large superelevations complicate the design and the slide. Vertical clearance under the bridge
in the temporary construction location is also required. Vertical clearance can be maintained
during construction by building the bridge high and lowering the bridge before the move.
Contractors prefer a 50-ft zone around three sides of the bridge footprint and at least 10 ft
between the new bridge in the staging area and the existing bridge. The 50-ft zone is required
for staging and crane pads.
20.3.2.2.3
Budget Challenges
The initial cost of a lateral slide project is primarily a function of the temporary supports. Lateral
slides are very cost effective. Lateral slide costs are approximately one half to one fifth of
SPMT move costs for a simple single bridge. Complicated lateral slide systems that require
lowering the bridge before the move can significantly increase costs.
20.3.2.3
Longitudinal Launches
Longitudinal launches are effective when the ADT under the bridge is high and no demand for
traffic on the bridge is present. Longitudinal launches require a staging area behind one or both
abutments where a partial or complete bridge is constructed. When the bridge is ready to
launch, the bridge is pushed out over the gap.
Section 20.7 presents specific longitudinal launch design requirements and launching
equipment information.
20.3.2.3.1
Selection Criteria
Longitudinal launches are effective for projects if:
The bridge has no traffic demands

The bridge is over a major road
Environmental requirements limit access
The local bridge geography limits access
20.3.2.3.2
Site Conditions
To construct a new bridge and move the bridge using a longitudinal launch, the project site must
include an area behind the bridge with adequate space and grade to build the bridge. High
skews and large superelevations can complicate the design and the launch.
20-10
February 2015
The area required is a function of the launch type. Staged launches require less area than
single launches, which require an area longer than the bridge with construction and staging
areas around the bridge.
20.3.2.3.3
Budget Challenges
The initial cost of a longitudinal launch is primarily a function of the temporary supports required
for the launch and additional material to accommodate launch loads. Design effort for
longitudinal launches is also more than other types of moves. The equipment cost can also be
higher than that for a lateral slide. Longitudinal launch costs are approximately 50% to 100% of
SPMT move costs for a single move.
20.3.2.4
Crane Based Projects
Crane based systems are effective when the site permits easy access for cranes and the
section weights are reasonable. Crane based projects construct the bridge offsite and ship the
prefabricated section to the bridge site before the final section placement. Crane based
systems often require multiple sections with closure pours between the sections.
20.3.2.4.1
Selection Criteria
Crane based projects are effective for projects if:
The project area is very confined and does not permit the use of a lateral slide or have
adequate access to use SPMTs
Locally available cranes have the capacity to move and place the bridge or bridge
sections
The bridge is small and easily handled or moved with a crane
20.3.2.4.2
Site Conditions
To place a new bridge with a crane requires a project site with an area adjacent to the bridge to
set up a crane or cranes. Access for the prefabricated bridge sections to a location where the
crane can pick up the element is also critical.
20.3.2.4.3
Budget Challenges
The initial cost of a crane based project is primarily a function of the weight of the bridge
sections. Heavy sections and/or poor crane locations requiring a large reach require very large
cranes. The use of large cranes that are not locally available can significantly increase the
project cost.
20-11
20.3.3
February 2015
Online Construction
Use online construction when offline construction is impractical due to geometric constraints or
when online construction meets the project goals. Also, where appropriate, use online
construction of substructure elements using prefabricated elements in conjunction with offline
superstructure construction.
20.3.3.1
Prefabricated Elements
Prefabricated elements are especially effective when phased construction is possible. Section
20.4.5 presents specific prefabricated element design and construction requirements.
Prefabricated elements allow the construction of bridge elements in controlled environments,
thus improving quality.
Constructing the bridge with prefabricated elements yields additional benefits, including:
Permits longer cure times for concrete components

Controls cure conditions
Provides better control over materials and construction tolerances
Lowers life cycle costs
Promotes public support
20.3.3.1.1
Selection Criteria
The use of prefabricated elements is effective for phased construction; all elements are
fabricated before assembly. Once the site is ready, the elements are shipped to the site and
rapidly assembled. Prefabricated elements are often appropriate if:
Phased construction is possible

The bridge is on a new alignment
The bridge is over a railroad or waterway
Air or noise quality constraints limit the type or timing of construction activities
Endangered species on the site limit the timeline for construction activities
Weather constraints such as cold weather limit the length of time for construction
activities
20.3.3.1.2
Site Conditions
To construct a new bridge using prefabricated elements, the project site must include a staging
area with adequate space to set up a crane to lift the prefabricated elements into place.
20-12
20.3.3.1.3
February 2015
Budget Challenges
The major costs associated with prefabricated elements is lifting and moving costs. The actual
fabrication costs of the elements can be less than CIP construction. Lifting and moving costs
are controlled by limiting element size and weight.
20.3.4
Required Information on Plans
All ABC projects require a construction phasing plan and construction notes sheet. The sheet
defines the design move or construction sequence used in design and defines any special
design requirements. Depending on the project, the sheet can be combined with other typical
sheets.
Contractors must submit erection plans for placing bridge girders. Prefabricated elements also
require preconstruction planning. Project specifications require that the contractor submit an
assembly plan for the construction of the entire bridge including the prefabricated elements.
The design plans must include the following:
Size and weights of all elements

Construction sequence when a special sequence is required
Temporary shoring and bracing if required
Required cure time for grouts and closure pours
Consider the following, although the information is not required on the plans:
Pick points of elements

Grouting procedures
Potential crane locations
Construction sequence
Contractors can modify all details after submitting appropriate documentation according to the
project specifications and after receiving approval of the modifications.
DBB plan sets provide the minimum structural requirements for the bridge in the final location
and include all required specifications. The specifications define project requirements and
submittals.
Document all assumptions on load location and construction sequences in the project
calculations. Design major elements to work with the construction sequence shown. For
example, if the bridge is designed as a lateral slide, design the abutments and bents to
accommodate the moving load with the location of supports used in design identified on the
plans. The plan set does not need to provide shoring or temporary support details.
Use the heavy lift ABC checklist and precast element checklists when preparing plan sheets or
specifications and when reviewing contractor submittals.
20-13
20.3.4.1
February 2015
Prefabricated Element Sheet Requirements
Prefabricated element sheets normally contain the items in the following list. Additional items
are often required for complex projects:
Plan view of each substructure unit

Elevation view of each substructure unit
Typical transverse sections as needed
Individual piece plans, elevations and sections showing:
o
Dimensions
o
Internal reinforcing details including connection details
o
Approximate shipping weight of the piece
o
Connection details
o
Tolerance details for all applicable pieces
o
Reinforcing details
The SS and WS sheets represent typical details for prefabricated concrete elements. Design
and detail the specific prefabricated element using the SS and WS sheets for guidance on
general concepts and consistent detailing practices. The SD drawings address design
requirements.
20.4
20.4.1
TECHNICAL
Materials
The use of lightweight concrete is permissible in decks with overlays, CIP elements and
nonprestressed prefabricated elements. Use of lightweight concrete in prestressed elements
requires approval from the Structures Design Manager.
The use of high strength steel (over 70 ksi) and composite materials is permissible with
approval from the Structures Design Manager.
Approval requires appropriate technical information relating to the design, fabrication and
anticipated performance of any of the elements. Refer to Sections 14.3 and 15.2 for more
information on concrete and steel material requirements.
20.4.2
Load and Resistance Factors
Refer to Chapter 11 for load and resistance factors for ABC projects.
20.4.3
Load Rating Existing Structures
ABC projects often require transportation of heavy loads, which often far exceed typical highway
loads. Avoid moving the loads over existing bridges. If avoiding an existing structure is not
20-14
February 2015
possible, load rate the structure for the proposed loads. Define all requirements for moving the
load across an existing bridge. Typical requirements include the exact location of the load on
the structure; whether or not other traffic is allowed on the bridge during the move; and a
defined shoring plan or strengthening when the existing bridge does not rate for the proposed
load.
Use the AASHTO Manual for Bridge Evaluation and the BMM for additional load rating
information.
Submit the load rating package and a description of any special requirements to the Structures
Design Manager for approval. Note that approval is not guaranteed even if the structure has a
safe operating load rating.
20.4.4
Utilities
Utility owners are concerned with superimposed loads damaging utility facilities. Coordinate
with utility owners when moving heavy loads across utility facilities. The owner often requires
special procedures or load mitigation during the move.
UDOT and utility owners are especially concerned with high capacity water lines or high
pressure gas lines. Failure of the utility lines can result in catastrophic damage.
When required, typical procedures include having the owner (or owners) representative on site,
shutting down the utility line during the move, or having a procedure in place to shut down the
facility in case of damage. Typical mitigation involves bridging the utility or reducing the axle
loads.
Coordinate with the utility owner when mitigating loads by bridging. The bridging method must
meet owner approval. Bridging methods range from placing steel plates on the ground to
removing fill over the utility and placing plates or other materials over the gap.
20.4.5
Prefabricated Elements
Prefabricated elements are elements cast and cured before arriving at the job site.
Prefabricated girders and half depth deck panels are not ABC elements. Refer to the WS
sheets, SD drawings, Chapter 14 and Chapter 16 for more information.
Prefabricated elements as defined for ABC include prefabricated:
Full depth deck panels

Foundations
Columns
Bent caps
Abutments
Wingwalls
Parapets
20-15
February 2015
Approach slabs
Deck and girder systems
20.4.5.1
Element Size and Weight Guidelines
Use the following general guidelines for sizing prefabricated concrete substructure elements.
Keep the maximum height of any element, including projecting reinforcing, to less than 10 ft to
allow transportation under existing bridges. Keep the width of the element, including projecting
reinforcing, to under 14 ft.
Carefully consider segment weights and potential crane locations when sizing elements.
Excessive reach requirements severely limit the crane capacity. Consider the weight of the
heaviest girder section on the project when determining prefabricated section weights.
Balancing the weight demands from girder placement with prefabricated element placement
allows efficiency in construction. Element weights over 100,000 lb require approval from the
Structures Design Manager. Target element weights of 50,000 lb are reasonable. Follow the
guidelines for DBB projects. On DB projects and CMGC projects, work with both the fabricator
and contractor to size the elements based on the available equipment and the proposed
shipping routes.
Cranes require a large, relatively level area to set up. Cranes typically need a 30-ft 50-ft area
to set up. In soft soil areas, additional crane pads can be required under the outriggers to
distribute the load to the ground. Evaluate crane locations on fill slopes or on walls for global
stability, and design the wall for the temporary crane loads.
20.4.5.2
Prefabricated Element Design
Design prefabricated elements considering constructability:
20-16
Provide repetitive details, allowing the use of a single set of forms, small crews and
efficiency in casting.
Use simple details. Complex shapes that reduce quantities typically do not overcome
the extra cost and risk associated with complex shapes and details.
Minimize the number of connections. Fewer larger connections are more cost effective
than a larger number of smaller connections and provide fewer chances for geometric
errors. Eliminate connections where the connections are not needed.
Provide as much tolerance in the system as possible to accommodate minor geometric
inconsistencies. Adequate tolerance is especially important for elements spanning from
support to support where temperature effects become measurable.
Balance the number of elements required with the size of the element and access to the
site. Larger elements in areas easy to access can provide the fastest construction but,
in areas with difficult access, smaller sections can be faster to place.
20.4.5.3
February 2015
Lifting Hardware
Lifting hardware and locations are the contractors responsibility. Review the PCI Design
Handbook for Precast and Prestressed Concrete to understand lifting and handling stresses.
20.4.5.4
Tolerances
Allow for tolerances in fabricating and placing members, and account for several tolerance
challenges:
Fabrication tolerance
Dimensional growth
Hardware tolerance
Girder camber
Temperature effects
Fabrication tolerance allows for slight geometric errors in fabrication. Prefabricated elements
are typically constructed under well controlled conditions. Refer to the SD drawings for
fabrication tolerance requirements.
Dimensional growth is caused by minor imperfections in the prefabricated element and minor
placement errors combining and causing the physical length of the elements in place to exceed
the sum of the length of the individual pieces. Avoid dimensional growth by designing a small
gap between prefabricated elements that is sealed when connecting the elements. Also,
counter the effects of dimensional growth by allowing variation in the length of the system.
Provide a minimum gap between adjacent elements of 3/16 in. per 10 ft based on the maximum
dimension of the connected element for horizontal runs of prefabricated elements. The gap can
be capped at in. at the discretion of the structural engineer. Larger gaps between elements
are allowed.
Hardware tolerance is related to the connecting elements, reinforcing extending across the joint,
reinforcing extending into splice sleeves, alignment of post-tensioning ducts, alignment of shear
keys or other mechanical connections. The required tolerance for the various hardware
elements varies significantly. Specify the tolerance for the system. Specify larger posttensioning ducts or splice sleeves where additional tolerance is required. Review maximum
duct size limits for post-tensioning systems.
Prefabricated deck systems must allow for the camber in the girder. Refer to Chapter 16 and
the SD drawings for a discussion on setting the haunch.
Temperature effects typically only affect complete bridge systems placed on preconstructed
supports. Consider the possibility of changes in length due to temperature variations when
specifying tolerance limits for the structure.
20-17
20.4.6
February 2015
Connections
Connections are the most critical elements on an ABC project. Many types of connections are
available. Connections are in two groups emulative connections and pin/friction connections.
20.4.6.1
Emulative
Emulative connections are based on a design process called emulative detailing. A Joint
Committee of ACI and ASCE developed the process. ACI 550.1 Emulating Cast-in-Place
Detailing in Prefabricated Concrete Structures documents the process. The process emulates
CIP connections with prefabricated elements. Conventional CIP construction is not monolithic.
Construction joints are common, and often use dowels and lap splices. Emulative design
replaces the traditional lap splice with a mechanical coupler.
Mechanical couplers in areas away from plastic hinge zones must develop 125% of the
specified yield strength of the connected reinforcing. Mechanical couplers in areas adjacent to
or in plastic hinge zones must develop 150% of the specified yield strength of the connected
reinforcing. One of the benefits of emulative detailing is that the design of the substructure
element can be similar to a CIP concrete structure.
20.4.6.2
Pin/Friction
Pin/friction connections allow elements to rotate or move independently. Use caution when
designing the connections; stability must be maintained. Semi-integral abutments are a
common type of pin/friction connection.
20.4.6.3
Commercial Grouted Splice Couplers
Several manufacturers produce grouted splice couplers. The systems consist of reinforcing
connected to a sleeve. The sleeve is placed over the reinforcing, and the area between the
reinforcing and the sleeve is grouted. The basic principle is that confined high strength grout
can develop and transfer the load in the reinforcing to the exterior sleeve and back to the
reinforcing in a short distance.
Grouted splice couplers are an effective tool to connect prefabricated elements.
The challenges associated with grouted splice couplers are cost and tolerance. Mitigate cost by
minimizing the number of grouted splice couplers required. Tolerance is an issue because the
splice sleeves are cast into the prefabricated elements. Geometric inconsistencies can lead to
the sleeves not lining up as needed. Mitigate tolerance challenges through the use of
reinforcing templates in the casting bed, match casting and oversized splice sleeves.
The use of grouted splice couplers is permissible in plastic hinging zones. The standard
requirements for column confinement apply around the couplers. Adjust the cover to the
reinforcing and spiral or ties to accommodate the larger grouted splice coupler section.
20-18
February 2015
Refer to the SD drawings for examples of how grouted splice couplers are used. The preferred
configuration for constructability is to locate the grouted splice coupler above the joint, which
reduces the chance of contamination with debris. Grouted splice couplers located below the
joint must be sealed during fabrication and shipping. Also, placing the grouted splice coupler
above the joint allows the reinforcing extensions at the top of the element, making shipping and
handling easier. Placement of grouted couplers in the footing or in the cap improves the
connection ductility capacity. Locate the coupler in the footing or in the cap when the ductility
demand exceeds 4.
Design the reinforcing size and grouted splice couplers to allow for crossing reinforcing patterns.
Detail the spacing at approximately the maximum reinforcing spacing requirements in the LRFD
Specifications. Base the spacing on the connected reinforcing. Do not use the diameter of the
grouted splice couplers in the calculations. Check the clear spacing between the grouted splice
couplers using the following approach.
Use a grouted splice coupler sleeve size one reinforcing size larger than the reinforcing size
used. Detail the minimum gap between the grouted splice couplers to be the greatest of the
following:
1 in.
1.33 (maximum aggregate size of the coarse aggregate)
Nominal diameter of the connected reinforcing
Provide cover for the element based on the diameter of the grouted splice coupler. The practice
requires increased cover to the reinforcing to obtain the cover over the grouted splice couplers.
Use the dimensional guidelines in Figure 20.1 for detailing the element with grouted splice
couplers.
Reinforcing Size
Outside Diameter
(in.)
Length of Sleeve
(in.)
#4
2.625
14.125
#5
3.000
14.125
#6
3.000
14.125
#7
3.000
18.750
#8
3.500
18.750
#9
3.500
18.750
#10
3.500
23.500
#11
4.000
23.500
#14
4.000
28.375
#18
4.500
39.625
Figure 20.1 APPROXIMATE GROUTED SPLICE COUPLER DIMENSIONS
20-19
20.4.6.4
February 2015
Corrugated Pipe Voids
Corrugated steel pipe is an effective way of providing a void for making connections in
prefabricated elements. Several details incorporate pipes as void forms. The key feature is the
corrugations in the pipe, which provides additional capacity in load transfer between the
concrete cast within the pipe and the surrounding prefabricated concrete.
Use continuous pipe with uniform corrugations along the entire length of the pipe. Do not use
pipes with low friction walls designed to convey water more efficiently.
Inside Diameter Range
Corrugation Pattern
4 to 18
1.5 0.25
12 to 84
2.66 0.5
36 to 144
3 1 and 5 1
Figure 20.2 MINIMUM CORRUGATION SIZES FOR CORRUGATED STEEL PIPES
Do not use corrugated aluminum pipes. Aluminum is reactive with the surrounding concrete,
leading to degradation of the pipe over time and damage to the concrete.
Corrugated plastic pipe is allowed for nonstructural voids.
reduce shipping and handling weight.
Use of nonstructural voids can
Fully develop reinforcing extending into the voids. Do not reduce the development length based
on confinement provided by the corrugated pipe.
20.4.6.5
Post-Tensioning
Post-tensioning is a traditional method of connecting prefabricated elements. Consult the PCI

manuals for information on designing post-tensioning systems and elements.
Do not use post-tensioning systems that:
Require shoring to completely remove the deck

Require shoring to place a new deck in a single stage pour
Post-tensioning is a cost effective alternative to highly reinforced prefabricated elements.

Prestressing concrete elements normally improves structural durability.
Refer to Section 16.2.4 for a discussion on post-tensioned, full depth precast deck panels.
20-20
20.4.6.6
February 2015
Shear Key
Shear keys are an effective tool for transferring lateral or longitudinal loads to substructure units.
One of the benefits is that shear keys can be constructed after bridge moves or after
prefabricated elements are in place. The primary disadvantage is the lack of moment transfer.
Use exterior shear keys for easier inspection and repair after a seismic event.
The ultimate capacity of shear keys is difficult to determine, and traditional design methods can
significantly underestimate the ultimate capacity of the shear key. Do not design shear keys to
fuse in a seismic event.
Consider the effects of differential temperature effects and the direction of temperature
movements and provide an adequate thickness of compressible material. The compressible
material allows differential movement between the elements and minimizes the potential for
cracking in the shear key due to service loads.
20.4.7
Substructure Design
Substructures can be especially challenging to construct rapidly.

number of approaches for accelerated substructure construction.
20.4.7.1
This section discusses a
CIP Construction Under Existing Bridges
Although technically not accelerated construction, CIP construction under existing bridges can
offer many of the same benefits as accelerated construction. Frequently, new substructures
under existing bridges can be constructed without impacting traffic.
The primary difficulty associated with construction under existing bridges is the lack of access
and space to work. Existing bridges often have short end spans over fill slopes. New
substructure units can be constructed between the bent and abutment. The critical aspects to
consider are:
Stability of the slope under the abutment as the slope is removed to place the new
foundation
Interference with existing battered piles
Utilities
Limited overhead access
Work zone exposure to traffic
Contractors use partial or full height soil nail walls or other methods to stabilize the slope and
provide room for construction.
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20.4.7.2
February 2015
Spread Footings and Spread Footings on Stabilized Earth
Use spread footings when geotechnical conditions allow. Spread footings are less expensive
and easier to construct under existing bridges. Spread footings can also be prefabricated.
Spread footings in fill slopes are permissible when no retaining wall exists and when the fill
slope is 2H:1V or flatter.
Spread footings on GRS walls require approval from the Structures Design Manager.
20.4.7.3
Piles
Piles are unavoidable in the majority of bridges constructed in Utah. Driving piles is difficult in
confined locations and locations with strict traffic requirements. Pile driving is especially difficult
in bridge replacement projects. Several methods allow the use of piles at existing bridges.
One method cores through the existing deck and drives the piles through the holes in the deck.
The method allows for typical pile arrangements and minimizes quantities. The primary
concerns are traffic control and the potential to damage existing girders.
Another option is to drive piles outside the footprint of the existing bridge and design the
abutment to span between the pile groups. The primary concerns include unequal pile loading,
lateral loads on the abutment walls, and additional material costs to accommodate the loads.
Evaluate the effect of the moment transferred to the pile group and the abutment deflection
between the pile groups in both the vertical direction and lateral direction. When using posttensioning, also consider losses into the piles due to elastic shortening and creep in the
concrete. New pile locations must be at least 5 ft from the existing bridge to allow pile driving.
20.4.7.4
Micropiles
Micropiles are small diameter drilled and grouted nondisplacement piles that are typically
reinforced. Numerous styles and sizes are available for micropiles. Micropiles have several
advantages when compared to driven piles, including installation without noise or vibration,
installation close to existing bridges or under existing bridges and installations with confined
access. Micropiles have been installed with as little as 10 ft of headroom.
20.4.7.5
Drilled Shafts
Drilled shafts can be installed with little noise and vibration. Drilled shafts can be more efficient
in straddle abutments or bents due to the moment capacity of the shaft. Coordinate with the
geotechnical engineer to determine if drilled shafts are cost effective for the project location.
20-22
20.4.7.6
February 2015
Re-Use of Existing Substructures
Do not re-use existing substructures for a variety of reasons. Typically, existing bents, columns
and footings do not meet current seismic design requirements and require significant
rehabilitation and upgrades to accommodate seismic loads.
20.5
BRIDGE MOVES USING SELF PROPELLED MODULAR TRANSPORTER

UNITS OR SIMILAR SYSTEMS
Bridges can be constructed offline and moved into place with SPMT units or with hydraulic lifts
and trailers with similar functionality to SPMT units.
20.5.1
Self Propelled Modular Transporter Units
SPMT units use electronic steering that allows the vehicles to drive forward and backward,
transversely, diagonally, at any angle and in a carousel motion. Heavy lifters link SPMT units
longitudinally or laterally to achieve the number and configuration of axle lines required by the
load. Linked units act as a single unit and are run off a single controller. The controller has four
basic commands steer, lift, drive and brake. Typical SPMT units have approximately 24 in. of
total stroke and an approximate capacity of 30 tons per axle line.
The dimensions of SPMT units vary depending on the manufacturer and number of axles and
wheels. The most common SPMT units have 4 to 8 axle lines. Each axle line consists of two
bogeys (or two axles); each bogey (or axle) has two wheels. An axle line has two axles (four
wheels). A typical SPMT unit is 8-ft wide with an axle line spacing of 4-7. The axle line
spacing remains constant between separate SPMT units. The typical bed height ranges from
36-in. minimum to 60-in. maximum.
SPMT units are hydraulic support units that have the ability to equalize the load to all wheels in
a hydraulic group when the wheels are not at the maximum or minimum stroke. When a wheel
reaches its maximum stroke, the load on that wheel is transferred to adjacent wheels that have
not reached the stroke limit. When a wheel is at the minimum stroke, the load carried by that
wheel can increase significantly. The systems typically have safeguards and are monitored
during the move to eliminate the possibility of overloading the system.
To maintain stability in the system during the move, the SPMT units are divided into a minimum
of three hydraulic groups. The feature provides a stable support, which is essentially a tripod
support. The reactions in each hydraulic group can vary, which causes displacements or twist
in the bridge during the move. The variability in reactions also provides the stability during the
move.
20-23
20.5.2
February 2015
Hydraulic Support Units
Numerous systems similar to SPMT units are used to move heavy loads. The systems typically
do not have the flexibility in use, movement and placement that SPMT units possess. Typically,
the other systems require external drive sources and do not have fine adjustment capabilities.
20.5.3
Planning
Use the following assumptions when planning a bridge move:
20.5.4
Use the typical SPMT unit dimensions listed in this chapter.

Estimate the required number of SPMT units assuming a maximum bridge load to the
SPMTs of 11 kips per wheel, 22 kips per bogey and 44 kips per axle line, which allows
for the additional weight of the support system and the self weight of the SPMT.
Assume a maximum useable stroke of 12 in. when evaluating the path. CMGC and DB
projects can coordinate with the SPMT supplier to determine the useable stroke.
Assume that the bridge is connected to the SPMT supports through a pinned
connection.
Set lift locations at less than or equal to 20% of the span but no less than 12 ft from the
centerline of bearing for bridges with MSE walls in front of the abutment.
Provide a minimum of 2 ft from the edge of the SPMT unit to any obstruction or support.
Plan Requirements
List the following information on the plan sheets:
Show the location of the center of gravity of the bridge.

List the maximum allowable twist.
List the maximum allowable differential deflection.
Define the location and size of the bearing area between the SPMT units and the bridge used in
design.
The contractor must be able to use a support matching the designated size and placed at the
designated location without modifying any of the primary structural elements.
20.5.5
Bridge Removal
SPMT units are an effective tool in removing existing bridges. When removing an existing
bridge using SPMT units, analyze the bridge and design the support apparatus to meet all
requirements in the current edition of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Bridge Temporary
Works.
When planning to remove an existing bridge with SPMTs:
20-24
February 2015
Evaluate the existing bridge condition

Determine a demolition location
Consider lowering the bridge to ground level for demolition
Evaluate the stability of the bridge and shoring system during demolition
20.5.6
Design Approach
The bridge must meet all AASHTO requirements during all stages of the move and in the final
location. Design bridges that are placed using SPMT units in the same manner as
conventionally constructed bridges.
The following sections provide instruction to the structural engineer and the engineer for the
contractor that is designing or redesigning the bridge or designing the support system. The
structural engineer must make assumptions on how the bridge is lifted and supported during the
move to prepare the initial design. The assumptions must be clearly stated on the plans. The
following terms detail, provide, check, evaluate and verify are used in the following
sections. The terms are directed at both the structural engineer and the engineer for the
contractor and can be flipped at various stages during the project. The expectation is that the
structural engineer evaluates the items noted during the design process based on the
documented assumptions and verifies that the reviewed submittals address the items noted
based on the actual move data supplied by the engineer for the contractor.
20.5.6.1
Load Conditions, Loads Cases and Load Factors
Refer to Chapter 11 for load factors, dynamic load allowance and design load combinations.
Specific SPMT loads include lateral loads from starting, stopping, turning, climbing grades and
displacements in the system due to unequal support reactions.
Check the system in the following load conditions:
On temporary supports
On the SPMT supports during the move
On the SPMT supports during the move with the system displaced to the maximum
permitted twist or differential deflection
On the final supports
20.5.6.2
Connection to Bridge During the Move
Evaluate the effects of the support conditions from the bridge to the SPMT supports or verify
that the effects of support conditions were considered during the design of the SPMT support
system. Auxiliary connections to the bridge, such as chains or struts, can significantly change
the response of the bridge during a move. If auxiliary supports are used, verify the capacity of
the system and the response of the system to the revised support condition. Additionally, the
length of the bearing area, the number of bearings or the type of connection affects the stability
of the system, the stroke demand and the reactions at each support.
20-25
20.5.6.3
February 2015
Stroke Demand
The stroke demand along the SPMT path is difficult to determine. Structural engineers do not
set the SPMT height before the lift, and do not define the travel path geometry or grading.
Structural engineers evaluate the stroke demand at the final location by assuming that the grade
under the bridge matches the existing conditions or matches the final conditions. When the
approach to the final bridge location requires over 12 in. of stroke to clear the bearing pads,
evaluate alternative bearing/sole plate combinations that reduce the stroke demand and/or allow
the contractor flexibility in modifying the bearing pads.
SPMT suppliers can supply secondary jack systems to assist in raising and lowering the bridge.
The secondary jacks can assist in raising the bridge to clear the bearings or pedestals and can
increase the range the bridge can be lowered. Supplemental jacks can reduce the possibility of
project delays.
In addition to clearing bearings or pedestals, SPMT stroke is used in the following situations to:
Compensate for superelevations

Compensate for superelevation transitions
Compensate for vertical curves
Compensate for curbs or dips in the path
Lift the bridge off the supports
Compensate for the change in deflection when lifting a bridge off the support (demand
can be significant for flexible, single span bridges)
20.5.6.4
Bearing on Self Propelled Modular Transporter Supports
The structural engineer verifies the bearing, bending and shear capacity at the documented
SPMT support location and using the documented bearing length. Use suitable diaphragm or
cross frame details to provide the necessary compression flange stability under temporary
SPMT cantilevered support conditions.
The engineer for the contractor can use the
documented bearing location and support size, or adjust the locations of the SPMT support
points according to the process defined in the project specifications. The process requires
submittal of detailed calculations that demonstrate that the new support points do not adversely
affect the bridge.
Consider sizing the girder such that the girder meets all AASHTO requirements without
additional stiffeners or bracing. The practice allows minor variations in the support location
during the move and allows the elimination of exterior stiffeners on exterior girders for
aesthetics.
20.5.6.5
System Response During a Bridge Lift
SPMT move procedures expose the bridge superstructure to forces that are often opposite to
the forces for the bridge under its final support conditions. Several different options exist for
20-26
February 2015
supporting the bridge before and during the move. The two typical methods are discussed
below.
20.5.6.5.1
Method A
Method A involves supporting the bridge during deck casting at the proposed pick points for the
SPMT move. The primary advantages are that no additional stress is added to the deck during
the move and the deck has a permanent compressive load after placement. The primary
disadvantages include the difficulty in estimating the deflections to provide a smooth riding
surface, providing adequate camber to accommodate any future redecking, and additional
complexity in the temporary supports to permit the SPMTs to drive under the temporary
supports before lifting the bridge.
Evaluate the effects of the change in loading conditions on the response of the bridge. The
girder is a noncomposite system during the deck pour. All future loading and change in support
locations are on a composite section, which alters the final stresses in the bridge. In the
majority of applications, the change increases the load capacity of the bridge. Do not account
for the increase in capacity when sizing elements because the bridge must permit redecking
using conventional methods.
20.5.6.5.2
Method B
Method B involves supporting the bridge at the final support locations during deck casting, and
transferring the bridge to intermediate supports for the move. The primary advantages are the
simple transfer from the temporary support to the SPMT support and better control of elevations
and grade. The major disadvantage is that the change in moment on the system due to the
change in support location causes tension in the deck and parapet.
Evaluate the effects of the change in loading conditions on the response of the bridge. The
girder is a noncomposite system during the deck pour. All future loading and change in support
locations are on a composite section.
The stress in the deck and the parapet is caused by the change in moment from the final
support condition to the SPMT support condition. Evaluate the stress in the deck and the
parapets based on the composite section properties and the change in moment on the system.
Note that the change in moment is greater than the absolute value of the moment on the system
in the lifted condition.
Similarly, determine the deflections in the system based on the change in moment, not the
absolute moment in the system. See Figure 20.3 for a graphic representation of the stresses
from the change in support condition.
20-27
February 2015
Figure 20.3 METHOD B LIFT STRESSES
20-28
20.5.6.5.3
February 2015
Modeling
Refer to LRFD Article 4.5 for a comprehensive discussion on bridge modeling.

All elements must remain elastic during a bridge move. Analyze the bridge based on elastic
behavior.
Analyze the bridge with and without the stiffness of the barrier to determine the worst case
scenario for the bridge. Support all formwork for the deck from the longitudinal girders similar to
conventional construction methods. Do not use composite dead load designs. Shored
construction is allowed, but do not design to take advantage of shored construction to reduce
girder size.
Modeling and analyzing single or multispan bridges with flexible support elements requires a
thorough understanding of the modeling software and structural systems. Multispan bridges
also require significant coordination with the heavy lifter to determine the response during the
lift. The hydraulic grouping in the SPMT supports can have a significant effect on the response
of the bridge.
To properly calculate the internal forces in the superstructure supported with flexible framing,
model the entire superstructure and support framing using 3D analysis methods. Do not use a
grid analysis to evaluate deck stresses from twist. Calculate the stresses and check the design
of the entire system (superstructure and support framing). Also, examine the effects of pinned
connections or fixed connections that can physically behave as partially pinned.
Complex analysis methods are not required for preliminary design for lifts with systems that
provide uniform support for all girders. In this case, use simplified analysis methods including
2D line girder analysis. The analysis of the support system is also simplified because the
reactions at each girder are defined.
20.5.6.6
Tolerances
SPMT moves have two types of tolerances installation tolerances and placement tolerances.
Installation tolerances refer to the clearances required to move the bridge into place; placement
tolerances refer to the fit up of the bridge with its connections and/or the final location of the
placed bridge compared to the design location.
Installation tolerances are affected by the capabilities of the SPMT movement system, the
geometry of the travel path, the new substructure geometry, obstacles along the path, etc.
Consider how movement and placement of the bridge affects each element for grade effects,
rotations, geometry of bearing seats and joints.
Structural engineers must provide designs that do not require tight placement tolerances. The
controlling placement tolerances are typically controlled by nonstructural requirements such as
barrier offsets. Structural engineers must verify that the placement tolerances provided in the
project specifications are reasonable for the bridge being moved.
20-29
20.5.6.7
February 2015
Connection to Substructure
Use closure pours to complete integral abutment connections. Semi-integral bridge abutments
do not require completion of closure pours to open the bridge to traffic. Place shear keys or end
blocks used to limit movement of semi-integral abutment bridges after the bridge is open. The
key features to consider are location and tolerance of connecting elements. Account for
placement tolerances in the bearing design and the design of connecting elements.
The contractor provides a detailed survey of the bridge substructure elements, including both
horizontal and vertical geometry. The contractor surveys the as built superstructure and
substructure elements at critical geometry points for horizontal and vertical fit. The contractor
compares the as built survey data to theoretical design data to ensure fit. Make adjustments as
required by providing shim plates, adjusting vertical and horizontal locations of moveable
supports, etc.
Consider the path of the bridge during the move and provide mechanical splices where
reinforcing extending from the abutment interferes with the move.
Provide tolerance in reinforcing cover in shear keys to allow for deviations from the anticipated
placement of the bridge. Provide for temperature movements in the design of shear keys. Use
externior shear keys or end blocks on the abutments when practical. Externior shear keys are
easier to repair after a seismic event. See Figure 20.4.
Figure 20.4 SHEAR KEY FOR SEMI-INTEGRAL ABUTMENT
20-30
20.5.6.8
February 2015
Bearings
Detail the bearing with vertical adjustment devices. Several methods are available to provide
vertical adjustment in bearings, including leveling plates supported by anchor bolts with leveling
nuts, shim plates or other methods. All methods must account for differential reactions on the
bearing and girder system during adjustment.
20.5.6.9
Monitoring
Project specifications define the monitoring requirements.

identify:
The monitoring plan is used to
Measuring equipment
Measuring procedures
Reference points for geometric control on the bridge and ground
Minimum detectable movements
Limits to differential movements
Actions to take when differential movement limits are approached.
The plan can also specify detailed crack mapping of the bridge deck. Map the deck before
lifting and after the span is set on the final abutments.
20.5.6.10
Deck/Parapet Reinforcing Requirement
Refer to LRFD Article 5.7.3.4 and provide reinforcing in the deck and parapets meeting the
requirements of LRFD Table 5.7.3.4-1 using the Class 1 exposure condition for all locations
where the deck is in tension. Assume cracked section properties.
LRFD Article 5.7.3.4 requirements are waived for parapets reinforced as end sections with full
depth joints at a spacing not exceeding 16 ft. LRFD Article 5.7.3.4 requirements are also
waived when permanent or temporary post-tensioning eliminates additional tension in the deck
and parapet during the move.
In addition to the tension loads in the deck due to the move, shrinkage of the concrete during
curing produces tension in the deck.
20.5.6.11
Prestressed Girder Stress Limits During the Move
Refer to the current edition of the LRFD Specifications. Use the compression limits associated
with shipping and handling.
Use the moderate corrosion condition when checking tension stresses during the move.
20-31
20.6
February 2015
LATERAL SLIDE BRIDGE MOVES
20.6.1
Types of Slides
20.6.1.1
Rolling
Rolling supports are typically high capacity steel rolling bearings. Normally, the bearings are
attached to the bridge. The bearings can be guided or unguided. The majority of applications
use a steel channel as a guide. In general, rolling bearings have less friction allowing
movement with less force but are more sensitive to the alignment of the bearing. The primary
aspects to consider when using rolling bearings include:
Size of the bearing

Alignment of the bearing
Cleanliness/smoothness of the track
Point loads through the bearing
20.6.1.2
Sliding
Sliding bearings consist of elastomeric bearing pads with a teflon sliding surface. The bearings
do not move with the bridge. Normally, a temporary or permanent slide shoe is attached to the
bridge, and the slide shoe slides over the bearings as the bridge is moved. In general, sliding
bearings have more friction, requiring larger jacks for movement, but are less sensitive to
alignment. The primary aspects to consider when using sliding bearings include:
Anchorage of elastomeric pad

Smoothness of the sliding shoe
Friction on the sliding surface
20.6.2
Types of Jacks
Three main types of jacks are available pull, push and push/pull; see the following sections.
In general, the pull jacks are the least expensive but have the least control over the move, and
the push/pull jack has the highest cost but offers considerably more control and versatility.
20.6.2.1
Pull Jacks
Pull jacks normally use a hydraulic strand or bar jack. The jack is stationary and pulls the cable
or post-tensioning rod through the jack. Pull jacks are the simplest method of moving a bridge.
Pull jacks using post-tensioning strand can be especially difficult to control due to elastic
deformation of the strand storing spring energy combined with changes in friction in the system.
20-32
February 2015
Pull systems using cranes or winches are also difficult to control due to elastic deformation of
the cable storing spring energy combined with changes in friction in the system. Use of cranes
or winches is not recommended.
20.6.2.2
Push Jacks
Push jacks are hydraulic rams used to push the bridge. Typically, the ram moves with the
bridge. The jack sits on a skid track, which is similar to a ladder. The jack anchors to a rung on
the skid track and pushes the bridge the length of the jack stroke. Once the stroke is complete,
the jack is unhooked from the rung and moved up to the next rung to repeat the process.
20.6.2.3
Push/Pull Jacks
Push/pull jacks operate the same way as a push jack but have the capacity to pull the bridge
back. Most push/pull jacks have significantly more push capacity than pull capacity. Push/pull
systems typically offer the most control during the move.
20.6.3
Key Design Considerations
Consider two types of loads during the lateral move vertical loads through the sliding
bearings and lateral loads associated with friction or resistance in the bearings.
The following sections provide instruction to structural engineers and engineers for the
contractor who is designing or redesigning bridges or designing the support system. The
structural engineer must make assumptions on how the bridge is lifted and supported during the
move to prepare the initial design. The assumptions must be clearly stated on the plans. The
following terms detail, provide, check, evaluate and verify are used in the following
sections. The terms are directed at both the structural engineer and the engineer for the
contractor and can be flipped at various stages during the project. The expectation is that the
structural engineer evaluates the items noted during the design process based on the
documented assumptions and verifies that the reviewed submittals address the items noted
based on the actual move data supplied by the engineer for the contractor.
20.6.3.1
Vertical Loads
In lateral slides, the vertical dead load is a moving load as the bridge moves across the support
to the final location. Use the load factors and load cases defined in Chapter 11.
Consider the effect of deflections and variation in support elevations on the distribution of load
on all projects. Support deflections in systems with two sliding supports normally do not
significantly change the reaction through the support. Using three or more supports creates the
potential for significant redistribution of load through the supports. For example, if a single high
point is encountered along the path, the bridge could rock about a single support at the high
point, allowing the entire load to be transferred through the single support.
20-33
February 2015
Systems using slide shoes must accommodate a -in. variation in support elevations at the
center of the shoe. The structural engineer must account for load redistribution when using
more than two slide support points. For example, a system using three slide supports must be
designed to accommodate a center support in. higher or lower than the end supports. The
in. results when one support is in. low and the other support is in. high. Depending on the
spacing of the shoes and the stiffness of the bridge, the entire load could be transferred to the
center shoe. In this case, the superstructure design must accommodate the increased bending
moments and shear from the cantilevered section, and the substructure must accommodate the
increased reaction.
Systems relying on continuous slide supports or an even distribution of slide supports must
accommodate a -in. variation in slide supports per 10 ft up to a maximum variation of in.
The structural engineer verifies the bearing, bending and shear capacity at the documented
slide support locations and using the minimum documented slide bearing length. The structural
engineer also verifies the capacity of the permanent substructure for the load through the sliding
supports as the support moves across the substructure. Consider the effects of varying
supports heights as noted above when verifying the capacity of the system. The engineer for
the contractor can use the documented bearing location and minimum support size or adjust the
locations of the slide support points according to the process defined in the project
specifications. The process requires submittal of detailed calculations that demonstrate that the
new support points do not adversely affect the superstructure or substructure.
20.6.3.2
Horizontal Loads
Account for lateral loads transferred to permanent and temporary substructures. The critical
elements are the connection from the jack to the bridge and the connection from the temporary
substructure to the permanent bridge.
The engineer for the contractor must define a clear load path for all lateral loads. The lateral
load path can change as the bridge moves from the temporary to permanent location. Evaluate
the lateral loads through all phases of the move.
The structural engineer can evaluate potential load paths and detail substructure elements such
that they are compatible with various slide schemes. Use 20% of the factored dead load when
evaluating potential lateral loads resisting elements. The engineer for the contractor must
evaluate the lateral load system and revise the plans as permitted in the project specifications to
meet the requirements of the slide system provided.
20.6.3.3
Plan Requirements
The plan set must define the location and size of the sliding supports assumed in design. The
contractor must be able to use the locations without modifying any of the primary structural
elements.
20-34
20.6.3.4
February 2015
Approach Slab
When possible, move the approach slab with the bridge.

If the approach slab is moved with the bridge, design the approach slab to span from support to
support with no intermediate fill support for the life of the bridge. If a standard approach slab is
not used, check fatigue in the reinforcing assuming no support between the abutment and
sleeper slab. Fatigue typically controls the design of approach slabs.
When moving the approach slab with the bridge, evaluate the type and method of placing
backfill underneath the approach slab after the bridge move. In this case, the default backfill is
flowable fill. Flowable fill has a significant amount of shrinkage during curing. Require two
stages of flowable fill applications on the plan sheets in the project specifications. Place the
second application 30 days after the placement of the first application to fill the gap formed by
the shrinkage.
20.6.3.5
Vertical Clearance
For lateral slides over existing roads, maintain adequate vertical clearance under the bridge in
the temporary location. Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to determine the
required minimum vertical clearance during construction.
20.7
MISCELLANEOUS BRIDGE MOVE METHODS
Numerous other methods are available to move bridges; this section discusses several options.
All methods are subject to the same stress limitations noted in Section 20.6. Refer to Chapter
11 for dynamic load allowance and load factors associated with the various move methods.
20.7.1
Crane
Use cranes to lift partial or complete bridges into place. Partial bridge sections combined with
closure pours reduce the required crane size. When planning to use cranes to place a bridge,
consider the following:
Required crane size

Potential crane locations
Weight of sections placed
Required reach to place sections
Location of overhead and underground utilities
Method of delivery of the bridge sections
Crane lifts are effective for small bridges in accessible locations.
20-35
20.7.2
February 2015
Gantry Crane
Gantry crane moves can be effective, especially for long viaducts where the number of sections
is large. For viaduct construction, consider the weight of the bridge and trucks on the previously
constructed bridge segment to allow delivery of the new sections using the previously
constructed section.
20.7.3
Strand Jacks
Strand jacks attached to bents or cantilevered sections of bridges lift segments of the bridge into
place. Strand jacks are effective when the bridge can be delivered to the site under the
cantilevered sections.
20.7.4
Launches
Bridge launches are similar to bridge slides. Typical launches are much more design intensive
than other move types due to the constant change in support conditions.
Single span launches can be completed by using temporary intermediate supports.
20.8
TEMPORARY SUPPORT STRUCTURES
Temporary support structures include any element used to support a bridge before or during a
bridge move. At a minimum, all temporary works must meet the requirements of the current
edition of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Temporary Works.
20.8.1
Staging Area Supports
In addition to the requirements in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Temporary Works, all
temporary supports must:
20.8.2
Meet the requirements in Section 17.1.4 for differential deflection between supports
Limit differential deflection in bearings along a support line to 1/16 in. or less or provide
bearings with vertical adjustment
Provide redundant load paths
During Move or on SPMT Supports
The heavy lift engineer designs SPMT support works. Requirements are defined in the project
specifications.
20-36
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
BRI
DGE PRESERVATI
ON AND
LI
TATI
ON OR WI
DENI
NG
REHABI
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
21.1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 21-1

21.1.1
21.1.2
21.1.3
21.2
Purpose ......................................................................................................... 21-1

Strategy ......................................................................................................... 21-1
Literature ....................................................................................................... 21-2
BRIDGE CONDITION ASSESSMENT ........................................................................ 21-2

21.2.1
Deck .............................................................................................................. 21-3

21.2.1.1
21.2.1.2
21.2.2
Superstructure ............................................................................................... 21-4

21.2.2.1
21.2.2.2
21.2.3
Visual Assessment ........................................................................................ 21-8

Nondestructive Assessment .......................................................................... 21-9
DECK PRESERVATION .............................................................................................. 21-9

21.4.1
21.4.2
Evaluation ...................................................................................................... 21-9

Treatments .................................................................................................... 21-11
21.4.2.1
21.4.2.2
21.4.2.3
21.4.2.4
21.4.2.5
21.4.2.6
21.4.2.7
21.4.2.8
21.4.2.9
21.5
Visual Assessment ...................................................................... 21-6

Nondestructive Assessment ........................................................ 21-7
CULVERT CONDITION ASSESSMENT ..................................................................... 21-8

21.3.1
21.3.2
21.4

Substructure .................................................................................................. 21-6

21.2.3.1
21.2.3.2
21.3

Healer/Sealer or HMWM .............................................................. 21-11

Structural Pothole Patching ......................................................... 21-11
Overlay ........................................................................................ 21-11
Joint Closure ................................................................................ 21-11
Joint Rehabilitation or Replacement ............................................ 21-11
Partial Deck Replacement ........................................................... 21-12
Deck Replacement ...................................................................... 21-12
Parapet Retrofit or Replacement ................................................. 21-13
Drainage System Retrofit ............................................................. 21-13
SUPERSTRUCTURE PRESERVATION ..................................................................... 21-14

21.5.1
21.5.2
Evaluation ...................................................................................................... 21-14

Treatments .................................................................................................... 21-14
Bridge Preservation and Rehabilitation or Widening
21-i
21.5.2.1
21.5.2.2
21.5.2.3
21.5.2.4
21.5.2.5
21.5.2.6
21.5.2.7
21.5.2.8
21.5.2.9
21.6
Evaluation ...................................................................................................... 21-21

Treatments .................................................................................................... 21-21
21.6.2.1
21.6.2.2
21.6.2.3
21.6.2.4
21.6.2.5
21.6.2.6
Evaluation ...................................................................................................... 21-25

Treatments .................................................................................................... 21-25
21.7.2.1
21.7.2.2
21.7.2.3
Evaluation ...................................................................................................... 21-26

Seismic Retrofits............................................................................................ 21-27
21.8.2.1
21.8.2.2
21.8.2.3
21.8.2.4
21.8.2.5
21.8.2.6
21.8.2.7
Column Jacketing ........................................................................ 21-27

Seat Width Extension .................................................................. 21-27
Structural Continuity .................................................................... 21-28
Restrainers and Ties .................................................................... 21-28
Bearing Replacement .................................................................. 21-28
Seismic Isolation Bearings ........................................................... 21-29
Modifying Seismic Response ....................................................... 21-29
BRIDGE WIDENING .................................................................................................... 21-29

21.9.1
21.9.2
21.9.3
21-ii
Concrete Repair or Rehabilitation ................................................ 21-25

Strengthening .............................................................................. 21-26
Scour Mitigation ........................................................................... 21-26
SEISMIC RETROFIT ................................................................................................... 21-26

21.8.1
21.8.2
21.9

Abutment or Wall Stabilization ..................................................... 21-21
Integral Abutment Retrofit ............................................................ 21-22
Semi-Integral Abutment Retrofit................................................... 21-22
Strengthening .............................................................................. 21-22
Scour Mitigation ........................................................................... 21-24
CULVERT PRESERVATION ....................................................................................... 21-25

21.7.1
21.7.2
21.8

Strengthening .............................................................................. 21-14
Bearing Rehabilitation .................................................................. 21-17
Continuous for Live Load Retrofit ................................................ 21-17
Link Slab Retrofit.......................................................................... 21-17
Fatigue Crack Retrofit .................................................................. 21-17
Cleaning and Repainting or Overcoating Structural Steel ........... 21-19
Heat Straightening ....................................................................... 21-20
Pin/Hanger/Hinge Rehabilitation or Replacement ....................... 21-20
SUBSTRUCTURE PRESERVATION .......................................................................... 21-21

21.6.1
21.6.2
21.7
February 2015
Evaluation ...................................................................................................... 21-29

Design ........................................................................................................... 21-30
Details of Existing Structures......................................................................... 21-30
21.9.3.1
21.9.3.2
21.9.3.3
21.9.4
February 2015
Load Carrying Capacity ............................................................... 21-30

Materials ...................................................................................... 21-31
Substructures/Foundations .......................................................... 21-31
Details of Widened Structures ....................................................................... 21-31

21.9.4.1
21.9.4.2
Girder Type Selection .................................................................. 21-31

Deck Closure Pour ....................................................................... 21-32
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 21.1 CONDITION ASSESSMENT METHODS FOR SPECIFIC
DECK DISTRESSES ........................................................................................ 21-5
Figure 21.2 DECK CONDITION THRESHOLDS AND CORRESPONDING
TREATMENTS ................................................................................................. 21-10
Figure 21.3 HYDRAULIC SCOUR COUNTERMEASURES ................................................ 21-24
21-iii
21-iv
February 2015
February 2015
Chapter 21
BRIDGE PRESERVATION AND
REHABILITATION OR WIDENING
A successful bridge program seeks a balanced approach to preservation, rehabilitation and
replacement. Focusing only on replacing deficient bridges and ignoring preservation needs is
inefficient and cost prohibitive in the long term. Adopting a worst first approach to managing
bridge assets can also yield ineffective results that allow bridges in good condition to deteriorate
into the deficient category, which generally is associated with higher costs and other challenges.
The LRFD Specifications do not specifically discuss design requirements for bridge preservation
and rehabilitation or widening. This chapter draws upon the structural literature to present
practices and strategies for bridge preservation and rehabilitation or widening.
21.1
21.1.1
INTRODUCTION
Purpose
The objective of a good bridge preservation program is to employ cost effective strategies and
actions to maximize the useful life of bridges. Applying the appropriate bridge preservation
treatments at the appropriate time can extend bridge useful life at lower lifetime cost.
Preservation and rehabilitation activities often cost much less than reconstruction or
replacement activities. Delaying or foregoing warranted preservation treatments accelerates
deterioration and can escalate treatment activities from preservation to replacement. The latter
results in extensive work and higher cost. A viable alternative is timely and selective bridge
preservation activities to ensure continuing structural integrity and extend the useful life before
replacement is required.
21.1.2
Strategy
A successful bridge program is based on a strategic, systematic and balanced approach to

managing bridge preservation and replacement needs. Bridge planning and programming is
presented in Chapter 2 of the BMM; however, the following repeats selected definitions, which
helps establish clear and consistent terminology for the bridge preservation practitioners:
1.
Bridge Preservation. Actions or strategies that prevent, delay or reduce deterioration of

bridges or bridge elements, restore the function of existing bridges, keep bridges in good
condition and extend bridge life. Preservation actions can be preventive or condition
driven.
2.
Bridge Rehabilitation. Work required to restore the structural integrity or correct safety
deficiencies.
21-1
3.
February 2015
Bridge Replacement. Total replacement of a bridge with a new facility constructed in the
same general traffic corridor. The replacement structure must meet the current
geometric, material and structural standards required for the types and volume of
projected traffic on the facility over the design life.
Common bridge preservation strategies include:
Protect decks with overlays

Paint steel surfaces
Repair spalled concrete
Replace or retrofit parapets
Close, rehabilitate or replace joints
Make abutments integral
Make bents integral
Replace or rehabilitate bearings
Correct drainage problems
Common bridge rehabilitation activities include:
21.1.3
Bent cap strengthening

Column shear or confinement strengthening
Foundation strengthening
Girder strengthening
Deck replacement
Literature
The design of new bridges is based primarily on the LRFD Specifications. No single national
publication exists that presents accepted practices and criteria for the rehabilitation of existing
bridges. However, the highway research community has devoted significant resources to
identify practical, cost effective methods to preserve and rehabilitate existing bridges.
Publications are readily available that have special interest when preserving and rehabilitating
an existing bridge from ACI, FHWA, the National Park Service (NPS), NCHRP, SHRP and
SHRP2 and other states. Publications cover a very broad range of topics, including fatigue in
steel bridges, concrete repair, hydrodemolition, repair of damaged bridges, seismic retrofit,
strengthening bridges and many other important treatments.
21.2
BRIDGE CONDITION ASSESSMENT
The proper assessment of the condition of bridge elements is the cornerstone of sound bridge
management. Successful bridge management requires accurate condition assessment and
application of the right treatment to the right bridge at the right time. Condition assessment can
be performed using numerous tools and techniques, but some are more effective than others,
depending on the condition of the bridge. Similarly, although many treatments are available, the
21-2
February 2015
effectiveness in extending bridge service life depends on the condition of the bridge at the time
of application.
Structural engineers rely heavily on visual inspection to conduct an accurate condition
assessment of bridges but, although visual inspection can provide valuable information for many
bridges, the presence of stay in place forms and/or deck surface treatments such as asphalt
overlays can greatly limit the ability to accurately determine condition. Furthermore, visual
inspection alone cannot be used to track changes in concrete bridge properties until damage is
manifest, at which time the concrete could no longer be a good candidate for the application of
cost effective preventive maintenance treatments.
The visual assessment of bridge condition is performed according to the AASHTO Manual for
Bridge Element Inspection and Chapter 3 of the BMM. Nondestructive evaluation is performed
when visual assessment cannot adequately describe the condition of the bridge.
21.2.1
Deck
Several research reports have been published on the topic of bridge deck condition assessment
in Utah. Refer to the following research reports:
Report No. UT-05.01 Concrete Bridge Deck Condition Assessment Guidelines

Report No. UT-05.05 Performance of Concrete Bridge Deck Surface Treatments
Report No. UT-06.01 Condition Analysis of Concrete Bridge Decks in Utah
Report No. UT-06.05 Development of an Index for Concrete Bridge Deck Management
in Utah
21.2.1.1
Visual Assessment
Visual inspection of the bridge deck is performed every two years as part of the bridge
inspection program. Inspections performed according to the AASHTO Manual for Bridge
Element Inspection quantify the square footage of deck in each condition state. Four condition
states exist, with increasing severity of defect from one to four. The general terms
corresponding with the four condition states are good, fair, poor and severe. The biennial
inspection report records inspection findings and notes, which are documented in the bridge
record.
Visual assessment of the bridge deck begins with a thorough review of the biennial inspection
reports and also includes the following:
Review all available information in the bridge record, including plans, calculations, load
rating reports, photos, correspondence and planning reports.
Determine if the deck has experienced previous patching or rehabilitation.
Determine the approximate percentage of previously patched deck area.
Determine the approximate area of deck that is potholing or delaminated.
Determine the expected percentage of deck that requires patching.
Determine the depth to the existing reinforcing.
21-3
February 2015
Assess the condition of the current overlay, if present.

Assess the condition of deck joints, railings and approach slabs.
Assess the smoothness of the riding surface, including the amount of approach slab
settlement.
Assess the safety of the railing system, including the transitions off the bridge.
Assess the functionality of the deck drainage system.
21.2.1.2
Nondestructive Assessment
When the severity and extent of bridge deck deterioration cannot be reasonably determined, a
nondestructive assessment could be necessary to supplement the visual assessment.
Formulate a preliminary plan of action by identifying the expected types of bridge distress to be
investigated, and then select the nondestructive condition assessment methods that are
appropriate for measuring the severity and mapping the extent of deck deterioration. The
structural engineer must understand the nondestructive condition assessment methods
proposed for the bridge deck. At a minimum, the preliminary plan of action proposes testing
that:
Determines the extent of deterioration with respect to plan dimensions and depth
Determines severity of deterioration by using reasonable thresholds
Describes limitations of the testing
Provides adequate redundancy of tests to explain the potential variance in results
Figure 21.1 presents common condition assessment methods for specific deck distress.
21.2.2
21.2.2.1
Superstructure
Visual Assessment
The superstructure consists of the bearings and all components and elements resting upon the
bearings. Superstructure elements commonly assessed for preservation and rehabilitation
include girders, stringers, floor beams, trusses, arches, bearings, gusset plates, pin and hanger
assemblies and structural steel protective coatings.
The bridge deck is part of the
superstructure, but is discussed separately in Section 21.2.1.
Visual inspection of the bridge superstructure is performed every two years as part of the bridge
Element Inspection typically quantify the lineal feet of girders in each condition state; bearings,
gusset plates and pin and hanger assemblies are quantified by each. Structural steel protective
coatings are quantified by the area of steel covered. Four condition states exist with increasing
severity of defect from one to four. The general terms corresponding to the four condition states
are good, fair, poor and severe. Inspection findings and notes are recorded in the biennial
inspection report and documented with the bridge record.
21-4
Distress Type
February 2015
Condition Assessment Method
Air pockets and honeycombing
Chain dragging, coring, ground penetrating radar, hammer

sounding, impact echo, ultrasonics, visual inspection
Alkali-silica reaction
Coring, petrographic analysis, visual inspection
Carbonation
Coring, penetration dyes, petrographic analysis
Chloride induced corrosion

Cracking
Delamination
Chloride concentration testing, coring, half cell potential,

rapid chloride permeability, resistivity
Impact echo, penetration dyes, ultrasonics, visual
inspection
Chain dragging, coring, ground penetrating radar, hammer
sounding, impact echo, infrared thermography, ultrasonics
Polishing
Skid resistance testing
Popouts
Visual inspection
Potholing
Visual inspection
Scaling
Visual inspection
Spalling
Visual inspection
Sulfate attack
Coring, petrographic analysis
Figure 21.1 CONDITION ASSESSMENT METHODS FOR SPECIFIC DECK DISTRESSES
Visual assessment of the bridge superstructure begins with a thorough review of the biennial
inspection reports and also includes the following:
rating reports, photos, correspondence and planning reports.
Determine if the superstructure has experienced previous strengthening or rehabilitation.
Identify fracture critical members.
Assess steel elements for fatigue details and expected service life.
Determine if cracks are present in steel elements.
Determine if any rivets or bolts are missing.
Assess the severity of drainage or leakage onto the superstructure.
Assess the condition of girder ends, especially under expansion joints.
Assess collision damage by vehicles, vessels or debris.
Assess visible reinforcing or prestressing strand for loss of load carrying capacity.
Assess the condition of the protective coating.
Assess the condition of gusset plates and pin and hanger assemblies.
Measure any deformed shapes and assess the potential for moment magnification.
Assess the condition and functionality of bearings, including:
Bearing alignment
Evidence of movement of the bearing pad
Evidence of slip between the bearing and girder
21-5
21.2.2.2
February 2015
Condition and alignment of guides

Percent of bearing contact area
Anchor bolt alignment and condition
General condition of all bearing components
Distress in pedestals and bearing seats due to improperly functioning bearings
The following are the most common test methods performed to locate cracks in steel
components and measure the extent and size of cracks:
Dye penetrant is a common, low cost method of detecting surface cracks.

Magnetic particle is a commonly used method that can detect subsurface cracks or
cracks under a weld.
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is the standard practice for inspecting pins on bridges.
Eddy current (EC) can detect near surface defects through paint.
Radiographic testing (RT) uses X-rays or gamma rays to produce an image of the
objects internal structure. RT works well for detecting cracks or section loss in
multilayered plates such as a gusset plate connection.
The following are the most common test methods performed to assess the condition of concrete
members:
Hammer sounding is a common, low cost method of detecting surface cracks or

delaminations.
Impact echo (IE), or ultrasonic pulse echo, uses impact generated stress waves to
assess subsurface flaws and material thickness.
Magnetic flux leakage can detect ruptures in prestressing strands.
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is used to assess subsurface flaws and to image
embedded reinforcing or tendons.
Infrared thermography evaluates heat flow to assess deterioration, flaws and moisture
intrusion.
21.2.3
21.2.3.1
Substructure
Visual Assessment
The substructure consists of all components and elements below the bearings. Substructure
elements commonly assessed for preservation and rehabilitation include bent caps, columns
and walls, abutments, wingwalls and sometimes footings. Bridge foundations, including piles
and drilled shafts, are rarely preserved or rehabilitated.
Visual inspection of the bridge substructure is performed every two years as part of the bridge
Element Inspection typically quantify the lineal feet of abutments, walls and bent caps in each
condition state; columns are quantified by each. Protective coatings are quantified by the area
21-6
February 2015
covered. Four condition states exist with increasing severity of defect from one to four. The
general terms corresponding to the four condition states are good, fair, poor and severe. The
biennial inspection report records inspection findings and notes, which are documented in the
bridge record.
Visual assessment of the bridge substructure begins with a thorough review of the biennial
inspection reports and also includes the following:
rating reports, photos, correspondence, scour plan of action and planning reports.
Determine if the substructure has experienced previous strengthening, scour mitigation
or rehabilitation.
Assess geometry changes such as settlement, rotation or tilt of retaining walls.
Assess the severity of drainage or leakage onto the substructure.
Assess collision damage by vehicles, vessels or debris.
Assess seismic vulnerabilities.
Assess vulnerability to scour, including the embankment and channel.
21.2.3.2
The following are the most common test methods performed on substructure elements to
determine length of unknown foundation depth or to evaluate the integrity of foundation
elements:
The sonic echo (SE) method is normally conducted together with the impulse response
(IR) method as the SE/IR method, which can be used on both new and existing
foundations. SE/IR is used for low strain integrity testing of piles and deep foundations
for length and integrity determination. The two analysis methods complement each
other to allow the most accurate foundation length and defect analysis possible.
The parallel seismic (PS) method is used for length determination of unknown
foundation depths.
Ultraseismic (US) investigations are performed to evaluate the integrity and to determine
the length of shallow and deep foundations.
The GPR method as applied to foundation testing is primarily used to map reinforcing in
foundation tops and to measure the depths of abutments, mats, spread footings and
other relatively shallow concrete foundations. The method also locates and maps
shallow buried foundations without excavation. The method determines both the depth
and location of reflectors within the foundation.
Another application of the GPR method to foundation testing is borehole GPR, where a
borehole type antenna is used to look outward from the borehole to examine the
surrounding material, including any nearby foundations. GPR measures foundation
depth and offset distance from a borehole.
The induction field (IF) method measures the depth of foundations that are steel (e.g.,
H-piles) or contain continuous reinforcing steel.
The pulse velocity of longitudinal stress waves in a concrete mass is used to indicate the
presence of voids and cracks and to evaluate the effectiveness of crack repairs. The
21-7
21.3
February 2015
method is also applicable to indicate changes in the properties of concrete and in the
survey of structures to estimate the severity of deterioration or cracking.
Time domain reflectometry (TDR) measures reflections along a conductor to
characterize and locate faults in strands or tendons.
Crosshole sonic logging (CSL) is a method to verify the structural integrity of drilled
shafts and other concrete piles. CSL normally requires steel or PVC access tubes
installed in the drilled shaft and tied to the rebar cage.
High-resolution scanning sonar can improve the quality of underwater inspections by
directing the divers to areas of interest on the bents and can identify the presence of
underwater bent elements, either not located or incorrectly located on existing plans and
drawings.
CULVERT CONDITION ASSESSMENT
A structure that is designed to convey water and provide a path under an obstruction. Most
culverts have a structural floor and are covered with embankment material. However, buried
three sided structures, arches, pipes, boxes, etc., are also culverts if the structures are designed
to convey water. If the structure is designed to convey water and has a structural floor, but is
not covered with embankment material, the structure is still a culvert. The Structures Division
assigns a structure number to all culverts requiring design plans; which typically applies to any
box culvert with a span or rise greater than 12 ft.
21.3.1
Visual Assessment
Visual inspection of the culvert is performed every two years as part of the bridge inspection
program, if the culvert span is 20 ft or longer. See Section 3.1.3.4 of the BMM. Inspections are
performed based on Chapter 3 of the BMM and according to the AASHTO Manual for Bridge
Element Inspection. Four condition states exist with increasing severity of defect from one to
four. The general terms corresponding to the four condition states are good, fair, poor and
severe. The biennial inspection report records inspection findings and notes, which are
documented in the bridge record.
Visual assessment of the culvert begins with a thorough review of the biennial inspection reports
and also includes the following:
21-8
Review all available information including plans, calculations, load rating reports, photos,
correspondence, scour plan of action and planning reports.
Determine if the culvert has experienced previous strengthening, scour mitigation or
rehabilitation.
Assess geometry changes such as settlement or alignment.
Assess the severity of piping or leakage.
Assess the severity of deterioration.
Assess collision damage by debris, etc.
21.3.2
February 2015
Assess seismic vulnerabilities.

Assess vulnerability to scour or erosion, including the embankment and channel.
Refer to Section 21.2.3.2 for typical nondestructive assessment tools.
21.4
DECK PRESERVATION
Chapter 16 provides an in-depth discussion on the design of bridge decks that are constructed
compositely in conjunction with concrete and steel girders for new bridges. Many of the Chapter
16 design and detailing practices also apply to deck rehabilitation.
21.4.1
Evaluation
Both technical and economic factors influence the decision to preserve, rehabilitate or replace a
bridge deck. Accurate condition assessment is vital to good decision making, but determining
the proper treatment requires consideration of additional information. The goal is to identify a
treatment recommendation that incorporates all relevant information.
At a minimum,
determination of deck treatments considers the following information:
The bridge deck condition assessment, including the results of any NDE
Current design criteria
An economics analysis that compares life cycle costs of each feasible treatment
The expected service life of each treatment
The long range plan for the roadway corridor
The general condition of other bridges within the same roadway corridor
The age of the deck, the age of the overlay and the number of times the deck has been
rehabilitated
The load carrying capacity of the bridge (i.e., the load rating)
The AADT on the bridge and the corresponding limitations of operations that are
expected for the project, including both the duration and the timing required to perform
the treatment
Expected impacts to the feature crossed
The operational and material characteristics of the adjoining roadway
The performance and/or compatibility of the treatment on other bridges of similar type
Constructability items such as phasing, access and staging areas
Figure 21.2 presents deck condition thresholds and corresponding treatment guidelines. The
figure does not present rigid limits or preferred solutions. Evaluate the proposed treatment
based on complete project criteria. Incorporation of the complete project criteria can change the
treatments suggested in the figure.
21-9
February 2015
Start
Is more than
50% of deck
damaged?
2 options:
Yes
Total deck replacement

Create bridge replacement/rehabilitation
strategy
No
Is more than
25% of deck
damaged?
3 options:
Yes
Do nothing and re-evaluate after next inspection

Partial deck replacement
Total deck replacement
No
4 options:
Is more than
10% of deck
damaged?

Place an asphalt overlay and waterproofing
membrane
Place a polyester polymer concrete overlay
Partial deck replacement
Yes
No
Is there any
deck surface
damage?
Yes
No
2 options:
Yes
Does the deck

have an asphalt
overlay?

Replace the asphalt overlay and waterproofing
membrane
No
3 options:

Apply a healer/sealer or HMWM
Yes
Is the
healer sealer application older than 5 years, is
the thin bonded polymer overlay older
than 15 years, or is the rigid
overlay older than
25 years?
No
Is the deck
protected with an
overlay?
No
Yes
No
1 option:
Does the deck

have an asphalt
overlay?
Yes
Is the asphalt
overlay older than
10 years?
Yes
No
3 options:

Replace the asphalt overlay and waterproofing
membrane
4 options:
Note: Deck pothole patching is included with overlays.

Apply a healer/sealer or HMWM
Place a thin bonded polymer overlay
Figure 21.2 DECK CONDITION THRESHOLDS AND CORRESPONDING TREATMENTS

21-10
21.4.2
21.4.2.1
February 2015
Treatments
Healer/Sealer or HMWM
Widespread minor cracking in a bare deck can be repaired by flooding the deck with a low
viscosity, low modulus, two component, epoxy based system commonly known as a concrete
healer/sealer. The concrete healer/sealer fills the cracks by gravity and capillary action. Dry
silica sand is broadcast over the epoxy to re-establish traction over the concrete deck. HMWM
is also a type of healer/sealer. Refer to Section 16.1.3 for additional information.
21.4.2.2
Structural Pothole Patching
When unsound concrete comprises less than 30% of the entire deck area, structural pothole
patching can effectively restore the deck to a serviceable condition. Consider the chloride
content in the concrete.
Unprotected reinforcing is actively corroding when chloride
concentrations reach 2 pounds per cubic yard and epoxy coated reinforcing is actively corroding
at 8 pounds per cubic yard. Avoid pothole patching when chloride levels are beyond the
thresholds at the level of the reinforcing (typically between 1 in. and 2 in. from the concrete
surface), because the concrete surrounding the patches continues to spall. Do not use asphalt
or any other product not specifically designed for bridge decks for structural pothole repair.
Refer to the WS sheets for details.
21.4.2.3
Overlay
Use a deck overlay to slow chloride intrusion into the deck. Refer to Section 16.1.4 for overlay
systems. Placing new overlays on existing overlays is typically not recommended. However, if
an existing thin bonded polymer overlay is well bonded to the concrete, another application of a
thin bonded polymer overlay can be placed over it. Refer to Section 2.7 for asphalt application
guidelines.
21.4.2.4
Joint Closure
Make the deck continuous, eliminate all expansion joints and make the bridge integral when
foundation conditions permit. However, the presence of battered piles at abutments generally
precludes making bridges integral. Refer to the WS sheets for details for closing expansion
joints.
Do not close expansion joints at abutments or in the deck on bridges with pin and hangers or in
span hinges without also replacing the pin and hanger and or hinge with full splices.
21.4.2.5
Joint Rehabilitation or Replacement
When the structure geometry and details do not permit elimination of the joint, rehabilitating or
replacing the system could be required. Joint rehabilitation refers to the repair of a portion of an
existing joint and not complete replacement. Joint rehabilitation includes repairing or replacing
21-11
February 2015
loose or broken restrainers on strip seal expansion joints, failed header materials adjacent to
joints or torn seals.
Where joint rehabilitation is not feasible, replace an existing damaged or malfunctioning joint.
Chapter 19 provides guidance on joint selection and design.
Refer to the WS sheets for joint rehabilitation and replacement details.
21.4.2.6
Partial Deck Replacement
Typical partial deck replacements include overhang replacements, replacement of deck

adjacent to joints and replacement of the top several inches of the deck (typically to 1 in. below
the top mat of reinforcing).
The removal of all concrete with chloride content sufficient to sustain corrosion is necessary to
ensure a permanent repair. For partial depth repairs, remove concrete to a depth of in. plus
the maximum size of the aggregate below the bottom of the top mat of reinforcing. Unless the
contaminated concrete is removed, differences in the surface conditions on the reinforcing can
cause the formation of anodic and cathodic areas and a resumption of the corrosion process.
21.4.2.7
Deck Replacement
To conduct a total deck replacement, use CIP concrete, precast concrete deck panels, a
combination of half depth precast panels and CIP concrete overlay, or alternative systems.
When replacing the deck on structures with substandard load ratings, evaluate the deck
thickness and/or lightweight concrete to determine if significant rating improvements can be
achieved. Structures with Inventory Ratings less than 1.0 based on the original design
methodology (LFD or LRFD) are candidates for strengthening. Structures with Operating
Ratings less than 1.0 are strong candidates for strengthening. Also, consider strengthening any
structure with posted load restrictions. Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to
determine if strengthening is a goal of the deck replacement project.
Use CIP decks when phasing the construction is possible and traffic impacts are minimal. Refer
to the SD drawings for requirements. Partial depth precast panels with CIP topping is a type of
CIP deck. Precast partial depth panels can decrease construction time and reduce user
impacts. Refer to the WS sheets for details.
Use precast concrete deck panels when excessive user impacts require a rapid deck
replacement. Refer to the SS sheets for typical panel details.
Alternative deck systems consist of orthotropic systems, open steel grid systems, partially filled
grid systems or other similar systems. Examine the use of alternative systems where extremely
light weight decks are required. Coordinate and obtain approval from the Structures Design
Manager when selecting an alternative deck system.
21-12
21.4.2.8
February 2015
Parapet Retrofit or Replacement
Section 16.6.1 presents UDOT practices for new bridge parapets. Replace existing bridge
parapets with parapets meeting the criteria in Section 16.6.1, unless directed otherwise by the
Structures Design Manager. Occasionally, the existing parapet is left in place for a variety of
reasons (e.g., dead load considerations, incompatibility with an existing bridge deck).
Examine the following when evaluating an existing bridge parapet:
Review the crash history and the maintenance and repair history of the bridge parapet
Inspect the existing bridge parapet to verify the integrity of critical design details, such
as:
Base plate connections
Anchor bolts
Welding details
Concrete cracking
Reinforcing development
Even in the absence of an adverse crash history, an inspection of the existing bridge
parapet can reveal inherent safety deficiencies in the parapet design, such as:
Potential for snagging
Inadequate height
Inadequate guardrail to bridge parapet transition
Only minor repairs (e.g., surface repairs) are permitted on parapets that do not meet current
standards. Minor changes/additions in barrier height such as replacing the pipe railing with an
equivalent height concrete section dowelled into the existing barrier is also considered a minor
repair. Where significant repair is required, replace the parapet with the standard single slope
parapet. Bridges classified as historic require coordination the Utah State Historic Preservation
Officer to determine if the parapet must be replaced with the same or a similar parapet.
21.4.2.9
Drainage System Retrofit
The most common drainage system problems are:
Deterioration of or around drainage facilities

An inadequate number of facilities
Clogging of facilities
Water draining onto other structural components or the roadway below
Replace or repair drainage structures as required to provide adequate drainage and correct
existing drainage problems.
Permanently seal abandoned deck drains such that no ponding occurs. Remove abandoned
piping.
21-13
21.5
February 2015
SUPERSTRUCTURE PRESERVATION
21.5.1
Evaluation
Chapter 14 provides a detailed discussion on the design of concrete superstructures. Chapter

15 provides a detailed discussion on the design of steel superstructures for new bridges. Many
of the Chapters 14 and 15 design and detailing practices also apply to the preservation or
rehabilitation of an existing superstructure.
21.5.2
Treatments
21.5.2.1
Concrete Repair or Rehabilitation
A clean, sound surface is required for any repair operation; therefore, remove all physically
unsound concrete, including all delaminations.
Attempt to identify and remediate the mechanism causing the concrete to crack. Epoxy
injection is used to fill cracks in beams or girders from 1/64 in. to in. Because the resin is
injected under pressure, the resin can usually fill the entire crack. Do not use epoxy injection for
a moving crack.
Repair cracks larger than in. and any localized damage according to the delamination repair
procedure defined in the UDOT Standard Specifications.
21.5.2.2
Strengthening
Strengthening superstructures is required when the structure demonstrates evidence of

overloading or damage caused by inadequate strength or when required by the Structures
Design Manager. Structures with Inventory Ratings less than 1.0 based on the original design
methodology (LFD or LRFD) are candidates for strengthening, and structures with Operating
Ratings less than 1.0 are strong candidates for strengthening. Consider strengthening on any
structure with posted load restrictions. Also, consider strengthening structures compromised by
other events such as collision impacts, damage from illegal loading, flooding, seismic or other
extreme events.
21.5.2.2.1
Stay in Place Forms or Wraps
Use external reinforcing in the form of steel jackets, fiber wraps or prefabricated fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP) shapes to increase capacity. Numerous methods are available to place or form
the systems. The typical construction sequence for steel jackets or prefabricated FRP shapes
removes deteriorated concrete, places the stay in place form or jacket and grouts the gap.
Alternatively, wet layup systems remove loose and deteriorated concrete, reconstruct the
surface, then place and cure the FRP system. Refer to NCHRP Project 12-75 Development of
FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Girders in Shear and ACI 440.2R-08 Guide for
21-14
February 2015
Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete
Structures in developing a design method for the process.
The system can improve both the shear and bending capacity, but is usually used to increase
the shear capacity and provide confinement in plastic hinge zones.
21.5.2.2.2
Post-Tensioning
Beam Strengthening
External post-tensioning can be applied to both steel and concrete beams to reduce tensile
stresses, to strengthen beams, or to make simply supported beams continuous. Add posttensioned tendons to restore the strength of prestressed concrete girders where the original
strands or tendons have been damaged. Strengthening by post-tensioning can also be applied
to nonprestressed concrete girders. A variety of successful methods of post-tensioning exist in
the literature.
Collision Repair
Collision of overheight vehicles or equipment with a bridge constructed with prestressed
concrete girders can result in damage to or severing of the girder tendons. Exposure to water
and salt can also cause damage, especially where the concrete cover is damaged or cracked.
Because the steel tendons determine the load carrying capacity of the girder, any damage must
be repaired.
At a minimum, the following steps apply:
Conduct an investigation on the extent of damage.

Perform a structural evaluation to determine the extent of repair.
Evaluate the existing diaphragms to ensure the adequacy to support the end anchorage
of the tendons.
Determine the placement of the temporary load to be applied to the bridge before
removal and placement of concrete in prestressed concrete girders, if any, to ensure the
proper distribution of loads in the final condition.
Design the post-tensioning system according to the manufacturers recommendations. Wedge

type anchorages are susceptible to high seating losses for short length tendons. Preferably,
use high strength prestressing tendons in the application. The LRFD Specifications require the
establishment of resistance at ultimate limit states at which the interaction between the parent
and the post-tensioning systems must be investigated.
Because the anchorages are always close to the beam ends, post-tensioning anchorages are
vulnerable to salt laden water seeping through imperfectly sealed deck joints. Protect the
tendons by corrosion resistant ducts, either grease filled or grouted.
21-15
21.5.2.2.3
February 2015
Compensate for Section Loss
Field welding or bolting additional plates to a steel girder can compensate for the loss of section.
Fabricators often use welding for shop fabrication of steel members and for welding pieces in
preparation for rehabilitation work. Field welding is often difficult to perform properly. Field
welding requires individuals with the appropriate documented qualifications. The proper
inspection of field welds is equally difficult. Avoid field welding and, if used, obtain approval
from the Structures Design Manager. Bolting additional plates over a corroded section, which
has been cleaned and painted to prevent further section loss, is a more reliable long term
solution.
21.5.2.2.4
Add Cover Plates
If the deck is deteriorated and removed, adding cover plates to strengthen a beam becomes a
viable alternative. The LRFD Specifications place fully welded cover plates into fatigue category
E at the ends of the cover plates, which is the lowest fatigue designation and, therefore, welded
cover plates can be counterproductive from the design perspective. If bolts designed according
to LRFD Article 6.10.12.2.3 are used at the end of the cover plates, apply fatigue category B.
Because the design requires the presence of drilling equipment and work platforms, consider a
fully bolted cover plate construction.
21.5.2.2.5
Introduce Composite Action
Many older steel structures use noncomposite decks. Introducing composite action between
the deck and the supporting beams is a cost effective method to increase the strength of the
superstructure. The LRFD Specifications require the use of composite action where current
technology permits. Welded studs or high strength bolts can achieve composite action. Design
shear connectors in accordance with LRFD Article 6.10.10.
Composite action considerably improves the strength of the upper flange in positive moment
areas, but the beneficial effect on the beam as a whole is only marginal. The combination of
composite action in conjunction with selective cover plating of the lower flange is the most
effective method of beam strengthening.
Introducing composite action near joints prevents the deck from separating from the beams,
thus increasing the service life of the deck. Provide the treatment on each bridge that has the
deck removed for other reasons.
21.5.2.2.6
Add New Girders
If the deck is removed, a new set of girders added to the existing bridge is one alternative to
strengthen the superstructure. To ensure proper distribution of live load, stiffness of the new
girders must be between 80% and 120% of the stiffness of the adjacent girders.
The old girders could also need rehabilitation, in which case, removing the girders could be
more feasible from a structural and economic perspective.
21-16
21.5.2.3
February 2015
Bearing Rehabilitation
Often, the existing bearings only require cleaning or repositioning. Extensive deterioration, or
frozen bearings, can indicate that the design requires modification. Evaluate a variety of
elastomeric devices for sliding and roller bearing assemblies. If the reason for deterioration is a
leak in the expansion joint seal, consider closing the joint or repair or replace the seal.
If the bearing is seriously dislocated, the anchor bolts are badly bent or broken, or the concrete
seat or pedestal is structurally cracked, the bridge could have a system wide problem usually
caused by temperature or settlement that warrants investigation.
When conditions permit, make the bridge integral and eliminate future bearing maintenance.
See Chapter 19 for more information on bearings.
21.5.2.4
Continuous for Live Load Retrofit
Eliminate joints between simple spans and make the diaphragm integral to reduce the future
potential for deterioration due to leaking joints and improve the structure load rating. Providing
continuity for live load often requires extensive deck work. The end of the girder could also
require strengthening to accommodate the loads due to continuity.
21.5.2.5
Link Slab Retrofit
Use link slabs to eliminate joints between simple spans where integral diaphragms are not
feasible. A link slab is constructed by removing the joint and several feet of deck on each side
of the joint, and replacing the joint with a concrete slab that is not bonded to the girder. The
treatment can eliminate the leaking joint and minimize repair costs and impacts. Refer to the
SD drawings and WS sheets for additional information.
21.5.2.6
Fatigue Crack Retrofit
Fatigue damage entails the formation of cracks in base metal or welds. If not repaired in a
timely manner, fatigue cracks can lead to brittle fractures. The type of repair and timing depend
on many factors including:
Reason for the cracking (e.g., poor detailing, heavier than anticipated truck traffic, poor
notch toughness, load induced or distortion induced fatigue, constraint)
Location of the crack (e.g., cross frame, stiffener, weld, heat affected zone, main
member)
Depth, length and geometry of the crack
Redundancy
The following sections present retrofit options.
21-17
21.5.2.6.1
February 2015
Hammer Peening
Peening is an inelastic reshaping of the steel at the surface location of cracks, or of potential
cracks, by using a mechanical hammer. The procedure smooths and shapes the transition
between weld and parent metal, and introduces compressive residual stresses that inhibit the
cracking. Peening is most commonly used at the ends of cover plates to reduce fatigue
potential. However, the success of hammer peening is highly dependent upon the skill of the
operator.
21.5.2.6.2
Ultrasonic Impact Treatment
Ultrasonic peening is a computer controlled peening process using high speed peening. The
process removes the dependency of the quality of mechanical hammer peening on the
operators proficiency. The process promises weld toe enhancement for unavoidable poor
fatigue resistance details, such as terminations of longitudinal stiffeners, and involves the
deformation of the weld toe by mechanical hammering at a frequency of approximately 200 Hz
superimposed by ultrasonic treatment at a frequency of 27 kHz. The treatment introduces
beneficial compressive residual stresses at the weld toe by plastic deformation of the surface
and reduces stress concentration by smoothing the weld toe profile.
For more information, see Fatigue Resistance of Welded Details Enhanced by Ultrasonic
Impact Treatment (UIT) by Sougata Roy, John W. Fisher, Ben T. Yen in the International
Journal of Fatigue, Volume 25, Issues 9-11, September-December 2003, pp. 1239-1247.
21.5.2.6.3
Grinding
If the penetration of surface cracks is small, the cracked material can be removed by selective
grinding without substantial loss in structural material. Grinding is preferably performed parallel
to the principal tensile stresses, and surface striations are carefully removed because the
striations can initiate future cracking.
The most common application of grinding is to the toe of the fillet weld at the end of cover plates
to meet fatigue requirements. Grinding can also be used when girders are nicked while
removing old decks.
21.5.2.6.4
Drilled Holes
At the sharp tip of a crack, the tensile stress exceeds the ultimate strength of the metal, causing
rapid progression if the crack size attains a critical level. Drilled holes blunt the sharp crack tip.
The location of the tip is therefore established by a crack detection method in Section 21.2.2.2.
Missing the tip renders the process useless.
Check sections to ensure that the reduced member capacity due to the crack and the drilled
hole is still adequate which, however, is typically not a critical concern. The mitigation of the
stress concentration at the tip is much more critical than the loss of net section. As such, the
hole must be as large as tolerable in terms of net section. Drill bits of 13/16-in. and 1-1/16-in.
21-18
February 2015
diameter are common due to the use for fabricating bolt holes. Hole saws can be used for even
larger radii.
If holes overlap, grind the sides of the slots smooth to remove any projecting surfaces, which
creates one oblong hole.
21.5.2.6.5
Bolted Splices
Where rivets or bolts in a connection are replaced, or where a new connection is made as part
of the rehabilitation effort, the strength of the connection must meet current requirements in the
LRFD Specifications. Almost exclusively, the connections are made with high strength bolts
(ASTM A325).
Bolted splices can also be used to span a cracked flange or web, if the connection is designed
to replace the tension part of the element or component.
21.5.2.6.6
Tungsten Arc Remelt
Tungsten arc remelting uses a gas shielded tungsten electrode moved at a constant speed
along the weld toe, just melting the metal without addition of new filler metal. The GTA
remelting process can remove slag intrusions and reduce the stress concentration at the weld
toe. GTA remelting can also repair cracks up to approximately 3/16 in. deep. GTA remelting
requires great operator skill and adequate penetration, both of which may be difficult to attain for
a field retrofit.
21.5.2.7
Cleaning and Repainting or Overcoating Structural Steel
Cleaning and repainting or overcoating structural steel painting is frequently considered in

conjunction with rehabilitation work on steel structures. Consider painting for bridges
experiencing corrosion with section loss and for highly visible bridges with rust Grade 4 or more
(SSPC Vis 2) where 10% of the surface area is rusted. The 10% level of corrosion is
aesthetically unacceptable and often progresses to steel section loss. Consider the following
options:
Full removal of existing paint and repainting

A complete recoat over the top of the existing paint (overcoat)
Zone (spot repair) painting
Virtually all paint applied to bridges before 1988 contains lead and other heavy metals. To
remove existing paint, the current state of practice is abrasive blast removal, full enclosure and
with environmental and worker monitoring.
The paint industry has developed products that can be successfully applied over existing paints.
An overcoat can be an economical alternative to full removal and repainting where a uniform
appearance is desired at the conclusion of the project; however, the removal of the lead based
paint is deferred until a subsequent rehabilitation or structure replacement. Zone painting
21-19
February 2015
neither provides a uniform appearance nor removes the lead based paint. Zone painting can be
appropriate in localized areas where corrosion could cause section loss.
Overcoating lead based paint having extensive rust spots but less than 1% of surface rusted
(rust Grade 6) is generally not cost effective. The existing top coat is usually aluminum based
and too stiff and brittle to overcoat. Blast cleaning must remove rust spots to bare metal and
remove the aluminum top coat. Full containment is required. Overcoating retains the existing
lead based paint and removal is merely deferred. Typically, postpone painting until the bridge
has reached rust Grade 4 (10% of surface rusted) when complete lead based paint removal and
repainting is appropriate.
Overcoating existing zinc based paint for rust Grade 6 extends the service life of the existing
coating. The option is only appropriate on bridges that are highly visible to the public where
aesthetics is as important as improved protection.
21.5.2.8
Heat Straightening
Restrict the use of heat straightening to hot rolled steels. Steels deriving strength from cold
drawing or rolling tend to weaken when heated. The basic idea of heat straightening is that the
steel, when heated to an appropriate temperature, loses some elasticity and deforms plastically,
which rids the steel of built up stresses.
Heat straightening is as much an art as science. Exercise special care not to overheat the
steel; accordingly, experience is required to implement the process. Also, the heating
temporarily reduces the resistance of the structure. Apply measures such as vehicular
restriction, temporary support, temporary post-tensioning, etc., as appropriate. For additional
guidance on heat straightening, see Guide for Heat-Straightening of Damaged Steel Bridge
Members, FHWA, 2008, and Heat-Straightening Repair of Damaged Steel Bridge Girders:
Fatigue and Fracture Performance, NCHRP, 2008.
21.5.2.9
Pin/Hanger/Hinge Rehabilitation or Replacement
Structural engineers originally used pin and hanger details or in span hinges to facilitate the
analysis of bridges by providing pins in otherwise continuous bridges. The use today is not
necessary due to modern computer based structural analysis. Pin/hanger/hinge details are
particularly susceptible to corrosion. Corrosion can result in the initiation of fatigue cracking in
the hangers due to frozen pins and the unseating of the hangers on the pins due to
misalignment from the corrosion product.
Typical solutions to address deteriorating pin and hanger details include:
1.
21-20
Unlock Frozen Pins and Hangers. The pin and hanger detail can be disassembled after
providing alternative support to the suspended girder. Then, the various components of
the detail can be cleaned of rust and dirt or replaced before reassembly.
February 2015
2.
Provide a Catch Girder. As a safeguard against failure, especially for fracture critical
girders, an alternative permanent support system can be fabricated to catch the
suspended girder ends if the pin and hanger detail fails.
3.
Eliminate the Pin and Hanger Detail. If the girder sections allow, a bolted splice of the
web and flanges can be fabricated to replace the pin and hanger. A structural analysis
of the resulting continuous structure must verify that the resulting loads do not exceed
the resistance of the existing girder section.
21.6
SUBSTRUCTURE PRESERVATION
21.6.1
Evaluation
Chapter 18 provides a detailed discussion on the structural design of substructures for new
bridges, and Chapter 17 applies to foundations. Many of the Chapter 17 and Chapter 18 design
and detailing practices also apply to the rehabilitation of the substructures of an existing bridge.
21.6.2
Treatments
21.6.2.1
Repair concrete bent caps, columns, pedestals, wingwalls and abutments using traditional
procedures outlined in the UDOT Standard Specifications. Refer to Section 21.5.2.1 for
Use shotcrete for extensive surface repairs where forming is difficult or expensive. Remove
loose or spalling concrete down to or just below the existing reinforcing. Replace corroded
reinforcing when required to restore capacity. Place welded wire fabric or replacement stirrups
to replace deteriorated or missing stirrups. Place shotcrete and shape the surface to match the
original surface or as required to restore capacity. Shotcrete can be plain or fiber reinforced.
Develop a special provision, define the limits of removal and define required reinforcing
replacement when specifying repairs using shotcrete.
21.6.2.2
21.6.2.2.1
Abutment or Wall Stabilization

Deadman Anchor
The lateral force exerted by retained earth tends to push forward and rotate abutments and
retaining walls. One solution for this problem is the installation of a deadman anchor.
A deadman is a heavy solid mass, usually concrete blocks that are connected to the retaining
structure by long steel rods. A deadman is located in a stable earth mass well behind the
structure. For wingwalls, or walls located on both sides of the roadway, the anchorage can
21-21
February 2015
simply be connected together by steel tension rods. Protect the rods against corrosion and
evaluate the effects of differential settlement.
Because the stabilization technique modifies the wall support from a cantilever to simple span
pinned, check the wall reinforcing for the revised moments. The lateral earth pressure diagram
can also be changed if more than one level of tension rods and anchors are installed.
21.6.2.2.2
Wingwalls
The wingwalls can break off and separate from the abutment due to earth pressure and
differential settlement. If the opening is stable, the do nothing option is often preferable. If not
stable, the wall must be stabilized or replaced. Stabilize existing walls with soil nail anchors,
supplemental footings or supplemental connections to the abutment.
21.6.2.3
Integral Abutment Retrofit
Correct rotating abutments, deteriorating backwalls, damaged pedestals, out of alignment

bearings and seismically vulnerable bearings by making the abutments integral. Evaluate the
existing foundation system to ensure that the existing foundation is not damaged due to
temperature movements and to ensure that superstructure elements are not overloaded by
foundation restraint loads.
21.6.2.4
Semi-Integral Abutment Retrofit
Use a semi-integral abutment retrofit when foundation conditions do not permit an integral
abutment retrofit. Use a semi-integral abutment retrofit to correct rotating abutments and
deteriorating backwalls. The retrofit replaces or repairs damaged pedestals, out of alignment
bearings and seismically vulnerable bearings.
21.6.2.5
Strengthening
Strengthening substructures is required when the structure shows evidence of overloading or

damage caused by inadequate strength or when the strength of the structure has been
compromised by other events such as collision impacts, damage from illegal loading, flooding,
seismic or other extreme events.
Evaluate the existing structure strength when significant rehabilitation work is being performed
and the existing structure shows evidence of significant corrosion. Strengthening activities are
cost effective. Significant substructure rehabilitation includes activities that exceed removing
and replacing loose concrete in localized areas, such as column wraps used for durability or
when the entire cover concrete is planned to be removed and replaced.
21-22
21.6.2.5.1
February 2015
Post-Tensioning
Bent caps can be strengthened by external post-tensioning. Evaluate the existing concrete in
the cap. Include tensioning strand or rods externally on the cap to add compression to the cap.
Use brackets, distribution plates and other components to transfer the post-tensioning forces to
the cap. If aesthetics are a concern, widen the cap with ducts placed internally for the posttensioning.
Post-tensioning is usually symmetrical to the cap so that an eccentric force is not introduced.
Examine the stressing sequence to ensure that the cap is not overloaded eccentrically during
post-tensioning operations.
21.6.2.5.2
Pile Repair or Replacement
When corrosion has reduced the section of an exposed steel pile such that it becomes a
structural concern, the missing cross section can be rebuilt by adding plates to the flanges
and/or web as appropriate by either welding or bolting. Also, consider concrete cast in a stay in
place fiberglass form. If the pile has deteriorated such that there is insufficient sound remaining
material for the section to be rebuilt, use a new pile; removing the damaged pile is optional.
21.6.2.5.3
Bent Shoring Repair
Use shoring placed adjacent to or under a failing bent or abutment to restore support. Typically,
use shoring as a short term repair until a permanent solution is developed.
21.6.2.5.4
Concrete Bridge Seat Repair or Extension
Concrete bridge seats can fail due to deterioration of concrete, corrosion of the reinforcing,
friction from the girder or bearing devices sliding directly on the seat or the improper design of
the seat, which results in shear failure. Anchoring an extension to the existing cap restores
adequate bearing for girders that have deteriorated or sheared at the bearing. Do not expose
the extension to any load during curing. Also, repair any damage to the end of the girder.
21.6.2.5.5
Micropile Underpinning
Micropiles, also known as minipiles and pin piles, are small diameter reinforced piles that are
drilled and grouted to support structures. The piles can reach service loads up to 300 tons, can
be installed to depths of approximately 200 ft and usually use some type of steel bar, or bars
and/or steel casing pipe. The bars are grouted into the ground and/or the casing pipe is filled
with grout. Although a conventional pile is generally quite large and requires heavy equipment
and large staging areas for installation, micropiles can be used where conventional piling is not
convenient or possible, such as for underpinning or retrofitting existing bridges or structures.
Micropiles have proven effective in many ground improvement applications by increasing the
bearing capacity and reducing settlement, especially when strengthening the existing
foundations.
21-23
21.6.2.6
February 2015
Scour Mitigation
Scour is the erosion of streambed or bank material due to flowing water. Based on an
assessment of potential scour provided by the hydraulics engineer, the structural engineer can
incorporate design features that prevent or minimize scour. Typical measures to minimize scour
include armoring the banks, bents and abutments. FHWA HEC-23 Bridge Scour and Stream
Instability Countermeasures provides design guidance for scour mitigation. Figure 21.3 lists
potential scour countermeasures from HEC-23.
Scour Countermeasures Described in HEC-23
Articulating concrete block systems at bents
Grout filled mattresses at bents
Gabion mattresses at bents
Rock riprap at bents
Partially grouted riprap at bents
Grout/cement filled bags (primarily abutments)
Rock riprap at abutments
Guide banks (abutments/embankments)
Figure 21.3 HYDRAULIC SCOUR COUNTERMEASURES
Several scour mitigation methods are discussed below. The hydraulics engineer is responsible
for determining appropriate countermeasures. The structural engineer is responsible for
assuring that the countermeasures are incorporated into the project plan set. Scour
countermeasure details can be on structures plan sheets, roadway plan sheets or hydraulics
plan sheets. Coordinate with the roadway designer and hydraulics engineer to determine an
appropriate countermeasure and to determine how the information is best incorporated into the
plan set.
21.6.2.6.1
Design Countermeasures
Based on an assessment of potential scour provided by the hydraulics engineer, the structural
engineer can incorporate design features that prevent or minimize scour damage at bents.
Circular piers or elongated piers with circular noses and an alignment parallel to the flood flow
direction help minimize scour. Provide protection against general streambed degradation by
drop structures or grade control structures in, or downstream of, the bridge opening.
Designing for roadway overtopping can provide relief from pressure flow scour at the bridge.
Streams with wide floodplains are often good candidates for incorporating roadway overtopping
adjustments into the design because flow is less likely to be diverted into another drainage
conveyance.
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21.6.2.6.2
February 2015
Guide Banks
For large drainage areas with adverse channel skew angles or encroachments, or both, that
empty into wide floodplains, guide banks are recommended to align the approach flow with the
bridge opening and to prevent scour around the abutments.
21.6.2.6.3
Riprap
Where stone of sufficient size is available, rock riprap is often used to armor abutment fill slopes
and the area around the base of existing bents.
21.6.2.6.4
Monitoring
For existing scour critical bridges, monitoring and closing a bridge during high flows and
subsequent inspections after the flood can be an effective countermeasure. If monitoring is
selected as the countermeasure, the POA lists the appropriate actions to be taken when the
target flood elevations are reached.
21.7
CULVERT PRESERVATION
21.7.1
Evaluation
Section 22.1 discusses the structural design of new culverts. Many of the Section 22.1 design
and detailing practices also apply to the rehabilitation of an existing culvert.
21.7.2
21.7.2.1
Treatments
Repair concrete culverts using the requirements in the UDOT Standard Specifications. Refer to
Section 21.5.2.1 for additional information.
Use shotcrete for extensive surface repairs where forming is difficult or expensive. Remove
loose or spalling concrete down to or just below the existing reinforcing. Replace corroded
reinforcing when required to restore capacity. Place welded wire fabric or replacement stirrups
to replace deteriorated or missing stirrups. Place shotcrete and shape the surface to match the
original surface or as required to restore capacity. Shotcrete can be plain or fiber reinforced.
Develop a special provision, define the limits of removal and define required reinforcing
replacement when specifying repairs using shotcrete.
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21.7.2.2
February 2015
Strengthening
Strengthening culverts is required when the structure shows evidence of overloading or damage
caused by inadequate strength or when the strength of the structure has been compromised by
other events such as collision impacts, damage from illegal loading, flooding, seismic or other
extreme events.
Evaluate the existing structure strength when significant rehabilitation work is being performed
and the existing structure shows evidence of significant corrosion or overloading. Significant
culvert rehabilitation includes activities that exceed removing and replacing loose concrete in
localized areas or when the entire cover concrete is planned to be removed and replaced.
Evaluate the cost of replacing the culvert versus the cost of repairs when planning significant
repair work. Typically, strengthening activities are cost effective.
21.7.2.3
Scour Mitigation
Refer to Section 21.6.2.6 for a discussion on scour mitigation.
21.8
21.8.1
SEISMIC RETROFIT
Evaluation
Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager and Project Manager to determine the
appropriate seismic design criteria. Seismic design criteria for rehabilitations vary based on
anticipated future life span, available funding and importance of the structure. Refer to Chapter
13 for seismic design and modeling information.
Bridge failures induced by seismic displacements are typically attributed to the lack of adequate
connections between segments of a bridge, lack of support length or inadequate confinement
reinforcing. Other deficiencies include inadequately reinforced footings, rocker bearings and
nonductile connections.
Tying the segments of an existing bridge together is an effective means of preventing unseating.
Bridges with single column bents are particularly vulnerable where segments are not connected.
Column failures are typically caused by inadequate confinement, shear and anchorage
reinforcing. Confinement and shear deficiencies occur where too few and/or improperly detailed
ties and spirals are present. Short lapped splices in longitudinal column reinforcing also result
in anchorage failures. The failure modes are especially critical in single column bents.
Determining the preferred retrofit involves the following considerations:
21-26
Anticipated failure mode

Influence on other parts of the bridge under seismic and normal loadings
February 2015
Interference with traffic

Fabrication and installation cost
Some retrofits are designed to correct bridge inadequacies related to seismic resistance. The
procedures can be categorized by the function the retrofit serves, including:
Restraining uplift
Restraining longitudinal motion
Restraining hinges
Widening bearing seats
Isolating/modifying seismic forces between the superstructures and substructures
(seismic isolation bearings)
Strengthening columns and footings
Restraining transverse motion
21.8.2
21.8.2.1
Seismic Retrofits
Column Jacketing
Jacketing consists of adding confinement to columns by covering with a grout filled steel shell,
fiberglass wrap or carbon fiber wrap. The steel jacket consists of structural steel welded over
the column and grouted. The fiberglass and carbon fiber wraps are glued to the column in
multiple layers. The wraps are proprietary products. Noncircular columns can be retrofitted by
jacketing, but the increased rigidity must be evaluated. A circular steel casing can be placed
around the noncircular column and grouted.
Locate jacketing only at the points of potential column hinge formations. However, if more than
half the total height of the column requires a jacket, typically extend the jacket to full height for
improved aesthetics. Jacketing increases column rigidity, amplifying global seismic forces and
attracting more load to the column. Evaluate the increased rigidity.
Refer to ACI 440.2R-08 Guide for Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems
for Strengthening Concrete Structures for additional information on fiber wraps.
21.8.2.2
Seat Width Extension
Seat width extensions allow larger relative displacements to occur between the superstructure
and substructure before support is lost and the span collapses. Consider the seat width
extension strategy at bents when the bent has inadequate strength to resist the forces from
restrainer cables connecting the superstructure to the bent. The extensions are likely to be
exposed to large impact forces due to the dropping span. Refer to the FHWA Seismic
Retrofitting Manual for Highway Structures: Part I Bridges for design guidance. Follow the
provisions in the LRFD Specifications relative to the design of seat widths.
Use a combination of post-tensioning rods and coated dowels for bent cap widenings. Posttensioning rods are generally impractical at abutments because excavating behind the backwall
21-27
February 2015
is necessary, which disrupts traffic. Seat width dimensions are frequently controlled by the
development length of the coated dowels.
21.8.2.3
Structural Continuity
Some older bridges were constructed with multiple simple spans, which lack longitudinal
continuity. The older bridges frequently have minimal support lengths under the ends of the
girders and limited restraining devices (e.g., anchor bolts). Historically, limited support lengths,
inadequate restraining devices and lack of superstructure continuity contribute to spans
collapsing during earthquakes. Typically, retrofitting a superstructure to make the structure
continuous for full dead and live loads is not feasible, unless the deck is being replaced;
however, steel plate girder bridges can sometimes have web continuity plates added over the
bents. Refer to the FHWA Seismic Retrofitting Manual for Highway Structures: Part I Bridges
for design guidance.
21.8.2.4
Restrainers and Ties
In general, restrainers are add on structural devices that do not participate in resisting forces
other than seismic force effects. Typically, the components are made of steel; design the
components to remain elastic during seismic action, and protect the components against
corrosion.
Three types of restrainers exist longitudinal, transverse and vertical. The two former types
prevent unseating the superstructure. The third type precludes secondary dynamic (impact)
forces that can result from the vertical separation of the superstructure. Design the restraint
devices to be compatible with the geometry, strength and detailing of the existing structure.
Ties are restrainers that connect only components of the superstructure together. The ties are
activated only by seismic excitation.
Shear keys or blocks allow in service movements of the bridge, without applying significant
loads to the substructure. During an earthquake, the shear keys transmit the seismic force to
the substructure.
21.8.2.5
Bearing Replacement
Bearings not adequately designed for seismic movements and damaged or malfunctioning
bearings can fail during an earthquake. In addition, steel rocker and roller bearings can perform
poorly in seismic events. One option is to replace the bearings with steel reinforced elastomeric
bearings. To maintain the existing girder elevation, either insert a steel assembly between the
girder and the elastomeric bearing, or seat the elastomeric bearing on a new concrete pedestal.
Existing anchor bolts can assist in resisting shear between the pedestal and the bent.
21-28
21.8.2.6
February 2015
Seismic Isolation Bearings
Replacing exiting bearings with isolation bearings can be a cost effective alternative to
substructure strengthening or reduce the extent of substructure strengthening required.
Although isolation bearings can significantly reduce the seismic load demands, the bearings can
still transmit a significant load (15% to 30%) of dead load to the substructure. The substructure
could require additional strengthening to accommodate forces transmitted through the isolation
bearing.
Refer to the WS sheets for isolation bearing sheet requirements and to Section 19.2.2.4 for
design information.
21.8.2.7
Modifying Seismic Response
Use the following techniques to modify the seismic response of a bridge:

1.
Reduce Flexural Reinforcing. Concrete columns are often over reinforced. Over
reinforcing means that the flexural steel is not expected to yield during the design event,
resulting in both higher compressive and shear forces on the concrete. In addition, more
load is transferred to footings. If other design criteria permit, some of the flexural steel
can be cut to reduce the plastic moment and associated shear demand.
2.
Increase Flexural Reinforcing. Increase the flexural reinforcing to attract more load
and/or to decrease displacements. Locate the vertical reinforcing in a concrete jacket
that is shear connected to the column by means of drilled and grouted dowels.
Additional reinforcing increases the rigidity of the column, increases the demand on the
column and increases the demand on the foundation system. Verify that the foundation
system accommodates the increased demands.
3.
Infill Shear Wall. A concrete shear wall can be added between the individual columns of
a bent. Connect the wall to the columns with drilled and bonded dowels. The method
substantially changes the seismic response characteristics of the structure, requiring a
complete reanalysis. The more rigid infill wall can attract more load.
21.9
BRIDGE WIDENING
21.9.1
Evaluation
Bridge widening presents a multitude of challenges during the planning and design stages,
during construction and throughout the bridge service life. Consider construction and future
maintenance when planning the overall design and detailing of the widening.
The following briefly summarizes the basic objectives in bridge widening:
Match the structural components of the existing structure, including splice locations.
Match the existing bearing types in terms of fixity.
21-29
February 2015
Do not perpetuate fatigue prone details.

Evaluate the need to replace the bearings and joints in the existing structure.
Evaluate the load carrying capacity of the existing structure.
Evaluate the seismic resistance of the existing and widened structure. Incorporate
retrofit measures if appropriate.
Use the same structure frame on the widened portion as on the existing bridge.
Match the flexibility/stiffness of the existing and new superstructures.
Match the top and bottom of concrete deck elevations at the interface between the new
deck and the existing deck.
Match the top deck overlay elevations at the interface between the new deck overlay
and the existing deck overlay.
21.9.2
Design
Modifying the existing structure solely because the structure was designed to AASHTO
specifications before the adoption of the LRFD Specifications is not necessary.
When preparing plans to modify existing structures, determine the live load and design criteria
used in the original design. With few exceptions, structures on the state highway system have
been designed for loads and stresses specified by AASHTO. Coordinate with the Structures
Design Manager to determine the appropriate design criteria and goals when the existing
structure does not meet current loading requirements. Structures with Inventory Ratings less
than 1.0 based on the original design methodology (LFD or LRFD) are candidates for
strengthening. Structures with Operating Ratings less than 1.0 are strong candidates for
strengthening. Also, consider strengthening any structure with posted load restrictions.
Consider the historical perspective of the design criteria, such as live loads, allowable stresses,
etc., when analyzing a rehabilitated structure. For accurate and complete information on
specific structures, see the as built plans, special provisions and appropriate editions of the
AASHTO specifications.
Design all widened portions to current AASHTO requirements or according to requirements
defined by the Structures Design Manager.
Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to determine the appropriate seismic design
criteria.
21.9.3
21.9.3.1
Details of Existing Structures

Load Carrying Capacity
Existing structures were often designed for either live loads or seismic loads less than those
currently used for new bridges. Consult the data available in the bridge record for information
on the condition of the existing structure. Determine the legal load rating for the existing bridge
to quantify the capacity of the existing bridge (see Chapter 4 of the BMM). Based on the
information, determine whether the existing structure should be strengthened to increase load
carrying capacity. For the evaluation, consider the following:
21-30
February 2015
Cost of strengthening existing structure

Physical condition, operating characteristics and remaining service life of the structure
Seismic resistance of structure
Other site specific conditions
System conditions (is the bridge the only structure on the route with load restrictions?)
Width of widening
Traffic accommodation during construction
Document the results in the Structure TSR.
21.9.3.2
Materials
For material properties of older structures, check the as built bridge plans, if available, or plans
of comparable bridges of the day. Also, reference the bridge record for historical properties of
materials.
Sometimes, the grade of reinforcing steel is indicated as intermediate grade, which means
Grade 40.
Up to approximately 1960, ASTM A7 was the primary structural steel used in bridge
construction. The yield and tensile strengths of A7 can be taken as 33 ksi and 66 ksi,
respectively.
Use the concrete strengths listed on the plans. Where concrete strength controls the design
and an increase in concrete design strength can significantly improve the structure rating,
coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to determine if concrete cores should be taken
and tested to support the use of a higher concrete strength in the calculations.
21.9.3.3
Substructures/Foundations
Investigate foundation capacities of existing structures if additional loads are imposed by the
widening. Newly constructed footings under a widened portion of a structure can settle. The
new substructure can be tied to the existing substructure to reduce the potential for differential
foundation settlements, provided that the treatment does not adversely affect the existing
substructure. If the new substructure is not tied to the existing substructure, make suitable
provisions to prevent possible damage where such movements are anticipated. Coordinate with
the Geotechnical Design Division to assess the compatibility of new and existing foundations
and the potential for differential settlement.
21.9.4
21.9.4.1
Details of Widened Structures

Girder Type Selection
In selecting the girder type for a structure widening, use a construction type and material type
consistent with the existing structure. Proportion the widening to ensure that the structural
21-31
February 2015
response is similar to the existing bridge. Provide design live load deflections that are between
80% and 120% of the adjacent girders design live load deflections.
21.9.4.2
Deck Closure Pour
Consider the use of a closure pour to complete the attachment to the existing structure. Refer
to Section 16.2.12 for additional information on closure pours. When closure pours are not
used, consider the effects of the existing bridge on the deck pour screed deflections.
21-32
STRUCTURES DESI
GN AND DETAI
LI
NG MANUAL
MI
SCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES
FEBRUARY 2015
February 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
22.1
CULVERTS AND DRAINAGE STRUCTURES ........................................................... 22-1

22.1.1
22.1.2
Design Considerations .................................................................................. 22-1

Design Requirements for Culverts and Drainage Structures......................... 22-1
22.1.2.1
22.1.2.2
22.1.3
22.2
Design Specifications .................................................................. 22-2

Loads and Loadings .................................................................... 22-2
Precast Three-Sided Culvert Structures ........................................................ 22-2
OVERHEAD SIGN STRUCTURES ............................................................................. 22-2

22.2.1
Design Requirements for Overhead Signs .................................................... 22-3

22.2.1.1
22.2.1.2
22.2.1.3
22.2.1.4
22.2.1.5
22.2.1.6
22.2.1.7
22.2.1.8
22.2.1.9
22.2.1.10
22.2.1.11
22.2.2
Design Requirements for VMS Signs ............................................................ 22-7

22.2.2.1
22.2.2.2
22.2.2.3
22.2.2.4
22.2.2.5
22.2.2.6
22.2.3
Guidelines .................................................................................... 22-3

Design Process ............................................................................ 22-4
Materials ...................................................................................... 22-5
Minimum Clearances and Geometry ........................................... 22-5
Foundations ................................................................................. 22-6
Overhead Sign Structure Type Selection and Layout .................. 22-6
Miscellaneous .............................................................................. 22-7
Luminaire Support Tubes ............................................................ 22-7
Sign Panel Bracing ...................................................................... 22-7

Materials ...................................................................................... 22-8
Minimum Clearances and Geometry ........................................... 22-8
Foundations ................................................................................. 22-8
VMS Requirements ...................................................................... 22-8
Overhead Sign Structures and VMS Working Standards .............................. 22-9
22.3
TRAFFIC SIGNALS, LIGHTING AND CAMERA SUPPORTS ................................... 22-10
22.4
RETAINING WALLS .................................................................................................... 22-10

22.4.1
22.4.2
Design Considerations .................................................................................. 22-11

Design Requirements for Retaining Walls ..................................................... 22-11
22.4.2.1
22.4.2.2

22-i
22.4.3
22.4.4
22.4.5
22.4.6
Approved Retaining Wall Types .................................................................... 22-12

CIP Concrete Retaining Walls ....................................................................... 22-12
Precast Concrete Retaining Walls ................................................................. 22-13
MSE Retaining Walls ..................................................................................... 22-13
22.4.6.1
22.4.6.2
22.4.6.3
22.4.7
22.4.8
22.4.9
22.4.10
22.4.11
22.4.12
22.4.13
22.4.14
22.4.15
February 2015
Piles Within MSE Walls................................................................ 22-13

Moment Slab for Barrier Rails ...................................................... 22-13
Copings ........................................................................................ 22-14
Prefabricated Modular Retaining Walls ......................................................... 22-14

Tieback Walls ................................................................................................ 22-14
Soil Nail Walls................................................................................................ 22-14
Wire Enclosed Riprap (Gabion) Walls ........................................................... 22-15
Permanent Wire Face Walls .......................................................................... 22-15
Soldier Pile and Lagging Walls ...................................................................... 22-15
Concrete Crib Walls....................................................................................... 22-15
Temporary Retaining Walls ........................................................................... 22-16
Responsibilities.............................................................................................. 22-16
22.4.15.1
22.4.15.2
22.4.15.3
22.4.15.4
Shop Drawings ............................................................................ 22-16

Geotechnical Design Division ...................................................... 22-16
Wall Supplier ................................................................................ 22-16
Structural Engineer ...................................................................... 22-17
22.5
SOUND WALLS .......................................................................................................... 22-17
22.6
PEDESTRIAN/BICYCLE BRIDGES ............................................................................ 22-17

22.6.1
22.6.2
Safety/Americans with Disabilities Act........................................................... 22-17

Design Requirements .................................................................................... 22-18
22.6.2.1
22.6.2.2
22.6.2.3
22.6.2.4
22.6.2.5
22.6.2.6
Geometrics .................................................................................. 22-18

Structure Type ............................................................................. 22-18
Seismic ........................................................................................ 22-18
Fatigue ......................................................................................... 22-19
Prefabricated Steel Truss Bridges ............................................... 22-19
Pedestrian Bridge Decks ............................................................. 22-19
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 22.1 WORKING STANDARDS FOR OVERHEAD SIGN STRUCTURES ............. 22-10
22-ii
February 2015
Chapter 22
MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES
The transportation system includes a wide variety of structure types other than highway bridges.
Chapter 22 presents the applicable practices and criteria for the structural design of
miscellaneous structures. This chapter supplements a variety of AASHTO publications that
apply to the miscellaneous structure types.
22.1
CULVERTS AND DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
Culverts are buried structures that transport water or traffic (pedestrian, wildlife or vehicle) under
roadways, railways or embankments. Drainage structures include any structure required to
control, direct, process or retain drainage.
22.1.1
Design Considerations
The Hydraulics Division determines the size of culverts based on the required design flood. The
roadway designer is responsible for sizing pedestrian culverts. Verify that the sizes provided
are reasonable for the location. Information on sizing pedestrian facilities is available in the
AASHTO Guide for the Planning, Design, and Operations of Pedestrian Facilities.
Drainage structures are sized and located by hydraulics engineers and roadway designers.
Coordinate with drainage and roadway designers when preparing structure plan sheets. Verify
locations of drainage structures with the roadway and drainage plans.
22.1.2
Design Requirements for Culverts and Drainage Structures
Use the WS sheets for typical culvert and drainage structure designs and details. Do not use
the WS sheets, and provide a site specific design if any of the following conditions exist:
The geometry or loadings exceed the values in the working standards.

Other structures impose loads on the culvert or drainage structure.
The sequence of backfilling the sides of the reinforced concrete box does not allow
equal loading.
A special inlet, outlet, confluence or another special hydraulic structure is required.
No WS sheet exists that addresses the project requirements.
Use the WS sheets as a guide for developing designs not covered by the WS sheets. Culverts
with traffic directly on the top slab require an approach slab. Refer to the WS sheets for
22-1
22.1.2.1
February 2015
Design Specifications
Use the LRFD Specifications for the design of culverts and drainage structures. The LRFD
Specifications do not require seismic design unless a fault transverses the structure.
Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to determine the seismic design requirements
when all of the following are true:
The structure crosses a fault.

The structure span is greater than 30 ft.
The structure is used as a pedestrian or vehicle undercrossing.
NCHRP 12-70, Final Report, Volume II, presents recommended specifications, commentaries
and example problems for the design of buried structures.
The UDOT Standard Specifications define design requirements for precast concrete box and
three-sided culvert structures.
Refer to Chapter 4 of the BMM for load rating requirements.
22.1.2.2
Loads and Loadings
Use loads and loadings defined in the LRFD Specifications except as modified below:
22.1.3
Do not design for fatigue according to LRFD Articles 5.5.3.1 and C12.5.3.
Do not design for Extreme Event I except as specified above.
Use a 10-in. future wearing surface and a unit weight = 0.160 kcf.
Use an exposure factor (e) of 1.00.
Precast Three-Sided Culvert Structures
The Structures Design Manager and the Hydraulics Engineer must approve the use of precast
three-sided culvert structures when the culvert conveys water.
Precast concrete arch culverts are a type of three-sided culvert. The manufacturer designs
precast concrete arch culverts based on the size and geometry specified in the structure
drawings and the project specifications.
22.2
OVERHEAD SIGN STRUCTURES
An overhead sign is a sign over any portion of the roadway (including shoulders) requiring
vertical clearance for vehicles to pass underneath. Overhead signs provide the traveling public
with clear messages under a variety of conditions directly over the roadway. Overhead sign
structures support overhead signs. VMS signs are a specific type of overhead sign and have
specific design requirements. See the following sections for specific requirements. Use the WS
22-2
February 2015
sheets and SD drawings to prepare overhead sign structure plan sheets. Use the procedures in
this section to design all overhead sign structures.
The WS sheets detail seven types of overhead sign structures:
Cantilever
Butterfly
Span type (single and double mast)
Dual cantilever
Span type VMS
Cantilever VMS
Roadside VMS
The SD drawings illustrate the types of overhead sign structures. The Traffic and Safety
Engineer determines the size and location of signs and if an overhead sign is required. The
Traffic Management Division determines the required size and location of VMS. All overhead
sign structures are tubular steel structures.
22.2.1
Design Requirements for Overhead Signs
Design sign structures for overhead signs based on the following requirements. The design
requirements apply to the standard designs and to project specific designs not covered by WS
sheets. Section 22.2.2 presents specific requirements for VMS signs. Section 10.4.5 presents
vertical clearance requirements.
22.2.1.1
Guidelines
Use the following guidelines:
Do not locate signs on bridge structures without prior approval from the Structures
Design Manager. See Section 2.2.3.
Avoid placing an overhead sign structure on a bridge. See Section 2.2.3. Overhead
sign structures attached to bridges require specially designed post supports and
connections. In addition, bridge vibrations affect the overhead structure. If there is no
alternative to an overhead structure on a bridge, use a span type sign structure
supported on the bent cap or abutments. Do not use cantilever sign structures
supported on bridges.
Use cantilever sign structures to support signs over the shoulder and/or the travel lane
nearest the post. Cantilever sign structures are generally less costly to construct and
inspect than span type sign structures. Consider two smaller cantilever sign structures
in lieu of one span type sign structure.
Use a span type sign structure when the span of a cantilever sign structure exceeds
42-6 or 40% of the roadway cross section or when the span to height ratio exceeds
1.5.
22-3
February 2015
Use single mast span type sign structures to support sign panels with a maximum sign
panel height of 17-6, including any auxiliary sign panel tabs. When the sign panel
height exceeds 17-6, use a double mast span type sign structure.
In most cases, use a span type sign structure to support Type 1 VMS due to the
eccentricity of the VMS dead load and the magnitude of fatigue forces. On some
projects, the Traffic Management Division can approve the use of a Type 2 VMS
centered over the shoulder or outside travel lane and supported by a cantilever sign
structure as a low cost alternative.
Refer to Chapter 2 for the sign panel replacement policy.
Use the UDOT Standard Drawings for sign structure foundations encased in a 42-in.
single slope median barrier. Other median installations could require protection as a
fixed object.
22.2.1.2
Design Process
The following outlines the general design procedures when designing an overhead sign
structure or VMS sign structure. The outline applies designs addressed by the WS sheets and
project specific designs not covered by WS sheets:
22-4
Determine the size, type and location (with respect to the roadway) of sign panels or
VMS assemblies supported by the sign structure. Ensure that the Traffic and Safety
Division has approved the sign panel configuration before beginning final design.
Verify that the sign structure is behind a roadside barrier or outside the clear zone.
Verify that the location matches the roadway plan sheet location.
Determine the appropriate sign structure type.
Determine the span length and sign panel height based upon the required horizontal and
vertical clearances.
Determine if a single or double mast sign structure is needed on span type structures.
Determine post heights. Measure the post height from the bottom of base plate to the
centerline of the horizontal mast arm (the lowest mast arm for a double mast sign
structure).
Determine if a working standard applies:
When a working standard applies, select design data from the data tables for the
applicable sign structure type. The data includes pipe diameter, pipe wall
thickness, splice plate connection data, base plate requirements, foundation
data, etc. Refer to Section 22.2.3 for additional information on the WS sheets.
When the working standards do not apply, design the structure according to the
requirements listed in this chapter. Detail the structure using the working
standards as a model, updating design data, general notes, etc.
Complete the overhead sign structure plan sheets using the WS sheets and SD
drawings or calculated design data. Include roadway typical sections and geometric
calculations as part of the final structure acceptance package.
22.2.1.3
February 2015
Use the current version of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for
Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals, as modified in Section 22.2, for the design of
overhead sign structures. Sign structures covered by the WS sheets use the AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic
Signals, 6th Edition, 2013 and do not require rechecking unless directed otherwise by the
22.2.1.4
Loads and Loadings
Determine loads on overhead sign structures as specified in the current version of the AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic
Signals, as modified below:
Dead load
Steel: 490 pcf
Sign panels, including attachments: 15 psf
Concrete in foundation design: 150 pcf
Soil in foundation design: 120 pcf

Fatigue design
Use Fatigue Category I
22.2.1.5
Materials
Use material requirements defined on the WS sheets for overhead sign structures.
22.2.1.6
Minimum Clearances and Geometry
Provide the required minimum vertical clearance defined in Section 10.4.5 across the
width of the entire roadway section, plus the clear zone or barrier deflection distance,
beneath the sign structure. The vertical clearance envelope extends from the highest
elevation of the roadway beneath the sign structure to the bottom of the sign panel(s)
and all points on the sign structure including sign attachments, lighting, pipe elbow
radius and, if applicable, future anticipated sign panels and attachments.
Protect sign structure foundations with a barrier or locate the foundation outside of the
roadway clear zone. If protected with a roadside barrier, provide the required deflection
distance (see below):
Provide a minimum clear distance of 1-0 between the back of the barrier and
the sign structure foundation when a pinned barrier protects the sign structure
foundation.
the sign structure foundation when an unpinned concrete barrier protects the sign
structure foundation.
22-5
February 2015
the sign structure foundation when guardrail protects the sign structure
foundation.
Use the applicable SD drawings when a sign structure foundation is encased in a
median barrier. Alternatively, locate the sign structure post at least 1-0 behind the
traffic face of a rigid barrier measured at the top of barrier, or provide at least 6 in. of
concrete cover from barrier face to anchor bolts, whichever is greater.
Accommodate planned future roadway widening so that the sign structure does not
require replacement, when feasible.
22.2.1.7
Foundations
Use drilled shaft foundations for all overhead sign structures. For drilled shaft designs not
covered by the SD drawings, at a minimum use the following parameters:
Analyze drilled shaft foundations for lateral resistance and overturning using the p-y
analysis method and using a computer program such as LPILE or equivalent.
Use in. for the maximum allowable lateral deflection at the top of the drilled shaft.
Design the foundation using the site specific design parameters when available. In the
absence of site specific geotechnical recommendations, design the drilled shaft
foundation based on the following soil parameters:
Soil type: soft clay
Moist unit weight: 110 pcf
Water table depth: 3-0
Undrained shear strength, c:

+
500 psf (3.5 psi) at depths of 0 ft to 20 ft
+
1000 psf (7.0 psi) at depths greater than 20 ft
Modulus, k:
+
30 lb/in3 at depths of 0 ft to 20 ft
+
100 lb/in3 at depths greater than 20 ft
Strain, E50:
+
0.02 at depths of 0 ft to 20 ft
+
0.01 at depths greater than 20 ft
22.2.1.8
Overhead Sign Structure Type Selection and Layout
Determine the size, type and location of sign panels supported by the sign structure. Center the
sign panels on the mast length regardless of the total length of the mast or actual sign location
when performing design checks on the mast. Evaluate whether future sign panel size increases
are likely. If changes are expected, design the sign structure to accommodate the larger of
either the current or future sign area and indicate on the plan sheets the future sign
configuration used to design the support. Determine the total sign area supported by the sign
structure by summing all sign panel areas. Design span type sign structures supporting traffic
signs for at least 50% of the mast arm length covered by signs.
22-6
February 2015
Based on the sign location and sign area, determine the sign structure type needed.
22.2.1.9
Miscellaneous
Design all overhead sign structures to support lighting, allowing for an illuminated structure in
the future if lights are not initially installed. Overhead sign layout sheets specify whether the
sign structure is illuminated.
Comply with the deflection and camber requirements in AASHTO.
22.2.1.10
Luminaire Support Tubes
The luminaire support tubes in the working standards are applicable for the conditions listed
below. Prepare a project specific design if any of the following conditions are exceeded:
54-lb maximum luminaire weight

6-0 maximum horizontal offset from sign panel face to the end of the luminaire support
1-11 maximum vertical offset from the top of the luminaire support to the centerline of
bolts for the top mounting clamp
Fatigue loading from truck induced gusts consistent with AASHTO
Wind and ice loadings consistent with AASHTO
All luminaire support tubes are HSS 1 1
22.2.1.11
Sign Panel Bracing
Secure and brace sign panels to mast arms using the details shown in the working standards.
Sign panel bracing as detailed in the working standards is limited to a maximum total sign height
of 17-6 for single mast sign structures (8-9 maximum dimension from mast arm centerline to
sign panel edge) and a maximum total sign height of 24-0 for double mast sign structures
(6-0 maximum dimension from mast arm centerline to sign panel edge). The dimensions
specified include the auxiliary panel tab height.
All vertical supports are HSS 3 3 5/16 with a maximum spacing of 60 in. for single mast
sign panels and a maximum spacing of 72 in. for double mast sign panels.
22.2.2
Design Requirements for VMS Signs
Design sign structures for VMS signs based on the following requirements.
22.2.2.1
Use the current AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,
Luminaires, and Traffic Signals, as modified herein for the design of VMS sign structures.
22-7
22.2.2.2
February 2015
Loads and Loadings
Determine loads on VMS sign structures as specified in the current AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals, as
modified below and in Section 22.2.1.4:
Wind load (frontal area):
Type 1: Maximum frontal area of 194 sq ft (24-9 7-10)
Type 2: Maximum frontal area of 39 sq ft (11-8 3-4)

VMS assemblies:
Type 1 VMS: 3450 lb maximum (including access platform)
Type 2 VMS: 580 lb maximum
22.2.2.3
Materials
Use material requirements defined on the WS sheets for overhead sign structures.
22.2.2.4
Minimum Clearances and Geometry
Use the overhead sign structure requirements except as modified below.

Provide the minimum vertical clearance defined in Section 10.4.5 across the width of the entire
roadway section beneath the sign structure. The vertical clearance envelope extends from the
highest elevation of the roadway beneath the sign structure to the bottom of the sign panel(s)
and all points on the sign structure including sign attachments, lighting, catwalks, pipe elbow
radius and, if applicable, future anticipated sign panels and attachments. The larger clearance
reduces the effects of truck induced gusts experienced by maintenance workers.
22.2.2.5
Foundations
Use drilled shaft foundations for VMS sign structures. For drilled shaft designs not covered by
the SD drawings, use the parameters listed for overhead sign structures.
22.2.2.6
VMS Requirements
The Traffic Management Division selects the VMS assembly type based on the number of
approach lanes and the posted speed. Obtain documentation of the configuration and VMS
type approval from the Traffic Management Division before pursuing final design.
Additional layout requirements in the preparation of VMS structure plans are:
22-8
Center span type and cantilever VMS over the traffic lanes.
Locate the catwalk access over the shoulder to minimize the impact to traffic, requiring
shoulder closures only. Accommodate access via a scissor lift vehicle.
22.2.3
February 2015
Consider aesthetics by ensuring that the VMS and frame span centers are as consistent
as possible without sacrificing functionality or safety.
Overhead Sign Structures and VMS Working Standards
Use the WS sheets and SD drawings for overhead sign structures and VMS sign structures to
minimize design effort, expedite plan preparation and promote consistency in design. Use the
WS sheets on all projects where the sign geometry fits within the limitations of the SD drawings.
Sign structures that do not fit within the limitations require a design conforming to the design
requirements in Section 22.2.1 (overhead) or Section 22.2.2 (VMS).
The PE stamping the plans based on the working standards certifies that the submitted plan
sheets meet the requirements defined on the WS sheets and SD drawings. The EOR also
certifies that the geometry shown on all sign structure plan sheets is correct. UDOT certifies the
working standards in the SDDM and accepts the associated liability. If a new design is required,
the EOR assumes liability for both the design and the plan sheets.
Determine the sign type and select the design values from the tables on the corresponding SD
drawings. Add the design values to the working standards. Do not design or select sign
structures by extrapolating beyond the limits of the tables. Provide a project specific design in
accordance with Section 22.2.1 (overhead) or Section 22.2.2 (VMS) when the actual sign
structure geometry or sign sizes exceed the design limits given for each sign structure type in
the working standards.
The working standards are suitable for inclusion in the plan set without modification to the
structural design. Use the working standards when possible. Determine whether a working
standard is applicable to the sign structure required for the project and prepare and seal the
drawings.
Provide one plan set for all overhead sign structures of the same structure type on a project.
Select the appropriate working standard based upon the structure type used. Remove details
that are not applicable. Use the working standards for the appropriate structure type in Figure
22.1.
22-9
Title
February 2015
Working Standard Sheet No.

Dual
Span Type
VMS
Cantilever
Cantilever
VMS
Roadside
VMS
WS-201
WS-201
WS-201
WS-202E
WS-202F
WS-202G
WS-202H
WS-203
WS-203
WS-203
WS-203
WS-203
WS-204
WS-204
WS-204
WS-204
WS-204
WS-204
WS-205
WS-205
WS-205
WS-205
WS-205
WS-205
WS-205
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
WS-206A
WS-206A
WS-206A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
WS-207A
WS-207A
WS-207A
Sign panel
details
WS-206B
WS-206B
WS-206B
or
WS-206C
WS-206B
N/A
N/A
N/A
Luminaire
details
WS-207B
WS-207B
WS-207B
WS-207B
N/A
N/A
N/A
Cantilever
Butterfly
Location plan
and notes
WS-201
WS-201
WS-201
WS-201
Sign structure
elevation
WS-202A
WS-202B
WS-202C
or
WS-202D
Foundation
details
WS-203
WS-203
Steel details
WS-204
Tube
connection
details
VMS and
catwalk
connection
details
VMS catwalk
details
Figure 22.1 WORKING STANDARDS FOR OVERHEAD SIGN STRUCTURES
22.3
TRAFFIC SIGNALS, LIGHTING AND CAMERA SUPPORTS
The UDOT Standard Drawings provide standard designs for traffic signals, lighting and camera
supports.
If a traffic signal, highway lighting or camera support size or loading is beyond the limits of the
UDOT Standard Drawings, design the structure to meet the current edition of the AASHTO
Standards Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic
Signals. Obtain specific design requirements from the Traffic and Safety Division and notify the
Structures Design Manager to coordinate structural reviews.
The Structures Design Division does not assign structure numbers to these structure types.
22.4
RETAINING WALLS
Numerous styles of retaining walls are permitted. Refer to Section 22.4.3 for approved retaining
wall systems.
22-10
22.4.1
February 2015
Design Considerations
Retaining walls not linked to a bridge are normally sized and located by roadway designers.
Retaining walls around bridges are sized and located by structural engineers and roadway
designers working together. Coordinate with the roadway designer when preparing wall plan
sheets. Verify locations of walls with the roadway plans.
22.4.2
Design Requirements for Retaining Walls
Use the standard retaining walls defined in the WS sheets for CIP retaining walls. Use the
coping details defined in the WS sheets for MSE or soil nail wall copings. The coping details
can also be adapted by the EOR to other styles of retaining walls. Do not use the WS sheets
and provide a site specific design if any of the following conditions exist:
The geometry or loadings exceed the values in the working standards.

Other structures impose loads on the walls.
Special details are required.
No WS sheet exists that addresses the projects requirements.
Use the WS sheets as a guide for developing designs not covered by the WS sheets.
Where access is open to the public, provide a pedestrian railing or fencing at the top of the wall.
Meet the wall to abutment spacing requirements defined in the UDOT Standard Drawings.
Place concrete slope protection between the wall and the abutment or extend the wall concrete
coping to the abutment.
Address slope maintenance above and below the wall in the retaining wall layout. Consider
surface and subsurface drainage in the wall design. Provide a system to intercept or prevent
surface water from entering behind walls.
22.4.2.1
Use the current LRFD Specifications for the design of retaining walls.
22.4.2.2
Loads and Loadings
Use loads and loadings defined in the LRFD Specifications except as modified below:
Neglect passive pressure in front of walls when evaluating sliding resistance using
service or strength design load cases.
Use of passive pressure in front of walls is permitted for extreme event load cases.
Use an exposure factor (e) of 1.00.
Use the GLE method to determine seismic forces.
22-11
February 2015
Reduction in design acceleration coefficients based on anticipated wall movement is

permitted. Anticipated wall displacements over 2 in. require approval from the
Refer to the following sections for requirements for specific wall types.
22.4.3
Approved Retaining Wall Types
Use the following wall types when project requirements and/or specifications permit:
CIP concrete retaining walls

Precast concrete retaining walls
Specification approved MSE wall systems
Specification approved prefabricated modular gravity wall systems
Tieback walls
Soil nail walls
Use the following wall types only when approved by the Structures Design Manager:
Wire enclosed riprap (gabions) of limited height

UDOT approved permanent wire face wall systems
Soldier pile and lagging
Concrete crib wall
Do not use metal bin walls.
22.4.4
CIP Concrete Retaining Walls
CIP concrete retaining walls that exceed the limits defined in the WS sheets require a site
specific design. Account for differential settlement in the construction joint spacing. Account for
global stability as described in the UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction.
CIP concrete cantilever walls are best suited for sites characterized by good bearing material
and minimal long term settlement. Use pile supported walls if necessary. Piles increase the
cost. CIP concrete cantilever walls are often cost effective for short wall lengths.
CIP concrete retaining walls do not require special construction equipment, wall components or
specialty contractors. Walls over 30 ft in height are rare and typically use a counterfort to
control bending moments in the wall. The footing width for the wall is normally to the wall
height.
CIP concrete cantilever walls in cut slope locations is possible. For the application, the slope
behind the face of the wall requires excavation to provide clearance for the construction of the
wall footing. Assume excavation slopes flatter than 1.5H:1V when estimating construction room
requirements. If the excavation required is excessive, shored excavation with sheet pile, soil
nails or other methods is permitted.
22-12
22.4.5
February 2015
Precast Concrete Retaining Walls
Precast concrete retaining walls require a site specific design. Provide 2 ft of granular backfill
underneath the footing, in front of the toe and behind the heel.
22.4.6
MSE Retaining Walls
Refer to the UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction for specification approved MSE retaining
wall systems and for design requirements.
MSE walls use reinforced layers of earth fill. The reinforcing is typically nonextensible (metallic)
reinforcing. The facing for the walls is concrete panels, modular blocks, geotextile fabrics or
exposed welded wire. The heights of MSE walls can extend to over 100 ft. Advantages of MSE
walls include:
Tolerate larger settlements than a CIP concrete cantilever wall

Fast construction
Low cost
22.4.6.1
Piles Within MSE Walls
Place the piles before the construction of the wall. As the wall is constructed, the subsoils
beneath the wall and the MSE wall can compress. The piles, however, are rigid. The
compression of the soil induces a load into the piles due to friction. Depending on site
materials, the downdrag forces can be substantial.
The wall supplier must modify the soil reinforcement when piles are located within the wall. The
soil reinforcement must remain linear. Also, do not attach or permit attachment of the soil
reinforcement to the piles. A skew of up to 15 from a line perpendicular to the wall face is
permitted when the wall supplier accounts for the skew in the design.
22.4.6.2
Moment Slab for Barrier Rails
The top of MSE walls are not sufficiently strong to resist traffic impacts. Transfer traffic impacts
from the barrier rail into a moment slab when providing the minimum barrier deflection distance
is not possible. A moment slab is a reinforced concrete slab that is part of or located just below
the roadway pavement. The concrete slab is sufficiently massive to prevent vehicle impact
forces from being transferred into the MSE wall.
Use the WS sheet design unless project specific requirements preclude the use of the WS
sheet.
Size the concrete slab to resist sliding and overturning forces due to vehicle impacts as defined
in Appendix I, NCHRP Report 663 Design of Roadside Barrier Systems Placed on MSE
Retaining Walls.
22-13
February 2015
Design of the MSE reinforcement and panels must also meet the requirements in Appendix I,
NCHRP Report 663 Design of Roadside Barrier Systems Placed on MSE Retaining Walls.
Design the reinforcing in the moment slab at the face of the barrier to exceed the capacity of the
base of the barrier. The minimum length of a moment slab section is 30 ft.
22.4.6.3
Copings
Use CIP copings at the top of MSE walls. Use the WS sheet design unless project specific
requirements preclude the use of the WS sheet.
22.4.7
Prefabricated Modular Retaining Walls
Refer to the UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction for UDOT approved prefabricated
modular retaining wall systems and for design requirements.
22.4.8
Tieback Walls
Ground anchored tieback walls typically consist of tensioned ground anchors connected to a
concrete wall facing. Ground anchors consist of a high strength steel bar or prestressing strand
that is grouted into an inclined borehole and then tensioned to provide a reaction force at the
wall face. The anchors are typically located at 8-ft to 10-ft horizontal and vertical spacing,
depending on the required anchor capacity. Each anchor is proof tested to confirm the capacity.
Specialized equipment is required to install and test the anchors, resulting in a higher cost
relative to conventional walls. An important consideration for tieback walls is the subsurface
easement requirements for the anchoring system. The upper row of anchors can extend a
distance equal to the wall height plus up to 40 ft behind the face of the wall.
Coordinate with the geotechnical engineer to determine loads.
22.4.9
Soil Nail Walls
A soil nail wall involves drilling and grouting soil nails at 4-ft to 6-ft spacing vertically and
horizontally. The length of the soil nail typically ranges from 0.7 to 1.0 times the wall height.
The soil nails are large diameter steel bars or strands. Soil nail walls use top down
construction. The typical construction methodology includes:
22-14
Provide a vertical cut of approximately 4 ft

Drill, insert and grout soil nails
Expose shotcrete cut surface
Repeat operation until total height of wall is complete
For permanent applications, cast a reinforced concrete wall over the entire surface
February 2015
Soil nail walls can be difficult to construct in certain soil and groundwater conditions. For
example, where seeps occur within the wall profile or in relatively clean sands and gravels, the
soil sometimes does not stand at an exposed height for a sufficient time to install nails and
apply shotcrete.
Refer to the UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction for design requirements, and coordinate
with the geotechnical engineer to determine loads.
Refer to the SS sheets for sample soil nail wall sheets and details.
22.4.10 Wire Enclosed Riprap (Gabion) Walls

Use only when approved by the Structures Design Manager. Use is discouraged and generally
limited to ditches, stream banks or other waterways. Limit heights to 15 ft unless approved by
the Geotechnical Design Division.
22.4.11 Permanent Wire Face Walls

Use only when approved by the Structures Design Manager and when the walls comply with the
project aesthetics plan. Refer to the UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction for design
requirements.
22.4.12 Soldier Pile and Lagging Walls

project aesthetics plan. Refer to the UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction for design
requirements, and coordinate with the geotechnical engineer to determine loads.
Soldier pile walls involve installing H-piles every 8 ft to 10 ft and spanning the space between
the H-piles with lagging. The H-piles are driven in place or installed by grouting the H-pile into a
drilled hole. Installing the H-pile by drilling avoids vibrations and provides better geometry
control. The depth of a soldier pile is similar to a sheet pile wall; i.e., approximately two times
the exposed height. Lagging can be either timber or concrete panels.
Permanent soldier pile walls typically include a concrete facing in front of the soldier piles and
lagging after the wall is at full height.
22.4.13 Concrete Crib Walls

project aesthetics plan. Do not use within 50 ft of bridges. Provide a concrete coping at the top
of the wall. Refer to the UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction for design requirements,
and coordinate with the geotechnical engineer to determine loads.
22-15
February 2015
22.4.14 Temporary Retaining Walls

A temporary wall is a wall that is only required during the construction period and the
construction period is less than five years. Design all temporary retaining walls to meet the
requirements in the current edition of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications.
The contractor designs temporary retaining walls. The Geotechnical Design Manager and
Structures Design Manager must approve the design before construction. Seismic design is not
required for temporary walls.
22.4.15 Responsibilities
22.4.15.1
Shop Drawings
The wall supplier prepares the shop drawings and supportive calculations. Review the
submittals according to requirements in the project specifications and as required in Chapter 6.
22.4.15.2
Geotechnical Design Division
The geotechnical engineer conducts global stability analyses and provides design
recommendations including depth of embedment and width of reinforcement. The geotechnical
engineer conducts external stability analyses with respect to sliding, overturning, slope stability
and bearing pressure failures.
Typical information and details provided by the geotechnical engineer to the structural engineer
include the following:
Depth of embedment of leveling pad

Magnitude of anticipated total and differential settlement
Recommended waiting period before the construction of barrier rails, copings, concrete
anchor slabs and roadway surface
Minimum required reinforcement lengths for the entire length of the wall
Surcharges
22.4.15.3
Wall Supplier
The approved wall supplier checks the external stability with respect to sliding, overturning and
bearing pressure to confirm the proposed minimum reinforcement lengths. The geotechnical
engineer determines the need for any changes indicated by the contractors external stability
analysis.
The wall supplier is responsible for internal stability. The wall supplier/contractor is responsible
for all costs associated with modifications to the overall wall geometry due to internal stability
design or construction convenience.
22-16
22.4.15.4
February 2015
Structural Engineer
The structural engineer is responsible for preparing the retaining wall layout sheets and coping
details in conjunction with the roadway designer.
22.5
SOUND WALLS
The standard sound wall is a precast concrete post and panel wall system. All sound walls
have architectural treatments. Refer to the UDOT Standard Drawings for standard details and
architectural treatments. The Structures Design Manager must approve the use of other sound
wall systems.
Sound walls that exceed the dimensional limits of the UDOT Standard Drawings require a
structural design. When a structural design is required, design sound walls according to the
LRFD Specifications. Comply with the LRFD Specifications for the design of all structural
members.
When a sound wall must be placed on a bridge barrier, consider lightweight concrete for the
sound wall to reduce dead load. Use the WS sheets unless project specific requirements
preclude the use of the working standard.
22.6
22.6.1
PEDESTRIAN/BICYCLE BRIDGES
Safety/Americans with Disabilities Act
Comply with all applicable requirements in the ADA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and
Facilities. The following requirements apply to all pedestrian bridges to ensure that they are
accessible, safe and durable and comply with ADA guidelines:
Minimum width from face of handrail to face of handrail is 8-0.

Maximum grade is 8.33% (12:1). A grade flatter than the maximum is preferable. When
the grade is steeper than 5%, provide a 5-0 platform for each 2-6 change in elevation.
Provide a platform at each abrupt change in horizontal direction (minimum 5-0 5-0).
Provide a 6-0 minimum clear platform at the bottom of each ramp.
Design the profile grade such that there are no abrupt grade breaks at expansion
devices.
Place a protective screening, preferably a chain link fence system or a railing system, on
both sides of the bridge.
The minimum fence height above the top of sidewalk is 8-0. 10-0 is required over
railroads.
Detail the rails as follows:
Minimum height for pedestrian railing is 3-6.
Bicycle railings must be at least 4-6 in height.
22-17
February 2015
For pedestrian bridges over roadways, the opening between elements of a

pedestrian railing must not permit a 4-in. sphere to pass through.
For pedestrian bridges that are not over roadways, the opening between
elements of a pedestrian railing must not permit a 4-in. sphere to pass through
any opening above 27 in.
Provide a cover plate over pedestrian bridge expansion joint openings to protect
pedestrians from a tripping hazard.
Provide details that are watertight or designed such that moisture is not trapped in or on
the primary and secondary structural members such as girders, bracing, truss members,
and arch members. Trapped moisture accelerates corrosion. Detail auxiliary members
such as fence members, handrails, lighting elements, etc., to minimize the chance of
corrosion due to trapped moisture.
22.6.2
Design Requirements
Use the AASHTO LRFD Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges, except as
modified below.
22.6.2.1
Geometrics
The geometrics of the bridge and the approach transitions must meet the requirements of the
AASHTO LRFD Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges. Meet the minimum
vertical clearance over roads defined in Section 10.4.5. For pedestrian/bicycle bridges over
waterways, the Hydraulics Engineer determines the necessary hydraulic opening.
22.6.2.2
Structure Type
Generally accepted structure types for pedestrian and bicycle bridges include:
Precast, prestressed concrete girders with a CIP concrete deck

CIP concrete slabs
Steel girders with a CIP concrete deck
Tubular steel trusses
Consider other structure types as deemed appropriate for the given site. An evaluation of
structure types must include a consideration of constructability, aesthetics, use of falsework,
construction costs, etc.
22.6.2.3
Seismic
Design pedestrian bridges to meet the same seismic requirements as vehicular traffic. Refer to
Chapter 13 for additional information.
22-18
22.6.2.4
February 2015
Fatigue
All tension members must meet minimum V-notch toughness requirements for Zone 2.
22.6.2.5
Prefabricated Steel Truss Bridges
Prefabricated steel truss bridges are typically designed and fabricated by a specialized
company. When the design is provided by the fabricator, a generic detail of the truss in the
contract documents is sufficient. Coordinate with the Structures Design Manager to determine if
a complete truss design is warranted. Identify all applicable design standards in the project
specifications or on the plan sheets.
Design prefabricated steel truss bridges according to the LRFD Specifications, AASHTO LRFD
Guide Specifications for the Design of Pedestrian Bridges and AASHTO Guide Specifications
for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design. Design and detail the bridge to accommodate a cold climate
temperature differential.
22.6.2.6
Pedestrian Bridge Decks
The minimum pedestrian bridge deck thickness is 6 in. No integral wearing surface is required
and the minimum cover is 2 in. The deck must be composite with support members.
22-19
22-20
February 2015

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STRUCTURES DESI

UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual

Chief Structural Engineer

Cheryl Hersh Simmons

Structures Design Manager

Bridge Management Engineer

UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual

Applicable SDDM section number(s)

UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual

UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual

UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual

RESPONSIBILITIES .................................................................................................... 1-1

Division Vision/Mission ..................................................................................... 1-2

Chief Structural Engineer ................................................................................. 1-2

Structures Design Division .............................................................. 1-3

DEFINITIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................................ 1-8

Vision .............................................................................................. 1-2

Definitions ......................................................................................................... 1-8

STRUCTURAL DESIGN LITERATURE (NATIONAL) ................................................ 1-20

AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.................................................. 1-20

Description ...................................................................................... 1-22

AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design............................ 1-23

Description ...................................................................................... 1-22

FHWA Seismic Retrofitting Manual for Highway Bridges ................................. 1-22

Description ...................................................................................... 1-21

AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges ................................... 1-22

Description ...................................................................................... 1-20

Description ...................................................................................... 1-23

AASHTO/American Welding Society D1.5M/D1.5 Bridge Welding Code......... 1-23

Organization, Terminology and Reference Documents

UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual

Description ...................................................................................... 1-23

Description ...................................................................................... 1-23

Description ...................................................................................... 1-24

AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications......................................... 1-24

Description ...................................................................................... 1-24

Description ...................................................................................... 1-24

Description ...................................................................................... 1-25

1.3.12 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway

Description ...................................................................................... 1-25

1.3.13 AASHTO Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision

Description ...................................................................................... 1-25

Description ...................................................................................... 1-26

1.3.15 American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association

Description ...................................................................................... 1-26

1.3.16 Additional Structural Design Publications ......................................................... 1-27

Organization, Terminology and Reference Documents

UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual

UDOT DOCUMENTS ................................................................................................... 1-28

UDOT Geotechnical Manual of Instruction ....................................................... 1-28

Organization, Terminology and Reference Documents

UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual

Organization, Terminology and Reference Documents

UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual

Figure 1.1 ORGANIZATION CHART

UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual

Chief Structural Engineer

UDOT Structures Design and Detailing Manual

Oversee the development of:

New and revised structure drawings (sample sheets, working standards,

Revisions to the SDDM

Structural specifications (in a participation role) for the UDOT Standard

Bridge Management Division

Project Delivery Division