T Distribution For Means

AP Statistics
Review: t Distribution for Means
Page 1 of 21
Key Terms and Concepts

Before taking the quiz, you need to be able to explain the meanings (and recognize symbols
in cases where there's an associated symbol) of each of these terms or concepts. You
should also know when and how to use them in statistics problems.
These terms and concepts are defined in Key Terms.
critical t values
critical value table
degrees of freedom
degrees of freedom for independent samples
independent samples
matched pairs
one-sample procedures
pooled variance
robust
sample size for given margin of error
standard error
t distribution
t distribution critical value table
t intervals
t significance test
t significance tests on a graphing calculator
tcdf
two-sample procedures
two-sample t statistic
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AP Statistics
Review:WDistribution for Means
Page 2 of 21
Objectives, Example Problems, and Study Tips

Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis Testing for a Single Mean
Objective 1
Define t distributions in plain words. Describe their shape and list at least two differences
between the t distributions and the normal distribution.
Example
Define t distributions in plain words. Describe their shape and list at least two differences
between the t distributions and the normal distribution.
Tips
Researchers use t distributions when they don't know the population standard deviation
. In these cases, they estimate with the sample standard deviation s. The measure of
spread in a t distribution for a single mean is called the standard error, and is written as
s
.
n
To find the degrees of freedom for a t distribution for a single mean, subtract one from
the sample size (df = sample size 1).
Objective 2
Specify when t a distribution should be used instead of a z-distribution when doing inference
for a population mean.
Example
When should you use a t distribution instead of a z-distribution when you're doing inference
for a population mean?
Tips
Use a t distribution whenever you don't know the population standard distribution.
However, if your sample size is large (usually larger than 30), you can use a normal
distribution as an approximation of a t distribution. This is because the Central Limit
Theorem says that, for large sample sizes, a sampling distribution will approximate a
s
. (Just how large is large enough
normal distribution with mean x and standard error
n
depends on the shape of the parent population. If the parent population is extremely
skewed or contains outliers, your samples will need to be larger if you want to be
confident that the sampling distribution can be approximated by the normal curve.)
Whenever you use a t distribution, you must show that the population is free from
extreme skewness and outliers.
Since some t tables don't provide critical t values for sample sizes above 31, you may
want to use a z-procedure for large samples to approximate what a t procedure would
give you. However, if you don't know the population standard deviation, and if you have
a calculator that can generate a t interval or calculate a t statistic for large samples, it's
usually safest to stick with a t procedure. This is because a z-procedure will give only a
close approximation of the true probability you'd get by using a t distribution.
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AP Statistics
Page 3 of 21
If you do use a z-procedure in a case where the sample size is larger than 30, and
where you don't know the population standard deviation, you must state that your
sample size is large enough, per the Central Limit Theorem, to ensure your sampling
distribution is a close approximation of a normal distribution. In other words, you must
state that the large size of the sample means that s is a good estimator of .
Answer
When doing inference for a population mean, use a t distribution if you don't know the
population standard deviation, if it seems reasonable that the sample could have been
drawn from a normal population, and if the sample is free from extreme skewness and
outliers.
However, if the sample size is greater than 30 and you don't have a table or calculator that
will give you the critical t values, you can use a z-procedure as a close approximation of
what you'd get if you used a t distribution. This is because the Central Limit Theorem says
that when the sample size is large enough (greater than 30, according to most standards),
the sampling distribution will approximate a normal distribution with mean x and standard
s
.
error
n
If the sample size is greater than 30 and you're using a calculator, you should use a t
procedure because you'll get a more accurate answer, and because, on a calculator, a t
procedure is just as easy as a z-procedure.
Objective 3
List the assumptions necessary to use:
A normal (z) distribution of a sample mean to estimate a population mean
A t distribution of a sample mean to estimate a population mean
Examples
1. What are the assumptions necessary to use:
The normal (z) distribution of a sample mean to estimate a population mean
A t distribution of a sample mean to estimate a population mean
2. Consider the following set of sample data: (34, 32, 34, 32, 48, 37, 31, 31, 29, 27).
We're interested in using this data to test a null hypothesis about the population mean.
Which of the following statements are true?
I. Assuming this represents a random sample from the population, the sample mean is
an unbiased estimator of the population mean.
II. Because they're robust, t procedures are justified in this case.
III. We'd use z-procedures, since we're interested in the population mean.
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. I and II only
E. I and III only
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Tips
You may wish to use one or more of the following when you're checking data for the
conditions necessary for using a t procedure:
Modified boxplot
Histogram
Stemplot
Normal quantile plot
These plots are useful for testing whether the population from which the sample is taken
is free from extreme skewness or outliers. Modified boxplots are especially helpful for
checking for outliers, and they give you a rough idea of whether the distribution may be
skewed. Histograms, quantile plots, and stemplots are better for checking for skewness
because they give you a more detailed view of the distribution. (If you use your
calculator to make a histogram, be sure to adjust your window to make sure you're
getting a meaningful picture.)
Note: When you're checking for outliers and skewness, you should also check to see
that the mean and median are close to one another in relation to the spread of the
distribution.
If the data have no outliers, if they're not severely asymmetric, and if the mean and
median aren't far apart, you can use a t procedure.
The smaller the sample, the less skewness you can accept.
Answers
1. To use a normal distribution of a sample mean for a small sample (usually defined as n
< 30), you must assume that the population distribution is normal, and you must know
the population standard deviation, . To use a normal distribution of a sample mean for
a large sample (usually defined as n > 30), you must assume that the population is free
from extreme skewness and outliers. (Note: if you dont know the population standard
deviation, your answer will be more accurate if you use a t distribution, as a normal
distribution will only be a close approximation.)
To use a t distribution of a sample mean, you must assume that the population from
which the sample is drawn is normal or nearly normal. At the very least, the population
should be free from extreme skewness or outliers. If your sample does have an outlier,
you might still be able to use a t procedure if:
A. The sample size is at least 30 (this will reduce the effect of the outlier on the
sampling distribution).
B. The distribution isn't markedly skewed.
2. The correct answer is: A. I only. Note that the data set has an outlier (which you can
see if you make a modified boxplot), which prevents II from being true.
If the sample size had been 30 or larger, and if the outlier was closer to the rest of the
distribution, a t procedure would have been OK here.
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Objective 4
Define the term robust and state how it applies to t procedures.
Example
Define the term robust and state how it applies to t procedures.
Answer
A procedure is robust if it's insensitive to the assumptions needed for its use. The t
distributions are robust to the assumption of normality; even if the population distribution
isn't normal, you can use a t procedure if the population is free from extreme skewness and
outliers.
Objective 5
Define the term degrees of freedom as it applies to using a t distribution of a single sample
mean.
Example
Define the term degrees of freedom as it applies to using a t distribution of a single sample
mean.
Answer
For the t distribution of a single sample mean, degrees of freedom is the sample size minus
one.
Objective 6
Given a value for degrees of freedom, find the critical t value for an upper-tail probability or
for a confidence interval.
Example
What's the critical t value (t*) for an upper-tail probability of .02 with 11 degrees of
freedom? What's the critical t value (t*) for a 98% confidence level with 11 degrees of
freedom?
Answer
For 11 degrees of freedom, the t* for upper-tail probability .02 is 2.328, and the t* for a
98% confidence level is 2.718. (Both of these values were found using a t table.) Note that
t* for a 98% confidence level would be the same t* as an upper-tail probability of .01.
Objective 7
Construct t confidence intervals for a single mean.
Example
Using a sample with n = 8, x = 20.53, and s = 3.5, find a 95% and a 99% confidence
interval for the mean of the population.
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Tips
Use the formula: (estimate) (critical t value)(standard error).
When looking up the critical t value in a t distribution table, remember that the number
of degrees of freedom for a single mean is n 1.
s
.
The standard error of a sample mean is
n
Answer
95%: 20.53 2.365(
99%: 20.53 3.499(
3.5
8
3.5
8
) = (17.60, 23.46)
) = (16.20, 24.86)
Objective 8
Use the t distributions to perform hypothesis tests for single means.
Examples
1. Twenty students were randomly selected from a population and given a 110-point test.
Here are their scores: 71, 93, 91, 86, 75, 73, 86, 82, 76, 57, 84, 89, 67, 62, 72, 77, 68,
65, 75, and 84. Can you use a t procedure to estimate the mean score for the
population and/or to conduct a hypothesis test on this sample? Why or why not?
2. Using the data from example 1, test the hypothesis H0 : = 80 (the population mean is
80) against the alternative H a : < 80 (the population mean is less than 80). Use
= .05.
3. For the data from example 1, find a 95% confidence interval for the population mean.
Interpret your interval.
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AP Statistics
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Tips
You may wish to use one or more of the following when you're checking data for the
conditions necessary for using a t procedure:
Modified boxplot
Histogram
Stemplot
Normal quantile plot
These plots are useful for testing whether the population from which the sample is taken
is free from extreme skewness or outliers. Modified boxplots are especially helpful for
checking for outliers, and they give you a rough idea of whether the distribution may be
skewed. Histograms, quantile plots, and stemplots are better for checking for skewness
because they give you a more detailed view of the distribution. (If you use your
calculator to make a histogram, be sure to adjust your window to make sure you're
getting a meaningful picture.)
Note: When you're checking for outliers and skewness, you should also check to see
that the mean and median are close to one another in relation to the spread of the
distribution.
If the data have no outliers, if they're not severely asymmetric, and if the mean and
median aren't far apart, you can use a t procedure.
The smaller the sample, the less skewness you can accept.
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AP Statistics
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Answers
1. A modified boxplot shows that the distribution is nearly symmetric, and that there are
no outliers.
When there are no outliers, one plot is usually sufficient to justify that you can use a t
distribution. Nevertheless, let's look at a quantile plot to see what it shows us:
The normal quantile plot shows a linear pattern without extreme skewness on the edges,
so we're definitely justified in using a t procedure. (Note: Even if the quantile plot
weren't linear, you could still use a t procedure since the data aren't severely skewed,
and there are no outliers influencing your mean or standard deviation. That's because t
procedures are robust.)
2. (We justified our use of a t test in this situation in example 1.)
x = 76.65, s = 10.04, n = 20, df = 19

t=
76.65 80
10.04
20
= 1.49 .05 < p < 10
(If this is done on a graphing calculator, p = .076.)

This probability, while not high, isn't small enough to reject the null hypothesis at
= .05 and doesn't provide evidence that the true average score is less than 80.
(The work shown above is a good model for what you should show the person who
grades your quiz or test to convince them you know what you're doing).
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10.04
= (71.95, 81.35)
3. 76.65 2.093
20
We're 95% confident that the true population mean lies between 71.95 and 81.35. When
we say "We're 95% confident," we mean that this procedure will capture the true
population mean 95% of the time.
Confidence Intervals for the Difference Between Two Means
Objective 1
Distinguish between situations that should be analyzed using matched pairs single-sample
procedures for means, and situations that should be analyzed using two-sample procedures
for means.
Examples
Which of these situations should be analyzed using one-sample procedures, and which
should be analyzed using two-sample procedures?
1. A researcher wants to know if people's left or right hands tend to be stronger. She
randomly selects 15 people and tests each for left- and right-hand strength by having
them squeeze a measuring device first with one hand, then the other. (The order is
random.)
2. A researcher wants to know if a population of brown rats in one city has a greater mean
tail length than a population in another city. She randomly selects rats from each city
and measures the lengths of their tails.
3. A researcher wants to know if a new vitamin supplement will make the tails of brown
rats grow longer. She takes 50 rats and divides them into 25 pairs matched on gender
and age. Within each pair, she randomly selects one rat to receive the new vitamin.
After six months she measures the length of each rat's tail.
4. A researcher wants to know if iron builds up in people's blood during cold months. She
measures iron content for 50 people in June, then measures the same 50 people the
following February.
5. A researcher wants to know if there's a significant difference in rainfall on July 4th
between two cities, city A and city B. She finds climate data on the two cities, and looks
up the amount of rainfall on July 4th in each city for the past 30 years.
Tip
Use a single-sample matched pairs procedure when the observations are in pairs (that is,
when you either have two measurements taken on the same subject or when you have
observations matched on at least one other variable, such as time).
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Answers
1. Use a single-sample procedure. The hand-strength measurements are in pairs (each pair
of observations is taken from the same subject) and each pair of observations can be
reduced to one number representing the difference between right- and left-hand
strength.
2. Use a two-sample procedure. The data aren't in pairs.
3. Use a single-sample procedure. The tail-length measurements are in pairs (each pair of
observations is taken from the same subject) and each pair of observations can be
reduced to one number representing the difference between the treatment (vitamin) and
control condition.
4. Use a single-sample procedure. The observations are in pairs, with two observations per
subject.
5. Use a single-sample procedure. The observations are in pairs (they're matched by date,
July 4th).
Objective 2
Construct t confidence intervals for the difference between two means using paired data.
Example
Consider the following data that compares the life span (in weeks) of two cat toys for five
cats. Construct a 95% confidence interval for the population difference between the average
life spans of Toy A and Toy B.
Cat
1
2
3
4
5
Toy A
10.6
9.8
12.3
9.7
8.8
Toy B
10.2
9.4
11.8
9.1
8.3
Tips
This is a matched pairs situation because, in each case, both measurements are taken
on the same cat.
To use a single-sample t procedure on matched pairs data, you must justify that both
separate data sets (all the numbers from each half of each pair) are free from outliers or
extreme skewness. If the data do have outliers, you must at least justify that the
outliers don't heavily influence the mean or standard deviation of your sample.
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Answer
Looking at modified boxplots of the numbers for Toy A and Toy B, we see that the samples
are free of extreme skewness or outliers, so we can use a t procedure.
Since this is a matched pairs situation, we need to look at the differences between the wear
times. We'll add a column to the table for these differences:
Cat
1
2
3
4
5
Toy A
10.6
9.8
12.3
9.7
8.8
Toy B
10.2
9.4
11.8
9.1
8.3
D=AB
.4
.4
.5
.6
.5
x D = .48, s xD = .084, df = 4 t* = 2.776

.48 2.776(.084/ 5 ) = (.376, .584)
Since 0 isn't in the interval, we can conclude that this is good evidence that there's a
significant difference between life spans of the two types of toys.
Objective 3
Use t distributions to conduct hypothesis tests for the difference between two means using
paired data.
Example
Consider once again, the cat-toy data from the previous example:
Cat
1
2
3
4
5
Toy A
10.6
9.8
12.3
9.7
8.8
Toy B
10.2
9.4
11.8
9.1
8.3
Perform a test of the hypotheses:

H0 : D = 0 (There's no difference in life span between the two cat toys.)
H a : D 0 (One cat toy lasts longer than the other.)
Tip
You don't need to specify a significance level to do a hypothesis test, but you can if you
want to.
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Answer
The boxplot above shows that there are no significant departures from normalcy in the
sample distributions, so we can use t procedures.
H0 : D = 0 (There's no difference in life span between the two cat toys.)

H a : D 0 (One cat toy lasts longer than the other.)
x D = .48, s xD = .084, df = 4
t =
.48 0
= 12.78
.084
5
The probability of getting a t value of 12.78 for 4 degrees of freedom is approximately zero,
so the P-value is 0.
Since the P-value is so low, we can reject our null hypothesis and accept our alternative
hypothesis that the mean difference in life span between each type of toy isn't 0.
Apparently, one cat toy lasts longer than the other.
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Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis Tests for Two Independent Samples

Objective 1
Construct t confidence intervals for the difference between the means of two independent
samples.
Examples
A groundskeeper wants to know if a certain variety of rosebush produces more blossoms if
lawn fertilizer leeches into the rose beds. She randomly chooses a set of 18 rosebushes (of
the same variety) from the nursery. She then plants half of the these next to a lawn that
gets fertilized on a regular basis and plants the other half next to an unfertilized lawn. At
the height of the blooming season, she counts the number of blossoms on each bush. The
results are as follows:
Lawn
Fertilizer
32
37
35
28
41
44
35
31
34
No Lawn
Fertilizer
35
31
29
25
34
40
27
32
31
1. Calculate a 99% confidence interval for the difference in number of blossoms using:
A. The formula for a two-sample t interval
B. Your calculator
Explain why there's a difference between the calculator results and the formula results.
2. Interpret your result from example 1. Do the rosebushes produce more blossoms if lawn
fertilizer leeches into the soil?
3. If you could assume that the population standard deviations were equal, on how many
degrees of freedom would you base your confidence interval? Calculate the 99%
confidence interval using the pooled variance.
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Tips
To use t procedures on two independent samples, you must show that neither sample
came from a population with extreme skewness or outliers.
When you use a two-sample t procedure to estimate a difference between means, your
results will be more precise if your sample sizes are similar.
If the sample sizes add up to more than 30, they can be widely different and you'll still
have a reasonably accurate result.
The formula for a two-sample t interval for the difference between two population means
is:
( x1 x 2 ) t*
s12
s 2
+ 2 .
n1
n2
If you don't use a calculator to construct your confidence interval, degrees of freedom
for your t* is the lesser of ( n1 1) or ( n2 1).
If you use your calculator to calculate the t interval, degrees of freedom will be
calculated for you.
To find the confidence interval using a pooled variance, use your calculatorit's much
easier.
If the question doesn't specifically mention that you know the population standard
deviations are the same, or if you aren't given any information that allows you to prove
that they're the same, assume that you shouldn't pool the variances.
Answers
1. Modified boxplots of the two data sets show no outliers or extreme skewness so it is OK
to use t procedures.
A. Using the formula for a two-sample t interval, we get
x1 = 35.22, s1 = 4.94, n1 = 9;
x 2 = 31.56, s2 = 4.48, n2 = 9, df = 9 1 = 8 t* = 3.355;
(35.22 31.56) 3.355(
4.94 2
4.48 2
+
) = 3.66 3.355(2.22)
9
9
= (3.7881, 11.11).
B. To use the TI-83/TI-84, press STAT, arrow over to TESTS, scroll down to 2 SampTint,
press ENTER, select STATS and enter the statistics calculated above: x1 = 35.22, sx1
= 4.94, n1 = 9; x 2 = 31.56, sx 2 = 4.48, n2 = 9. Enter .99 for C-Level. Select NO for

Pooled? then scroll down to Calculate and press ENTER. The calculator gives you this
interval: (2.841, 10.161). The calculator gives a narrower interval because it uses a
more precise estimate for degrees of freedom.
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Review:t Distribution for Means
Page 15 of 21
2. Since 0 is in the interval, the sample difference we obtained would be a likely outcome if
there were no difference between the two treatments.
3. If you could pool the variances, degrees of freedom would be n1 + n2 2, or
9 + 9 2 = 16.
You can calculate the confidence interval by calculating a pooled variance, then using
the formula for the standard error with a pooled variance.
However, instead of using the unwieldy formula for the pooled variance, you can use
2 SampTint on your calculator (see instructions in the answer for question 1) and
select YES for Pooled?. The interval, using a pooled variance, will be (2.833, 10.153).
Here are the formulas in case you want to see how you'd do this without a calculator. If
the two population standard deviations are the same and you can pool the variances,
the confidence interval would be given by
( x 1 x 2 ) t* s
1
1
+
, where s =
n1 n2
(n1 1)s12 + (n2 1)s22
n1 + n2 2
with n1 + n2 2 degrees
of freedom.
If you use your calculator on a quiz or exam to construct a confidence interval, you'll
need to provide details that show you know what you're doing. You can do this by
writing the formula
1
1
( x 1 x 2 ) t* s
+
,
n1 n2
then providing the values that your calculator gave:
( x 1 x 2 ) t* s
1
1
+
,
n1 n2
3.66 2.921(4.71561237)
1
1
+
,
n1 n2
(2.833, 10.153).
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Objective 2
Perform hypothesis tests for the difference between the means of two independent samples.
Examples
1. For the data from the previous example, perform a test of the null hypothesis that the
bushes don't produce more blossoms when lawn fertilizer leeches into their soil. For the
alternative, state that rosebushes next to fertilized lawns will produce more blossoms.
Lawn
Fertilizer
32
37
35
28
41
44
35
31
34
No Lawn
Fertilizer
35
31
29
25
34
40
27
32
31
2. If you could assume that the population standard deviations were equal, how many
degrees of freedom would you base your test statistic on? Calculate the test statistic
using the pooled variance, and state whether your conclusion would change from what
you concluded in example 1.
Tips
Remember that there are four distinct things you must do to get full credit for a
hypothesis test:
1. State your null and alternative hypotheses in the context of the problem.
2. State the test you'll use and check the assumptions needed to use the test.
3. Calculate a test statistic and a P-value.
4. State your conclusion.
If the question doesn't specifically mention that you know the population standard
deviations are the same, or if you aren't given any information that allows you to prove
that they're the same, assume that you shouldn't pool the variances.
Answers
1. H0 : 1 = 2 (There's no difference in the number of blossoms.)
H a : 1 > 2 (Rosebushes next to fertilized lawns will produce more blossoms.)
For this problem, we'll use a one-sided t test at the .01 level of significance.
Box plots of the two data sets show no outliers or skewness so we can use t procedures.
x1 = 35.22, s1 = 4.94, x 2 = 31.56, s2 = 4.48
t =
35.22 31.56
3.66
= 1.65, df = 9 1 = 8 .05 < p < .10
2.22
4.942 4.482
+
9
9
(Note: if you use a graphing calculator, you'll get p = .06, df = 15.85)
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This P-value isn't sufficiently low to reject the null hypothesis at the .01 level. We don't
have good evidence that rosebushes next to fertilized lawns produce more blossoms.
2. If you could pool the variances, the degrees of freedom would be n1 + n2 2, or
9 + 9 2 = 16. You can calculate the test statistic using the pooled standard deviation.
First, you'll need to calculate the pooled standard deviation using
sp =
(n1 1)s12 + (n2
1)s2 2
, then plug your value for sp into t =
n1 + n2 2
x1 x 2
.
1
1
+
sp
n1
n2
Instead of using the unwieldy formula for the pooled variance, you can use
2 SampTTest on you calculator: Press STAT, arrow over to TESTS, scroll down to
2 SampTTest, press ENTER, select STATS and enter the statistics calculated earlier:
x1 = 35.22, sx1 = 4.94, n1 = 9; x 2 = 31.56, sx2 = 4.48, n2 = 9 . Since this is a onesided test where the alternative is higher than the null, select 1 > 2. Select YES for
Pooled? then scroll down to Calculate and press ENTER.
The test statistic, using a pooled variance, is t = 1.646 (df = 16), with a P-value of .059.
(The P-value is still to high enough for us to reject the null.)
If you use your calculator to calculate the test statistic on a quiz or exam, you'll need to
demonstrate your understanding of the process by writing down the formula for the
pooled t statistic and explain the values you will plug in to it:
The two-sample t statistic for a pooled variance is t =
sp =
x1 x 2
, where
1
1
+
sp
n1
n2
(n1 1)s12 + (n2
1)s2 2
with n1 + n2 2 degrees of freedom.
n1 + n2 2
Objective 3
Describe the three different ways degrees of freedom can be computed when you're using t
distributions to estimate the difference between the means of two independent samples.
Examples
1. Identify the three different techniques for determining the number of degrees of
freedom in a t procedure for the difference between the means of two independent
samples. In what situations would you use each technique?
2. What condition must be met if you want to use pooled variances?
3. Suppose we want to compare two groups and have arrived at the following summary
data:
Group
1
2
n
9
6
x
23
18
s
4
5
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Identify the number of degrees of freedom involved for each of the three methods
described in your answer for example 1.
Answers
1.
The conservative method (unpooled): df = min( n1 1, n2 1 ). Use this method
when you aren't using a calculator or a computer to generate your test statistic or
calculate your interval.
The pooled method: df = n1 + n2 2 . Use this method when you know that the
population standard deviations are the same and that you can pool the variances of
your samples. (This is almost never the case.)
The software (or graphing calculator) method: For this method, you use 2 SampTint
or 2 SampTTest on your calculator (or an analogous function on a computer) to
generate your test statistic or calculate your interval. This method gives you a value
for degrees of freedom that's more precise than the conservative method, but a little
less precise than the pooled method.
2. You can use the pooled method when you can reasonably assume that the two
population standard deviations are the same.
3.
Conservative method: df = 6 1 = 5. For this method use the lesser of either

n1 1 or n2 1.
Pooled method: df = 9 + 6 2. For this method use n1 + n2 2.
Software method: df = 9.137. In this method, the calculator or computer gives you
the degrees of freedom when it calculates the confidence interval or test statistic.
Summary of Formulas
Although you'll be provided with a formula sheet you can use on the unit quiz, it's
very important that you understand what these formulas mean, and that you
understand when to use them.
Some of the formulas here include extra notes explaining their use, what the
different symbols mean, or how to calculate degrees of freedom, for example. You
won't be given this information on the unit quiz.
In some cases, what you see here may differ from the formula sheet, so you'll need
to understand the formulas well enough to be able to adapt them. For example, if
you needed to look up the standard error of a sample mean on the formula sheet,
you might only find the formula for the standard deviation of a sample mean:
.
n
In this case, you'd need to recognize that you'd use the same formula, but in a
s
slightly different form: (
).
n
If you use these formulas as you study and understand what they mean and where
they come from, you should have no trouble using them on a quiz or exam. (By the
time you've used the formulas enough and understand them well, you'll probably
find you've memorized most of them anyway.)
_____________
AP Statistics
Page 19 of 21
t interval for a single population mean, or for the difference between population
means in a matched pairs situation:
x t*
s
n
Note: You'll need to know that the general form for a confidence interval is
(estimate) (critical value)(standard error or standard deviation of the estimate), then
know what estimate or formula to plug in for each element.
One-sample t statistic (for calculating a P-value or doing a hypothesis tests for a
single population mean):
t=
x 0
,
s
n
where 0 is the hypothesized value for the mean.

Note: You'll need to know that a test statistic is usually constructed in this way:
difference between two measures

.
standard deviation or standard error
You'll also need to know what to plug in for the numerator and denominator. The
elements will be given to you on the formula sheet, but you'll have to know how they
fit together.
Two-sample t interval for the difference between two population means:
( x1 x 2 ) t*
s12
s 2
+ 2
n1
n2
If you calculate the interval by hand and you don't pool the variances (it's rarely a good
idea to pool the variances), degrees of freedom is the lesser of (n1 1) or (n2 1).
Note: You'll need to know that the general form for a confidence interval is
(estimate) (critical value)(standard error or standard deviation of the estimate), and you'll
also need the estimates or formulas to plug in for each element. You'll also need to know
from memory how to calculate degrees of freedom.
If you use a calculator to find the interval, degrees of freedom will be calculated for you and
the estimate will be more precise.
If you do want to pool the variances, you can use a calculator.
_____________
AP Statistics
Page 20 of 21
Confidence interval for pooled variance
( x 1 x 2 ) t* s
1
1
where s =
+
n1 n2
(n1 1)s12 + (n2 1)s22
n1 + n2 2
with n1 + n2 2 degrees of
freedom.
Two-sample t statistic for a two-sample t test for the difference between two
population means (for calculating a P-value and conducting a hypothesis test):
t =
x1 x 2
s2
+ 2
n1
n2
s12
Note: You'll need to know that a test statistic is usually constructed this way:
difference between two measures

.
standard deviation or standard error
You'll also need to know what to plug in for the numerator and denominator. The
elements will be given to you on the formula sheet, but you'll have to know how they
fit together. For example, in this case the denominator is the same standard error
you saw for the two-sample t interval.
The two-sample t statistic for a pooled variance:
x1 x 2
t =
sp
1
1
+
n1
n2
where s p =
(n1
1)s12 + (n2 1)s2 2

with n1 + n2 2 degrees of
n1 + n2 2
freedom.
_____________
AP Statistics
Page 21 of 21
About the Unit Quiz

What to Bring
Scratch paper
Calculator
Approved formula sheet
Approved tables
You can't have any reference materials other than those specifically mentioned above. You
won't be able to ask for help during the quiz.
Hints and Tips for the Free-Response Portion
Show your work. The test corrector won't assume you used proper set up and
methods if you reach the correct answer. It's up to you to communicate the methods
that you used. Answers alone, without appropriate justification, will receive no credit.
Take your time reading the question. Since we want to see how well you can apply
your knowledge to new and somewhat unfamiliar situations, take some time to think
about the question. If you don't understand the question, you're unlikely to find the right
answer. Read the entire question before beginning to answer.
Most questions will be given in several parts. The answers from one section will
often be used in subsequent sections. Missing points in an early section does not mean
you'll lose points in subsequent sections. Again, read the entire question to see how the
different sections connect to each other.
The calculator. As in the AP Exam, this quiz will test you on how well you know
statistics, not on how well you can use your calculator. Be sure you understand the
concepts behind the calculator operations. Don't use "calculator-speak" in your answer
the instructor doesn't want to read a set of steps for the calculator! Use your calculator for
doing the mechanics, but be sure to clearly communicate your process for solving the
problem.
Use Units. If units are given in the problem, make sure that you give them in your
answer.
Answer the Question. Finally, be very careful to answer the question asked. Before
you move on, read over your answer to make sure you're providing exactly what the
question asks for. Generally, an answer to a question you weren't asked will receive no
credit.
_____________

T Distribution For Means

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T Distribution For Means

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AP Statistics

Review: t Distribution for Means

Key Terms and Concepts

Objectives, Example Problems, and Study Tips

99%: 20.53 3.499(

x = 76.65, s = 10.04, n = 20, df = 19

= 1.49 .05 < p < 10

(If this is done on a graphing calculator, p = .076.)

x D = .48, s xD = .084, df = 4 t* = 2.776

Perform a test of the hypotheses:

H0 : D = 0 (There's no difference in life span between the two cat toys.)

Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis Tests for Two Independent Samples

A. Using the formula for a two-sample t interval, we get

(35.22 31.56) 3.355(

= 4.94, n1 = 9; x 2 = 31.56, sx 2 = 4.48, n2 = 9. Enter .99 for C-Level. Select NO for

(n1 1)s12 + (n2 1)s22

x1 = 35.22, s1 = 4.94, x 2 = 31.56, s2 = 4.48

(n1 1)s12 + (n2

(n1 1)s12 + (n2

Conservative method: df = 6 1 = 5. For this method use the lesser of either

where 0 is the hypothesized value for the mean.

difference between two measures

Confidence interval for pooled variance

(n1 1)s12 + (n2 1)s22

difference between two measures

The two-sample t statistic for a pooled variance:

1)s12 + (n2 1)s2 2

About the Unit Quiz

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