A.

C CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION

THEORY

INTRODUCTION
A.C FUNDAMENTALS

Most students of electricity begin their study with what is known

as direct current (DC), which is electricity flowing in a constant
direction, and/or possessing a voltage with constant polarity. DC is
the kind of electricity made by a battery (with definite positive and
negative terminals), or the kind of charge generated by rubbing
certain types of materials against each other.
As useful and as easy to understand as DC is, it is not the only
kind of electricity in use. Certain sources of electricity (most
notably, rotary electro-mechanical generators) naturally produce
voltages alternating in polarity, reversing positive and negative
over time. Either as a voltage switching polarity or as a current
switching direction back and forth, this kind of electricity is known
as Alternating Current (AC): Figure below

A.C CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION

THEORY

Direct vs alternating current:

Whereas the familiar battery symbol is used as a generic symbol
for any DC voltage source, the circle with the wavy line inside is
the generic symbol for any AC voltage source.
One might wonder why anyone would bother with such a thing as
AC. It is true that in some cases AC holds no practical advantage
over DC. In applications where electricity is used to dissipate
energy in the form of heat, the polarity or direction of current is
irrelevant, so long as there is enough voltage and current to the
load to produce the desired heat (power dissipation). However,
with AC it is possible to build electric generators, motors and
power distribution systems that are far more efficient than DC,
and so we find AC used predominately across the world in high
power applications.

D.C

A.C CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION

THEORY

A.C

A.C FUNDAMENTALS
Before further analysis of alternating quantity, it is necessary to be
familiar with the different terms which are very frequently used
related to alternating quantities.

Instantaneous Value(v):
The instantaneous value of an AC signal is the value of voltage or
current at one particular instant. The value may be zero if the
particular instant is the time in the cycle at which the polarity of the
voltage is changing. It may also be the same as the peak value, if
the selected instant is the time in the cycle at which the voltage or
current stops increasing and starts decreasing. There are actually
an infinite number of instantaneous values between zero and the
peak value.
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THEORY

e.g v1 and v2 are the instantaneous values of alternating voltages

at the instants t1 and t2 respectively.

Cycle:
One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating
quantities is known as cycle. A cycle can be defined as each
repetition of a set of positive and negative instantaneous values of
an alternating quantity. One such cycle of an alternating is shown
in figure above.

Period (T):
The period of a waveform is the time required for completing one
full cycle. It is measured in seconds. In Figure 15-1, the sinusoidal
waveform is plotted as a function of the argument t, and the
periodic nature of the sine wave is evident. The function repeats
itself every 2 radians, and its period is therefore 2 radians. The
relationship between time (T) and frequency (f) is indicated by the
Formula

T = 1/f.

Frequency(f):
If the signal in the Figure makes one complete revolution each
second, the generator produces one complete cycle of AC during
each second (1 Hz). Increasing the number of revolutions to two
per second will produce two complete cycles of ac per second (2
Hz). The number of complete cycles of alternating current or
voltage completed each second is referred to as the frequency, f
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A.C CIRCUITS

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THEORY

or event frequency. Event frequency is always measured and

expressed in hertz. Because there are 2 radians in a full circle, a
cycle, the relationship between , f, and period, T, can be
expressed as
f = 1/T Hz.
Where is the angular velocity in radians per second (rad/s). The
dimension of frequency is reciprocal second. The frequency is an
important term to understand since most AC electrical equipment
requires a specific frequency for proper operation.

AMPLITUDE (Vm.):
The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during
positive or negative half cycle is called its amplitude. It is denoted
by Vm.

A.C COMPONENTS
RESISTORS:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical
component that
implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act
to reduce current flow, and, at the same time,
act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In
electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust
signal
levels, bias active
elements,
terminate transmission
lines among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate
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A.C CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION

THEORY

many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of

motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads
for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change
slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable
resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume
control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light,
humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Resistors
are
common
elements
of electrical
networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic
equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits

Series & Parallel Resistors

The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of

their individual resistance values.

The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the

reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistors.

A.C CIRCUITS

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THEORY

So, for example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5

ohm resistor and a 15 ohm resistor will produce the inverse of
1/10+1/5+1/15 ohms of resistance, or 1/(.1+.2+.067)=2.725 ohms.
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series
connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either
one or the other. Some complex networks of resistors cannot be
resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit
analysis. Generally, the Y- transform can be used to solve such
problems.

INDUCTORS:
An inductor,
also
called
a coil or reactor, is a
passive
two - terminal
electrical
component which resists changes
in electric current passing through
it. It consists of a conductor
such as a wire, usually wound into
a coil.
When a current flows
through it, energy is
stored temporarily in a magnetic field in the coil. When the
current flowing through an inductor changes, the timevarying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor,
according to
Faradays law
of
electromagnetic
induction, which opposes the change in current that created
it. As a result, inductors always oppose a change in current,
inthe same way that a flywheel oppose a change
in
rotational velocity. Care should be taken not to confuse this
with the resistance provided by a resistor.
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An inductor is characterized by
its inductance, the ratio of the voltage
to the rate of change of current, which
has units of henries (H). Inductors have
values that typically range from 1 H
(106H) to 1 H. Many inductors have
a magnetic
core made
of
iron
or ferriteinside the coil, which serves to
increase the magnetic field and

THEORY

Large 50 MVAR three-phase iron-core loading

inductor at a German utility substation

thus the inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors, inductors

are one of the three passive linear circuit elements that make up
electric circuits.
Inductors are widely used in alternating current (AC) electronic
equipment, particularly in radio equipment. They are used to block
AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed for this purpose
are called chokes. They are also used in electronic filters to
separate signals of different frequencies, and in combination with
capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV
receivers
Series & Parallel Inductor :
Inductors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential
difference (voltage). To find their total equivalent inductance (Leq):

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THEORY

The current through inductors in series stays the same, but

the voltage across each inductor can be different. The sum of
the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total
voltage. To find their total inductance:

CAPACITORS:
A capacitor (originally known as
a condenser) is a passive twoterminal electrical component used
to store energy electrostatically in
an electric field. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but
all contain at least two electrical
conductors (plates) separated by a
dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can
store energy by becoming polarized). The conductors can be thin
films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc.
The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's
charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film,
air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide layer etc. Capacitors are widely
used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical
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devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate

energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of
an electrostatic field between its plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g.,
when a capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric
fielddevelops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to
collect on one plate and negative charge Q to collect on the other
plate. If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient
amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor.
However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of
the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for
its capacitance. Capacitance is expressed as the ratio of the
electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential
difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is
the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V).
Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (1012 F) to
about 1 mF (103 F).
The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation
between conductors and when the conductors have a larger
surface area. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes
a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field
strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors
and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct
current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter
networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant
circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.

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A.C CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION

THEORY

SERIES & PARALLEL CAPCACITORS:

Capacitors follow the same law using the reciprocals. The
total capacitance of capacitors in series is equal to the reciprocal
of the sum of the reciprocals of their individual capacitances:

.
The total capacitance of capacitors in parallel is equal to the sum
of their individual capacitances:

.
The working voltage of a parallel combination of capacitors is
always limited by the smallest working voltage of an individual
capacitor.

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