Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire or Mogul Empire, self-designated as Gurkani , was a Persianate empire
extending

over

large

parts

of

the Indian

subcontinent and

ruled

by

a dynasty of ChagataiTurco-Mongol origin.

The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the founder Babur's victory
over Ibrahim Lodi, the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate in the First Battle of Panipat.
The Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty,
who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan (founder of the Mongol Empire, through
his son Chagatai Khan) and Timur(founder of the Timurid Empire in Persia and Central Asia).
During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by
the Sur Empire. The "classic period" of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension
of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, India enjoyed
economic progress as well as religious harmony, and the monarchs were interested in local
religious and cultural traditions. Akbar was a successful warrior. He also forged alliances with
several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat
to Mughal dominance of northwestern India, but they were subdued by Akbar. All Mughal
emperors were Muslims, except Akbar in the latter part of his life followed a new religion
called Deen-i-Ilahi, as recorded in historical books like Ain-e-Akbari and Dabestan-e Mazaheb.
The Mughal Empire did not try to intervene in the local societies during most of its existence,
but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and diverse and
inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule. Newly
coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and
theSikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through
collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.
The reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He
erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well
as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi, and theLahore Fort. The
Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of Aurangzeb and
also started its terminal decline in his reign due to Maratha military resurgence under Shivaji
Bhosale. During his lifetime, victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to more than
3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles), ruling over more than 150 million
subjects, nearly 1/4th of the world's population, with a combined GDP of over $90 billion.

By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, and won over several
Mughal provinces from the Punjab toBengal, and internal dissatisfaction arose due to the
weakness of the Mughal Empire's administrative and economic systems, leading to the breakup of the empire and declaration of independence of its former provinces by the Nawabs
of Bengal, Oudh, the Nizam of Hyderabad, Shah of Afghanistan and other small states. In
1739, the Mughals were crushingly defeated in the Battle of Karnal by the forces of Nader
Shah, the founder of the Afsharid dynasty in Persia, and Delhi was sacked and looted,
drastically accelerating their decline. During the following century Mughal power had become
severely limited and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city
of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following
the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned,
exiled to Rangoon and the last remnants of the empire were taken over by the British.

Etymology
Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which
reflected the heritage of his dynasty, and was the term preferred by the Mughals
themselves. Another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and
which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the
term "Mughal" was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole. The use of
Mughal, deriving from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and emphasising the
Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty, gained currency during the nineteenth century, but
remains disputed by Indologists. Similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including
"Mogul" and "Moghul". Nevertheless, Babur's ancestors were sharply distinguished from the
classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than TurcoMongol culture.

Babur
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (14 February 1483 26 December 1530; sometimes also
spelt Baber or Babar) was a conqueror from Central Asia who, following a series of setbacks,
finally succeeded in laying the basis for the Mughal dynasty in the Indian subcontinent and
became the first Mughal emperor. He was a direct descendant of Turco-Mongol
conqueror Timur(Timurlane) from the Barlas clan, through his father, and also a descendant
of Genghis Khan through his mother. He was also influenced by the Persian culture and this
affected both his own actions and those of his successors, giving rise to a significant
expansion of the Persianateethos in the Indian subcontinent.

Though born as Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, he was commonly known as Babur. He was
the eldest son of Umar Sheikh Mirza. He ascended the throne of Fergana in 1495 at the age
of twelve and faced rebellion from his own relatives. He conquered Samarkandtwo years later,
only to lose the city of Fergana soon after. In his attempt to reconquer it, he lost control of
Samarkand. In 1501, his attempt to recapture both cities went in vain as he was defeated
by Muhammad Shaybani Khan. In 1504, he conquered Kabul, which was under the rule of the
infant heir of Ulugh Begh. Babur formed a partnership with Safavid ruler Ismail I and
reconquered parts of central Asia including Samarkand, only to loseagain to the Uzbeks.
After losing the city for the third time, Babur turned his attention to creating his empire in north
India. At that time, north India was ruled by Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty. In 1524, Daulat
Khan Lodi invited his nephew, Babur, to overthrow Ibrahim and become ruler. Babur defeated
Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and so founded the Mughal empire.
However, he again had to face opposition, this time from Rana Sanga of Mewar who
considered Babur as a foreigner. The Rana was defeated at the Battle of Khanwa.
Babur

married

several

times.

Notable

among

his

sons

are Humayun, Kamran

Mirza and Hindal Mirza. He died in 1530 and was succeeded by Humayun. According to
Babur's wishes, he was buried in Bagh-e-Babur at Kabul in Afghanistan. Being a patrilineal
descendant of Timur, Babur considered himself as a Timurid and Turk, though Uzbek sources
claim him as an ethnic Uzbek. He is considered a national hero in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.
Many

of

his

poems

also

autobiography, Baburnama,

have

become

in Chaghatai

popular

Turkic and

folk
this

songs.
was

He
later

wrote

his

translated

to Persian during Akbar's reign.

Humayun
Humayun (Persian: ; OS 7 March 1508 OS 27 January 1556) was the
second Mughal Emperor who ruled over territory in what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan, and
parts of northern India from 15311540 and again from 15551556. Like his father,Babur, he
lost his kingdom early, but regained it with the aid of the Safavid dynasty of Persia, with
additional territory. At the time of his death in 1556, the Mughal empire spanned almost one
million square kilometers.
Humayun succeeded his father in 1531, as ruler of the Mughal territories in the Indian
subcontinent. At the age of 23, Humayun was an inexperienced ruler when he came to power.

His half-brother Kamran Mirza inherited Kabul and Lahore, the more northern parts of their
father's empire. Mirza was to become a bitter rival of Humayun.
Humayun

lost Mughal territories

to

the Pashtun noble, Sher

Shah

Suri,

and,

with

Persian(Safavid) aid, regained them 15 years later. Humayun's return from Persia was
accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen and signaled an important change in
Mughal court culture. The Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by
the influences of Persian art,architecture, language and literature. There are many stone
carvings and thousands of Persian manuscripts in India dating from the time of Humayun.
Subsequently, in a very short time, Humayun was able to expand the Empire further, leaving a
substantial legacy for his son, Akbar. His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative
methods of speech earned him the title Insn-i-Kamil (Perfect Man), among the Mughals.[1]

Akbar
Abu'l-Fath Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar, popularly known as Akbar I (IPA: [kbr], literally
"the great"; 15 October 1542 27 October 1605) and later Akbar the Great (Urdu: Akbar-eAzam; literally "Great the Great"), was Mughal Emperor from 1556 until his death. He was the
third and one of the greatest rulers of the Mughal Dynasty in India. Akbar succeeded his
father, Humayun, under a regent, Bairam Khan, who helped the young emperor expand and
consolidate Mughal domains in India. A strong personality and a successful general, Akbar
gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include nearly all of the Indian Subcontinent north of
the Godavari river. His power and influence, however, extended over the entire country
because of Mughal military, political, cultural, and economic dominance. To unify the vast
Mughal state, Akbar established a centralised system of administration throughout his empire
and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage and diplomacy. In
order to preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, he adopted
policies that won him the support of his non-Muslim subjects. Eschewing tribal bonds and
Islamic state identity, Akbar strived to unite far-flung lands of his realm through loyalty,
expressed through a Persianised culture, to himself as an emperor who had near-divine
status.
Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and
greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture. He was fond of
literature,

and

created

library

of

over

24,000

volumes

written

in Sanskrit,Hindustani, Persian, Greek, Latin, Arabic and Kashmiri, staffed by many scholars,

translators, artists, calligraphers, scribes, bookbinders and readers. Holy men of many faiths,
poets, architects and artisans adorned his court from all over the world for study and
discussion. Akbar's courts at Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri became centers of the arts,
letters, and learning. Perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian
elements, and a distinct Indo-Persian culture emerged characterised by Mughal style
arts, painting, and architecture. Disillusioned with orthodox Islam and perhaps hoping to bring
about religious unity within his empire, Akbar promulgated Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic creed derived
from Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity. A simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant in
outlook, it centered on Akbar as a prophet, for which he drew the ire of the ulema and orthodox
Muslims.
Akbar's reign significantly influenced the course of Indian history. During his rule, the Mughal
empire tripled in size and wealth. He created a powerful military system and instituted effective
political and social reforms. By abolishing the sectarian tax on non-Muslims and appointing
them to high civil and military posts, he was the first Mughal ruler to win the trust and loyalty of
the native subjects. He had Sanskrit literature translated, participated in native festivals,
realizing that a stable empire depended on the co-operation and good-will of his subjects.
Thus, the foundations for a multicultural empire under Mughal rule was laid during his reign.
Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Jahangir.

Jahangir
Nur-ud-din Mohammad Salim, known by his imperial name Jahangir (30 August 1569 7
November 1627), was the fourth Mughal Emperor who ruled from 1605 until his death in 1627.
He is considered to be one of the greatest Indian Emperors and the fourth of the Grand
Mughals in Indian historiography. Much romance has gathered around his name, and the tale
of his illicit relationship with the Mughal courtesan, Anarkali, has been widely adapted into the
literature, art and cinema of India.
Jahangir was the eldest surviving son of Mughal Emperor Akbar and was declared successor
to his father from an early age. Impatient for power, however, he revolted in 1599 while Akbar
was engaged in the Deccan. Jahangir was defeated, but ultimately succeeded his father as
Emperor in 1605 because of the immense support and efforts of the ladies in Akbar's harem
like Ruqaiya Sultan Begum, Salima Sultan Begum and his grandmother Maryam Makani. The
ladies wielded considerable influence over Akbar and favoured Jahangir as his successor. The
first year of Jahangir's reign saw a rebellion organized by his eldest son Khusrau Mirza. The

rebellion was soon put down; Khusrau was brought before his father in chains. After subduing
and executing nearly 2000 members of the rebellion, Jahangir blinded his renegade son.
Jahangir built on his father's foundations of excellent administration, and his reign was
characterized by political stability, a strong economy and impressive cultural achievements.
The imperial frontiers continued to move forwardin Bengal, Mewar, Ahmadnagarand the
Deccan. The only major reversal to the expansion came in 1622 when Shah Abbas,
the Safavid Emperor of Iran (Persia), captured Kandahar while Jahangir was battling his
rebellious son, Khusrau in Hindustan. The rebellion of Khurram absorbed Jahangir's attention,
so in the spring of 1623 he negotiated a diplomatic end to the conflict. Much of India was
politically pacified; Jahangir's dealings with the Hindu rulers of Rajputana were particularly
successful, and he settled the conflicts inherited from his father. The Hindu rulers all
accepted Mughal supremacy and in return were given high ranks in the Mughal aristocracy.
Jahangir was fascinated with art, science and architecture. From a young age he showed a
leaning towards painting and had anatelier of his own. His interest in portraiture led to much
development in this artform. The art of Mughal painting reached great heights under Jahangir's
reign. His interest in painting also served his scientific interests in nature. The painter Ustad
Mansur became one of the best artists to document the animals and plants which Jahangir
either encountered on his military exhibitions or received as donations from emissaries of
other countries. Jahangir maintained a huge aviary and a large zoo, kept a record of every
specimen and organised experiments. Jahangir patronized the European and Persian arts. He
promoted Persian culture throughout his empire. This was especially so during the period
when he came under the influence of his Persian Empress, Nur Jahan, and her relatives, who
from 1611 had dominated Mughal politics. Amongst the most highly regarded Mughal
architecture dating from Jahangir's reign is the famous Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir. The
world's first seamless celestial globe was built by Mughal scientistsunder the patronage of
Jahangir.
Jahangir, like his father, was a proper Sunni Muslim with tolerance; he allowed, for example,
the continuation of his father's tradition of public debate between different religions.
The Jesuits were allowed to dispute publicly with Muslim ulema (theologians) and to preach
the Gospel. Jahangir specifically warned his nobles that they "should not force Islam on
anyone. Jizya was not imposed by Jahangir. Edward Terry, an English chaplain in India at the
time, saw a ruler under which "all Religions are tolerated and their Priests [held] in good
esteem." Jahangir enjoyed debating theological subtleties with Brahmins, especially about the
possible existence ofavatars. Both Sunnis and Shias were welcome at court, and members of

both sects gained high office. Sir Thomas Roe, England's first ambassador to the Mughal
court, went as far as labelling Jahangir, who was sympathetic to Christianity, an atheist.
Jahangir was not without his vices. He set the precedent for sons rebelling against their
emperor fathers and was much criticised for his addiction to alcohol, opium, and women. He
was thought of allowing his wife, Nur Jahan, too much power and her continuous plotting at
court is considered to have destabilized the imperium in the final years of his rule. The
situation developed into open crisis when Jahangir's son, Khurram, fearing to be excluded
from the throne, rebelled in 1622. Jahangir's forces chased Khurram and his troops
from Fatehpur Sikri to the Deccan, to Bengal and back to the Deccan, until Khurram
surrendered unconditionally in 1626. The rebellion and court intrigues that followed took a
heavy toll on Jahangir's health. He died in 1627 and was succeeded by Khurram, who took the
imperial throne of Hindustan as the Emperor Shah Jahan.

Shah Jahan
Shahabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan (5 January 1592 22 January 1666) was the
fifth Mughal Emperor of India from 1628 to 1658. Born Prince Khurram, he was the son of
Emperor Jahangir and his Hindu Rajput wife, Taj Bibi Bilqis Makani (13 May 1573 18 April
1619).
He was chosen as successor to the throne after the death of his father in 1627. He was
considered one of the greatest Mughals. Like Akbar, he was eager to expand his vast empire.
In 1658, he fell ill and was confined by his son and successor Aurangzeb in Agra Fortuntil his
death in 1666.
Shah Jahan was a more Orthodox Muslim than his father and grandfather. His policies
towards non-Muslims were less liberal than Jahangir and Akbar.
The period of his reign was considered the golden age of Mughal architecture. Shah Jahan
erected many monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, built in 1632
1654 as a tomb for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.

Aurangzeb
Abul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb (14 October 1618 20 February 1707),
commonly known as Aurangzeb Alamgir and by his imperial title Alamgir ("world-seizer" or

"universe-seizer"), was the sixth Mughal Emperor and ruled over most of the Indian
subcontinent. His reign lasted for 49 years from 1658 until his death in 1707.
Aurangzeb was a notable expansionist and during his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its
greatest extent. During his lifetime, victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to more
than 3.2 million square kilometres and he ruled over a population estimated as being in the
range of 100150 million subjects, with an annual yearly tribute of 38,624,680 in 1690 (the
highest in the world at that time).
Aurangzeb's policies partly abandoned the legacy of pluralism, which remains a very
controversial aspect of his reign. Rebellions and wars led to the exhaustion of the imperial
Mughal treasury and army. He was a strong and effective ruler, but following his death the
expansionary period of the Mughal Empire came to an end, and centralized control of the
empire declined rapidly.

Explanations for the decline

Historians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire
between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. In fiscal terms the throne
lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The
emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central
authorities, and made their own deals with local men of influence. The imperial army, bogged
down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas, lost its fighting spirit. Finally
came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of
emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after
region.
Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed, a theme picked up by the first
British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British-led rejuvenation.
Since the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline, with little consensus
on which factor was dominant. The psychological interpretations emphasize depravity in high
places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an
external challenge. A Marxist school (led by Irfan Habib and based at Aligarh Muslim
University) emphasizes excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which stripped
away the will and the means to support the regime. Karen Leonard has focused on the failure
of the regime to work with Hindu bankers, whose financial support was increasingly needed;

the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British. In a religious interpretation, some
scholars argue that the Hindu Rajputs revolted against Muslim rule. Finally other scholars
argue that the very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of
independence, thus weakening the imperial court.