Waste Management Principles and Practice

Series editor
Timothy G. Townsend

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10428

Timothy G. Townsend Jon Powell

Pradeep Jain Qiyong Xu
Thabet Tolaymat Debra Reinhart

Sustainable Practices
for Landfill Design
and Operation

Timothy G. Townsend
Department of Environmental Engineering
Sciences
Engineering School of Sustainable
Infrastructure and Environment
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL, USA
Pradeep Jain
Innovative Waste Consulting Services, LLC
Gainesville, FL, USA
Thabet Tolaymat
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH, USA

Jon Powell
Innovative Waste Consulting Services, LLC
Gainesville, FL, USA
Qiyong Xu
Peking University Shenzhen
Graduate School
Shenzhen, China
Debra Reinhart
Department of Civil, Environmental
and Construction Engineering
University of Central Florida
Orlando, FL, USA

Waste Management Principles and Practice

ISBN 978-1-4939-2661-9
ISBN 978-1-4939-2662-6
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2662-6

(eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015938593

Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
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broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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Printed on acid-free paper
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(www.springer.com)

Preface

This book was developed for waste and materials management practitioners all over
the world, including researchers, practicing engineers and scientists, municipality
staff and management, landfill operators, and regulatory agencies. The body of
work presented here results from the development of bioreactor landfill design
guidelines for the US Environmental Protection Agencys Office of Research and
Development, along with the combined knowledge and experience of the authors
pertaining to sustainable practices for design and operation of sanitary landfills. We
presume the reader has a basic understanding of landfills, although the initial chapters attempt to set the stage by providing introductory commentary and a discussion
of fundamental landfill concepts (both traditional and sustainable).
Following the introductory Chaps. 13, we provide a series of case studies that
highlight the state of the practice of sustainable landfilling throughout the world.
We sequenced the book so that readers could obtain a practical view of historic and
current practices at operating facilities and how approaches to sustainable landfilling can differ from one location to another. Subsequent chapters are broken up to
present discrete, focused discussion on the various infrastructure components,
design practices, operational considerations, and monitoring elements that promote the more sustainable use of landfills as a component of integrated solid waste
management systems.
This book was not written from a position of advocacy. Although the idea of
accelerating decomposition in landfills has been around for decades, we felt that the
opportunity to present the current state of science, including benefits and concerns,
as well as current limitations and uncertainties, was appropriate, particularly in light
of the significant amount of research and full-scale operational experience in the last
20 years. Furthermore, this text was not intended to be a rigorous design manual
sufficient to completely design landfill-integrating sustainable technologies. Rather,
the book was developed to serve as a tool for designers, regulators, and other parties
interested in sustainable landfill practices and to be used in conjunction with fundamental design methodologies, location-specific regulations, new and emerging
research results, and good engineering judgment. Dozens of graphs, figures, and
tables provided throughout the text provide the designer an excellent foundation to
v

vi

Preface

begin their analysis and apply the principles from this book to their site or facility.
In like fashion, operational experiences are provided throughout, tying in the important underlying fundamental concepts (e.g., accelerated gas production after liquids
addition) to critical operational considerations (e.g., how to effectively collect the
additional gas that is produced).
This book was designed to be assimilated by the reader in two ways. First, for the
novice on the topic of sustainable landfills, a back-to-front reading through the
chapters in sequence will provide an excellent background on sustainable landfilling practices since the chapters are presented in a progressive order; planning considerations are followed by detailed design and operational considerations, which
are in turn followed by end-of-facility-life considerations. Second, for the more
advanced reader, individual chapters may be examined with enough context so that
the reader can apply the information presented in the book to their particular problem without heavy reliance on previous or subsequent chapters.
Gainesville, FL
Gainesville, FL
Gainesville, FL
Shenzhen, China
Cincinnati, OH
Orlando, FL

Timothy G. Townsend
Jon Powell
Pradeep Jain
Qiyong Xu
Thabet Tolaymat
Debra Reinhart

Acknowledgements

The efforts and contributions of numerous people that helped to make this book a
reality must be acknowledged. At the University of Florida, Shaun Alvarado, Jim
Wally, and Longsheng Jiang helped tremendously in organizing the chapters, references, and figures. Dr. Hwidong Kim provided valuable expertise in the development of many of the books figures. At Innovative Waste Consulting Services in
Gainesville, FL, Justin Smith, Lizmarie Maldonado, Ali Bigger, and Saraya Pleasant
all gave their time to conduct analysis, provide editing, and address miscellaneous
formatting requests. Steve Laux at Jones Edmunds and Associates provided excellent practical insight on multiple chapters. Photos and other case study information
were generously provided by Fred Doran at SAIC; Ramin Yazdani at Yolo County,
CA; Marco Ritzkowski at Hamburg University of Technology; Professor Matsufuji
of Fukuoka University in Japan; Scott Merry of the University of the Pacific; Jones
Edmunds and Associates, Gainesville, Florida; and Waste Management Inc.
A special acknowledgement must be given to the numerous collaborators,
researchers, and funding agencies that allowed for such significant development of
our understanding of sustainable landfilling and the benefits and challenges that
sustainable landfilling can provide. Much of the work presented in this book comes
as a result of funding from the Hinkley Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste
Management, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, the New River
Solid Waste Association, the Alachua County Public Works Department, and the
Polk County Waste & Recycling Division.
Finally, the authors also wish to acknowledge each of their families for tolerating
the many long nights and early mornings spent developing this book.

vii

Contents

The Landfills Role in Sustainable Waste Management......................

1.1 Sustainability and Waste Management ............................................
1.2 Non-sustainable Landfilling Practices .............................................
1.3 The Evolution of Modern Landfills .................................................
1.4 Transition from Landfill Disposal to Treatment ..............................
1.5 Practices and Technologies for More Sustainable Landfilling.........
1.6 Scope and Organization of Book .....................................................
References .................................................................................................

1
1
3
5
8
9
11
12

Waste and Landfill Fundamentals ........................................................

2.1 The Solid Waste Universe ................................................................
2.2 Landfill Components........................................................................
2.2.1 Foundation and Liner ...........................................................
2.2.2 Leachate Collection, Removal and Treatment .....................
2.2.3 Landfill Gas Control ............................................................
2.2.4 Landfill Closure ...................................................................
2.3 Landfill Operation ............................................................................
2.4 Waste Stabilization Processes ..........................................................
2.5 Landfill Bioreactor Fundamentals....................................................
References .................................................................................................

13
13
15
16
20
22
24
25
28
31
33

Planning for Sustainable Landfilling Practices ....................................

3.1 The Importance of Planning.............................................................
3.2 Defining Project Objectives .............................................................
3.3 Regulatory Constraints and Considerations .....................................
3.3.1 U.S. Regulations ..................................................................
3.3.2 European Union Regulations ...............................................
3.4 Engineering Design Considerations.................................................
3.4.1 Design Differences with Sustainable Landfill Practices ......
3.4.2 Liquids Management ...........................................................
3.4.3 Managing Landfill Gas ........................................................
3.4.4 Other Design Considerations for Sustainable Landfills .......

35
35
36
37
37
39
39
39
41
43
44
ix

Contents

3.5 Operation and Monitoring................................................................

3.6 Closure and Aftercare ......................................................................
3.7 Economic Considerations ................................................................
3.8 Life-Cycle and Sustainability Considerations .................................
References .................................................................................................

45
46
47
48
50

State of Practice.......................................................................................
4.1 The Evolution of Sustainable Landfill Research
and Application ................................................................................
4.2 Full-Scale Case Studies: North America .........................................
4.2.1 Delaware Solid Waste Authority..........................................
4.2.2 Alachua County Southwest Landfill ....................................
4.2.3 Yolo County Landfill ...........................................................
4.2.4 New River Regional Landfill ...............................................
4.2.5 Crow Wing County Landfill.................................................
4.2.6 Polk County North Central Landfill.....................................
4.2.7 Outer Loop Landfill .............................................................
4.3 International Experience ..................................................................
4.3.1 Europe ..................................................................................
4.3.2 Asia ......................................................................................
4.3.3 Australia ...............................................................................
References .................................................................................................

53
53
56
56
57
62
66
73
75
80
84
84
86
87
88

Landfill Constituent Relationships and Dynamics ..............................

5.1 Landfill Components and Their Movement .....................................
5.2 Fundamental Properties of Landfill Waste .......................................
5.2.1 Phase Relationships .............................................................
5.2.2 Density .................................................................................
5.2.3 Porosity ................................................................................
5.2.4 Moisture Content .................................................................
5.3 Moisture Movement .........................................................................
5.3.1 Saturated Flow and Hydraulic Conductivity ........................
5.3.2 Unsaturated Flow .................................................................
5.3.3 Predicting Moisture Movement ...........................................
5.3.4 Dominant Factors Controlling Leachate Flow .....................
5.4 Gas and Air Movement ....................................................................
5.4.1 Production of Landfill Gas ...................................................
5.4.2 Gas Movement in Landfill Waste.........................................
5.5 Solids Movement .............................................................................
5.5.1 Waste Settlement ..................................................................
5.5.2 Landfill Movement...............................................................
5.6 Multiphase Dynamics ......................................................................
References .................................................................................................

93
93
94
94
94
98
99
103
104
107
110
113
117
118
118
120
120
123
126
127

Contents

xi

Moisture Supply and Conveyance .........................................................

6.1 Designing for Moisture Addition .....................................................
6.2 Moisture Sources .............................................................................
6.2.1 Options for Moisture Sources ..............................................
6.2.2 Leachate ...............................................................................
6.2.3 Stormwater and Groundwater ..............................................
6.2.4 Wastewater and Spent Aqueous Products ............................
6.2.5 Wet Wastes and Biosolids ....................................................
6.3 Moisture Addition Targets ...............................................................
6.3.1 Establishing Moisture Addition Requirements ....................
6.3.2 Determining Moisture Addition Rates .................................
6.4 Conveyance Systems for Liquids Addition......................................
6.5 Addition of Wet Wastes ...................................................................
References .................................................................................................

133
133
134
134
134
136
137
138
139
139
141
142
148
150

Systems for Surface Addition of Liquids ..............................................

7.1 Surface System Fundamentals .........................................................
7.2 Surface System Configuration .........................................................
7.2.1 Tanker Truck Application ....................................................
7.2.2 Spray Application ................................................................
7.2.3 Drip Irrigation ......................................................................
7.2.4 Surface Ponding ...................................................................
7.2.5 Surface Trenches ..................................................................
7.3 Design Methodology........................................................................
7.3.1 Direct Wetting, Spray and Drip Irrigation ...........................
7.3.2 Surface Ponding ...................................................................
7.3.3 Surface Trenches ..................................................................
References .................................................................................................

151
151
152
152
154
155
156
158
159
160
161
162
163

Buried Vertical Systems for Liquids Addition......................................

8.1 Vertical Well Fundamentals .............................................................
8.2 Configuration, Construction and Materials ......................................
8.2.1 Construction Techniques ......................................................
8.2.2 Large Diameter Surface Wells .............................................
8.2.3 Small Diameter Surface Wells .............................................
8.3 Design Methodology........................................................................
8.4 Flow Rates........................................................................................
8.4.1 Operational Experience........................................................
8.4.2 Estimation Methods .............................................................
8.5 Saturated Zone Profiles ....................................................................
8.6 Liquids Addition Device Spacing ....................................................
8.7 Operation, Monitoring and Closure .................................................
References .................................................................................................

165
165
166
166
169
170
174
176
176
177
180
181
183
187

xii

Contents

Buried Horizontal Systems for Liquids Addition ................................

9.1 Subsurface Horizontal System Fundamentals ...............................
9.2 Configuration, Construction and Materials ....................................
9.2.1
Buried Trenches ...............................................................
9.2.2
Blankets............................................................................
9.2.3
Combined Systems...........................................................
9.3 Design Methodology......................................................................
9.4 Flow Rates......................................................................................
9.4.1
Operational Experience ....................................................
9.4.2
Flow Estimation Methods ................................................
9.5 Saturated Zone Profiles ..................................................................
9.6 Device Spacing ..............................................................................
9.7 Operation, Monitoring and Closure ...............................................
References .................................................................................................

189
189
190
190
200
202
202
208
208
210
212
213
218
219

10

Leachate Collection and Removal Systems (LCRS) ............................

10.1 Leachate Removal Fundamentals ..................................................
10.2 Predicting Leachate Impingement .................................................
10.2.1 Impingement Basics .........................................................
10.2.2 Prediction Using HELP....................................................
10.2.3 Impingement Prediction for Specific Liquids
Addition Methods ............................................................
10.3 Predicting Leachate Head on Liner................................................
10.3.1 Single Layer Granular System .........................................
10.3.2 Single Layer Geonet System............................................
10.3.3 Multi-Layered System .....................................................
10.4 Foundation Settlement Considerations ..........................................
10.5 LCRS Clogging..............................................................................
10.5.1 Clogging Mechanisms .....................................................
10.5.2 Clogging Potential in Sustainable Landfill Operations .....
10.5.3 Addressing Clogging in Design .......................................
10.5.4 Addressing Clogging in Operation ..................................
References .................................................................................................

221
221
224
224
225

11

Leachate Control, Storage, and Treatment ..........................................

11.1 Leachate Management Fundamentals ............................................
11.2 Controlling Stormwater Run-on and Runoff .................................
11.3 Managing Leachate Seeps..............................................................
11.3.1 Seep Formation ................................................................
11.3.2 Seep Prevention Strategies ...............................................
11.3.3 Seep Management Strategies ...........................................
11.4 Leachate Storage ............................................................................
11.5 Leachate Treatment ........................................................................
11.5.1 Conventional Leachate Treatment Processes ...................
11.5.2 Leachate Treatment Considerations for Sustainable
Landfill Operations ..........................................................
References .................................................................................................

228
230
230
232
233
234
238
238
239
240
240
241
243
243
244
245
247
250
254
255
258
260
263
265

Contents

xiii

12

Slope Stability ..........................................................................................

12.1 Landfill Slope Stability ..................................................................
12.2 Slope Stability Fundamentals ........................................................
12.3 Methods for Assessing Slope Stability ..........................................
12.4 Examining Slope Failure Mechanisms at Wet Landfills ................
12.5 Design Recommendations for Slope Setback Distance .................
References .................................................................................................

267
267
268
271
274
278
280

13

Landfill Gas .............................................................................................

13.1 Importance of Gas Collection in Sustainable
Landfill Operation ..........................................................................
13.2 LFG Generation, Control, and Design fundamentals ....................
13.2.1 GCCS Basics....................................................................
13.2.2 Prediction of LFG Generation .........................................
13.3 Design and Operation Challenges ..................................................
13.3.1 Accelerated Gas Production .............................................
13.3.2 Issues with Increased Moisture ........................................
13.4 LFG Regulations for Bioreactor Landfills .....................................
13.5 Design and Operation Strategies ....................................................
13.5.1 Impacts on GCCS Infrastructure ......................................
13.5.2 Design Considerations for Vertical Wells ........................
13.5.3 Design Strategies Using Horizontal Collectors ...............
13.5.4 Integrating LCRS Into GCCS Design ..............................
13.5.5 Surface Gas Collection Systems ......................................
13.5.6 Downward Collection Systems ........................................
13.5.7 Delayed Liquids Addition ................................................
13.5.8 Methane Oxidation...........................................................
References .................................................................................................

281
281
283
283
287
289
289
294
294
296
298
298
299
300
305
306
307
309
310

Landfill Air Addition ..............................................................................

14.1 The Role of Air Addition in Landfill Operation ............................
14.2 Achieving Benefits from Air Addition...........................................
14.3 Air Addition System Configuration and Design ............................
14.3.1 Design Objectives ............................................................
14.3.2 Air Addition Rate.............................................................
14.3.3 Air Addition System Infrastructure .................................
14.4 Operation, Monitoring and Control ...............................................
14.4.1 Operation..........................................................................
14.4.2 Explosive Gas Control .....................................................
14.4.3 Fire Prevention and Control .............................................
14.4.4 Control of Fugitive Emissions .........................................
14.5 Air Addition Experience ................................................................
14.5.1 Asia ..................................................................................
14.5.2 Europe ..............................................................................
14.5.3 North America .................................................................
References .................................................................................................

313
313
314
320
321
321
325
327
327
330
331
333
333
333
336
337
341

14

xiv

Contents

15

Operations ...............................................................................................
15.1 Importance of Operations ..............................................................
15.2 Operator Duties and Expectations .................................................
15.3 The Operations Plan.......................................................................
15.4 Construction, Oversight, and Recordkeeping ................................
15.5 Liquids Addition Operation and Monitoring .................................
15.5.1 Liquids Addition Operation .............................................
15.5.2 Tracking the Liquid Balance ............................................
15.5.3 Inspection .........................................................................
15.6 Gas and Air System Operation and Monitoring ............................
15.7 Monitoring System Performance ...................................................
References .................................................................................................

345
345
346
347
347
350
350
352
354
355
356
359

16

Tools and Techniques for Landfill Monitoring.....................................

16.1 Monitoring Locations and Parameters ...........................................
16.2 Liquid Volume, Depth, and Pressure .............................................
16.3 Leachate Chemical Composition ...................................................
16.3.1 Sample Collection and Field Parameter Measurement ....
16.3.2 Organic Strength Measurements ......................................
16.3.3 Inorganic Strength Measurements ...................................
16.3.4 Nutrient Analysis .............................................................
16.3.5 Trace Constituent Analysis ..............................................
16.4 Gas Volume, Pressure, and Flux ....................................................
16.4.1 Flow Rate and Pressure ....................................................
16.4.2 Surface Emissions ............................................................
16.5 Chemical Composition of Gas .......................................................
16.5.1 Bulk LFG Constituents ....................................................
16.5.2 Trace Constituents............................................................
16.6 Landfill Volume, Density, and Topography ...................................
16.6.1 Surface Topography .........................................................
16.6.2 Density (Specific Weight) Estimation ..............................
16.6.3 Settlement Measurement Techniques ..............................
16.6.4 Slope Measurements ........................................................
16.7 Excavated Solids Properties ...........................................................
16.7.1 Solids Collection Techniques ...........................................
16.7.2 Solids Analytical Procedures ...........................................
16.8 In Situ Moisture, Temperature, and Pressure .................................
16.8.1 Temperature Measurement...............................................
16.8.2 Moisture Measurement Techniques .................................
16.8.3 In Situ Pressure Measurement .........................................
References .................................................................................................

361
361
363
364
366
367
369
370
371
371
372
373
375
375
376
377
377
378
378
380
381
382
383
385
385
387
390
393

17

Final Landfill Disposition .......................................................................

17.1 End of Life Considerations ............................................................
17.2 Elements of the Closure and Post-closure Process ........................
17.2.1 Closure System Design ....................................................
17.2.2 Planning Consideration for Closure and Post-closure ......

397
397
398
398
400

Contents

xv

17.3 Closure Considerations for Sustainable Landfills ..........................

17.3.1 Waste Filling ....................................................................
17.3.2 Alternative Cover Systems ...............................................
17.3.3 Leachate and Gas Management .......................................
17.4 Determination of End of Post-closure Care ...................................
17.5 Landfill Reclamation and Reuse ....................................................
17.5.1 Landfill Reclamation Fundamentals ................................
17.5.2 The Reclamation Process .................................................
17.5.3 Design, Permitting, and Operation
of Reclamation Projects ...................................................
17.5.4 Reclaimed Material Composition ....................................
17.6 Final Site Use and Configuration ...................................................
References .................................................................................................

402
402
404
406
408
410
410
412
418
419
421
422

18

Economics ................................................................................................
18.1 Overview ........................................................................................
18.2 Fundamentals of Landfill Economics ............................................
18.2.1 Cost Elements ..................................................................
18.2.2 Revenue Sources ..............................................................
18.2.3 Financial Assurance .........................................................
18.2.4 Economy of Scale ............................................................
18.3 Costs and Benefits of Sustainable Landfill Practices .....................
18.3.1 Liquids Management .......................................................
18.3.2 Gas Management .............................................................
18.3.3 Air Space Recovery .........................................................
18.3.4 Social Costs......................................................................
18.4 Costs and Benefits After Landfill Closure .....................................
18.4.1 Post Closure Care Costs ...................................................
18.4.2 Landfill Reclamation........................................................
References .................................................................................................

425
425
426
426
430
431
432
432
433
434
435
437
438
438
439
440

19

The Role of Landfills in Integrated Materials and Energy

Recovery Facilities ..................................................................................
19.1 Landfills, Energy, and Resource Recovery ....................................
19.2 The Role of Landfills in Integrated Waste Management ...............
19.3 Beneficial Use of LFG ...................................................................
19.3.1 Electricity Generation ......................................................
19.3.2 Medium Energy Content Applications ............................
19.3.3 High Energy Content Applications ..................................
19.4 Additional Energy Opportunities ...................................................
19.4.1 Solar Power at Sustainable Landfills ...............................
19.5 Wind Power at Sustainable Landfills .............................................
19.6 Landfills as Waste Treatment and Materials
Recovery Operations ......................................................................
References .................................................................................................

443
443
444
446
446
448
448
450
451
454
457
460

Index ................................................................................................................. 461

Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Initialisms

ACSWL
BMP
BOD
BTU
C&D
CDM
CFR
CHP
COD
CPT
CPVC
CSWMC
DI
DO
DOE
DPT
DSWA
EIA
EGC
ERT
ET
EU
FEMA
FID
FOS
FTIR
GCCS
GHG
GCL
GPS
HDPE

Alachua County Southwest Landfill

Biochemical methane potential
Biochemical oxygen demand
British thermal units
Construction and demolition
Clean development mechanism
Code of Federal Regulations (USA)
Combined heat and power
Chemical oxygen demand
Cone penetration test
Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride
Central Solid Waste Management Center
Deionized (water)
Dissolved oxygen
Department of Energy (USA)
Direct push technology
Delaware Solid Waste Authority
Energy Information Administration (USA)
Exposed geomembrane cap
Electrical resistivity tomography
Evapotranspiration
European Union
Federal Emergency Management Agency (USA)
Flame ionization detector
Factor of safety
Fourier transform infrared (spectroscopy)
Gas collection and control system
Greenhouse gas
Geosynthetic clay liner
Global positioning system
High-density polyethylene
xvii

xviii

HELP
HIL
HIT
HOL
IPCC
ITRC
LCA
LCI
LCRS
LFG
LLDPE
LMOP
LRF
MBT
MC
MSW
MSW-DST
MTG
NESHAP
NMOC
NRRL
NRSWA
O&M
Open-Path FTIR
ORP
PCC
PCNCLF
PGTT
PID
POTW
PVC
PW
RCRA
RD&D
RFM
RO
SCADA
SPT
SSI
TKN
TDR
TDS
TEPC
TOC

Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Initialisms

Hydraulic evaluation of landfill performance

Horizontal injection lines
Horizontal injection trenches
Head on the liner
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council
Life cycle analysis
Life cycle inventory
Leachate Collection and Removal System
Landfill gas
Linear low-density polyethylene
Landfill Methane Outreach Program
Leachate recirculation feature
Mechanical biological treatment
Gravimetric moisture content
Municipal solid waste
Municipal Solid Waste Decision Support Tool
Moisture, temperature, and gas
National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
(USA)
Non-methane organic compounds
New River Regional Landfill
New River Solid Waste Association
Operation and Maintenance
Open-path Fourier transform infrared microscopy
Oxidationreduction potential
Post-closure care
Polk County North Central Landfill
Partitioning gas tracer test
Photoionization detector
Publicly owned treatment works
Polyvinyl chloride
Present worth
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (USA)
Research development and demonstration
Rainfall modification
Reverse osmosis
Supervisory control and data acquisition
Standard penetration test
Subsurface inflow
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
Time-domain reflectometry
Total dissolved solids
Total earth pressure cells
Total organic carbon

Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Initialisms

TOUGH
UCL
USACE
USEPA
USGS
VFA
WRATE
WTE

Transport of unsaturated groundwater and heat-landfill gas migration

Upper confidence level
United States Army Corps of Engineers
United States Environmental Protection Agency
United States Geological Survey
Volatile fatty acids
Waste and resources assessment tool for the environment
Waste-to-energy

Units
ft
kPa
lpm
m
SCFM

xix

Foot/feet
Kilopascal
Liter per minute
Meter
Standard cubic feet per minute