TV Lighting

8
TV LIGHTING
1.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Lighting for television is very exciting and needs creative talent. There is always a
tremendous scope for doing experiments to achieve the required effect. Light is a kind
of electromagnetic radiation with a visible spectrum from red to violet i.e. wave length
from 700 nm to 380 nm respectively. However to effectively use the hardware and
software connected with lighting it is important to know more about this energy.

Light Source
Any light source has a Luminance intensity (I) which is measured in Candelas. Candela
is equivalent to an intensity released by standard one candle source of light.

Luminance Flux (F)

It is a radiant energy weighted by the photopic curve and is measured in Lumens. One
Lumen is the luminous flux emitted by a point source of 1 Candela.

Illumination (E)
It is a Luminous Flux incident onto a surface. It is measured in LUMENS/m 2, which is
also called as LUX. A point source of 1 candela at a uniform distance of 1 metre from a
surface of 1 square metre gives illumination of 1 LUX.

Luminance (l)
It is a measure of the reflected light from a surface. Measured in Apostils. A surface that
reflects a total flux of 1 lumen/m2 has a luminance of 1 Apostils.

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1m
1m
Point
Source
1 Cd.

1m
1m
1 LUMEN

Fig. 1 Illumination of 1 Lumen from a surface of 1metre/m2

Elementary theory of light also says that :
Illu min ation, E

(dis tan ce from the source) d 2

Total Incident flux
F
This is also equal to
or

Area
A
1
F
Hence E 2
A
d

Colour Temperature
One may wonder, how the light is associated with colour. Consider a black body being
heated, you may observe the change in colour radiated by this body as the temperature
is increased. The colour radiated by this body changes from red dish to blue and then to
white as the temperature is further increased. This is how the concept of relating colour
with temperature became popular. Colour temperature is measured in degree Kelvin i.e.
( o C 273) . The table below gives idea about the kind of radiation from different kinds
of lamps in terms of colour temperature.
Standard candle
Gas filled tungsten lamp
Projection bulb
Flash-bulb
HMI lamp
Electronic flash tube
Average day light
Blue sky

1930o K
2760o K
3200o K
3800o K
6500o K
6000o K
6500o K
12000 - 18000o K

By measuring the energy content of the source over narrow bands at the red and blue
ends of the spectrum the approximate colour temperature can be determined. All the
colour temperature meter are based on this principle.

2.

COLOUR FILTERS AND THEIR USE

Colour filters are used to modify the colour temperature of lights and to match colour
temperature for cameras while shooting with different colour temperature, e.g., indoor
and outdoor etc.
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Generally it is normal to correct daylight to produce tungsten quality light by using

orange filters. However, when the amount of such light to be corrected is more, it may
be more practical to convert tungsten lamp to daylight, but with a considerably reduced
light output form the luminaries by using blue filters.
For certain situations like, sunrise and sunset the light is more yellow than midday, so a
careful note should be made of the Transmission factor of each of the filters. Often a
compromise has to be reached in terms of correction and light loss. For example full
correction may cause too much loss of light, so "half correction", although not ideal, may
be used.
Full colour temperature blue
1/2 colour temperature blue
2/4 colour temperature blue
Full colour temperature orange
1/2 colour temperature orange
1/4 colour temperature orange

37%
56%
69%
55%
70%
80%

3200 - 5700 o K
3200 - 4300 o K
3200 - 3600 o K
5700 - 3200 o K
5700 - 3800 o K
5700 - 4600 o K

Neutral Density Filters

In addition to colour temperature correction some times it may be necessary to reduce
the intensity of day light at an interior location. Neutral density filters are available which
can be used to attenuate exterior light. Three filters are available :
0.3 Density which has a transmission of 50%.
0.6 Density which has a transmission of 25%
0.9 Density which has a transmission of 13%

Combination of CTC Filters and neutral Density Filters

Single filters exist which are a combination of full colour temperature orange and neutral
density as follows :
Full orange + 0.3 N.D. with a transmission of 50%.
Full orange + 0.6 N.D. with a transmission of 38%.
The HMI light source has a colour temperature of about 6000 o K and can be used with
exterior day light without the need for a colour temperature correction filter.

Mired Rating for Filters

The change of colour temperature of a filter is usually measured in mired (1 mired =
1,000,000)/o K. This is because the same filter which reduces a colour temperature of
3,200o K to 2,500o K would reduce a colour temperature of 7,000o K to 4,500o K.
Example : Suppose a C.T.C. filter used on a light source of 3000o K changed the colour
temperature to 4000o K then :

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10 6
333 MIREDS
3000
10 6
MIRED value of light source + filter
250 MIREDS
4000

MIRED value of light source

So the MIRED shift produced by the filter is -83 MIREDS

If the same filter were to be used on a light source of colour temperature of 5000
can estimate the new colour temperature as follows :
MIRED value of light source
MIRED shift of C.T.C. Filter

10 6

5000

K we

200

-83

New MIRED value of light source plus the filter =

117 MIREDS

So, new colour temperature

8500o K

The blue filter used in the above example, increased the colour temperature but
decreased the MIRED value.
If an orange filter had been used it would have reduced the colour temperature and
increased the MIRED value.

Important Points About CTC

Colour Correction Filters can be used on cameras, luminaries, and windows.
The reduction of light is the same in each case, if the same kind of filter is used.
The difference between day light and incandescent light colour temperature is
about 144 mired.
A blue filter which raises the colour temperature for 90 mired absorbs about 70%
of the light passing through. An orange filter which reduces the colour
temperature for the same amount of 96 mired absorbs only 35% of the light.
Since incandescent light with blue filters is very ineffective and uneconomic,
carbon arc lamps (brutes) or HMI - Lamps are normally used under day light
conditions. These luminaries have a colour spectrum which comes very close to
that of sunlight and their light output per watt is much higher than that of
incandescent lamps.
If light of different colour temperature is desired in a scene, the following
procedures are often applied :

Consider a moonlight night exterior with natural light sources inside. The
difference between the two will be about 140 mired. Luminaries to simulate
moonlight are filtered blue - (140 mired) and objects illuminated with this
light will appear deep blue while objects under natural sources can be

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under white light. If an orange filter of about + 70 mired is used on the
camera, the white light of the natural sources will appear slightly orange,
the moonlight will come but less blue.

Luminaries which are to imitate light of natural sources such as candles or

kerosene lamps should be filtered slightly orange (about + 70 mired). Fill
light must remain white or very lightly blue, as the orange hue of the key
lights would otherwise remain unnoticed by the audience.

Filtered light in dark areas of a picture will render much higher colour saturation,
in very light areas colours become whitish and de saturated. This fact should be
taken into account when selecting filters for key lights or fill light.
Under natural sunlight the fill light contains usually slightly more blue than the key
light. If sunlight must be imitated, in a studio, it is advisable to give the fill light a
slight blue hue.
Colour television monitors in a studio have a colour temperature of about 6500 o
K. If they are photographed by another camera their screens should be covered
by an orange gel of about - 100 mired.

3.

LIGHTING EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATION

Light intensity : The sensitivity of the camera determines the light intensities
required. This sensitivity will be based on the camera pick up device tube
(Vidicon, Plumbicon or CCDs).
Height of Studio grid : The maximum height of the luminaries and their throw is
directly related to the height of grids. This factor coupled with camera sensitivity
fixes the wattage of the luminaries.
Turn round time : The delay one can afford for changing a lighting set up
decides the type of suspension system for a studio. More flexible systems offer
the quickest turn round.
Light levels : Required light levels can be obtained by keeping in mind the
following considerations. For a lighting level of 500 - 800 LUX, the wattage
required is about 250 Watts/m2. Similarly for a level of 1000 - 1600 LUX, it is
about 500 Watts/m2.

The Incandescent Light Source

The most common form of light source used in television studios is the incandescent
(hot filament) lamp. It is simple in operation and construction. It can easily be dimmed,
and it does not require auxiliary equipment like chokes etc. it has a continuous spectrum
output. The main disadvantages are that most of the power input is dissipated as heat
and the lamps have a limited life. New forms of construction however have produced
lamps with higher efficiency and longer life.
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a)

The Basic Tungsten Filament Lamp

Tungsten wire has resistance and is capable of dissipating power in the form of heat. If
sufficient electrical energy is supplied to raise the filament temperature above
approximately 5000 C, light is emitted. Oxygen has to be excluded to avoid combustion.
The filament is enclosed in an evacuated glass bulb. The tungsten filament has light
emitting characteristics similar to those of a black body radiator, where high temperature
provides greater efficiency and higher colour temperature. But this lamp usually fails
because of evaporation of filament, the higher the filament temperature the higher the
rate of evaporation. This causes the filament to become thinner, thus reducing the light
output and colour temperature. The inside of the bulb is darkened by the deposition of
evaporated filament. This deposit absorbs some of the light thus reducing its intensity.
The evaporation can be reduced by having a suitable gas (which does not attack the
filament) into the bulb. However the gas molecules conduct the heat away from the
filament and in order to conserve the heat the filament is wound as a tight coil. This gas
enables them to be run at temperatures several hundred degrees higher than those of
vacuum lamps. Evaporation and bulb blackening still take place in the gas-filled lamp
and in order to reduce its effect a large surface for condensation is required. Hence
these studio lamps has very large bulb. Even then towards the end of the filament life,
this deposited layer reduces the light output and colour temperature to unacceptable
levels.
Increasing the pressure of the gas filling may suppress the ratio of evaporation, but the
sizes used are not capable of withstanding more pressure. Use of smaller bulbs in
harder glasses or silica permit the use of higher pressures but the advantage gained is
lost by virtue of the smaller surface area for condensation.
b)

Tungsten Halogen Lamps (Tungsten Iodine or Quartz Iodine Lamps)

Tungsten halogen lamp is a major break through in lamp design. By the chemical
removal of the deposited tungsten on the bulb the light output has been increased to
100%. The useful life is at least double that of normal tungsten filament lamps and the
lamp is physically smaller.

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Fig. 2 Comparison of size and performance of normal Tungsten and tungsten
halogen lamp
Halogen is a general term for a family of very reactive elements like, fluorine, chlorine,
bromine and iodine. Each of these combine with tungsten in a reversible reaction which
is controlled by temperature. At present the halogen used is iodine or bromine.
Halogen vapour is colourless and at bulb temperatures between 250 - 8000 o C combines
with the deposited tungsten to form tungsten halide in vapour form. At temperatures
above 1250o C, encountered in the region of the filament, the tungsten halide dissociates
- tungsten being deposited on the filament, and halogen being released to repeat the
cycle. It would appear that we now have a lamp with a bulb which never blackens and
an ever-lasting filament.
The tungsten however does not deposit itself back from where it came but on the cooler
part of the filament. Because of the high bulb temperatures involved and small size the
glass has to be strong, so it is made fused silica (quarts). This also enable to have high
gas pressure, which can be 4 times or more than the normal lamps. This reduces
filament evaporation and gives an extension to filament life.
Quartz bulbs should not be touched by hand since minute quantities of acid so deposited
will attack the glass when it is heated. This lamp has an efficiency of 20 Lumens per
watt.

Compact Source Iodide (CSI) Lamp

CSI is gas discharge light source. It produces white light at higher efficiency then
halogens. This lamp is small and bright. It consists a glass envelope which contain
suitable gas vapour and two electrodes. When suitable voltage is applied between the
electrodes the gas gets ionized. This results in :

A discharge current which has to be limited by some external means, usually an

inductor for ac. Operation.
Emission of radiation wave lengths is inversely proportional to quantity of energy
released.
Increase in temperature and pressure.

The low pressure sodium lamp is a well known example of a discharge lamp. The
radiation produced in a low pressure mercury vapour discharge tube is mainly ultra-violet
and use is made of this in the fluorescent tube, the ultra-violet energy excites the
fluorescent power coating of the tube to produce visible radiation. The radiation from a
mercury vapour lamp within the visible spectrum is increased if the gas pressure is
increased to about 20 x atmospheric pressure.

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Fig. 3 CSI Lamp

Addition of metal iodides in the high pressure mercury vapour improve the colour
rendering properties of a light source. These kinds of light sources are called as
compact Source Iodide Lamp. The gas discharge raises the temperature and causes
the metal iodide to evaporate. This causes the metal atoms to release from the iodine
molecule. The metal atoms after collision with electrons in the arc and make a
significant contribution to the total radiation. Protection of the envelope from the
corrosive effects of the liberated metals is by a process like halogen cycle in tungsten
filament lamps. The metal atoms do not stay in the high temperature zones but migrates
towards the cooler wall where, recombination takes place between the metal and the
iodine atoms to form the metal iodine again. The metal itself is thus not present in the
lower temperature zone close to the wall, and the envelope is thereby protected from
corrosion.

Starting a CSI lamp : The pressure inside a CSI lamp when cold is below
atmospheric. At this pressure a starting pulse of about 10 kilo-volts is
required to cause ionization. Once the lamp has been ionized the arc
voltage falls to about 80V. The warm up period of these lamps is about 30
seconds, during which time the colour of the light changes from the
purple-blue mercury radiation to white radiation indicating the evaporation
and dissociation of the metal iodides. When used with ac. supplies the
lamp will be extinguished when the cycle of voltage falls below 80 V, but
since between successive half cycles the gas does not have time to deionize it will strike again as soon as the next half cycles rises above 80 V.
If the lamp is switched off for a few seconds de-ionization will occur and it
is then impossible to ionize the gas until the lamp cools for several
minutes. This is because at the working temperature of the lamp the gas
pressure is at about 15 atmospheres, and would require about four times
the available striking voltages.
The CSI lamp has a life of approximately 200 hours. The most common cause of failure
is a seal leakage or fracture. Usually before complete failure the light output has falls to
a level which requires the lamp to be changed.

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Important points

The CSI lamp when cold has a gas pressure below atmospheric (0.25 atm) and there
is no risk of explosive failure when handling. However, in operation the gas pressure
builds up inside the lamp (10-25 atm) and there is a risk of the bulb exploding. It is
important, therefore, that the lamp is always used in an enclosed fitting. The main
danger occurs when a short term mains failure causes the lamp to extinguish, the
lamp will not start and gives the impression of a lamp failure. Any action to change
the lamp in these conditions, i.e. when the lamp is hot, is dangerous. It is therefore
recommended that if failure is suspected the lamp is allowed to cool for at least ten
minutes to allow the internal pressure of the lamp to reduce to a safe level before
any attempt is made to change the lamp.

The CSI lamp emits ultra-violet radiation in addition to the visible light. This ultraviolet radiation is harmful as it can cause severe burning of the skin and damage to
the retina of the eye. To prevent this from happening, avoid looking directly at the
light source and use a glass plate over the open luminaries.

Dimming Control : The CSI lamp is not suitable for use in applications where dimming
of the light source is required. This is because of the 30 second warm up
period and the re-strike of 2-5 minutes. 1 kW CSI lamp gives a lamp throw of
75 feet, the illuminated area is a 10 foot diameter circle at an illumination of
approximately 2000 LUX.
The equipment associated with the CSI lamp namely the current limiting inductor, is
remote from the luminaries. This light is mostly used as a follow spot or an effect
projector.

The HMI Metal Halide Discharge Lamp

Sodium and Mercury vapour were the two main gases used with gas discharge lights.
Though these light were more efficient than tungsten lights but these are not popular in
TV because of their colour and quality of light.
The improvement in the discharge light spectrum came with the development of the
metal halide. In these lamps rare earth elements are added in their halide form to
produce a more continuous visible spectrum and a "whiter" light source.
The HMI Lamp : H stands for mercury, M for medium arc and I for Iodide. The CSI and
the HMI lamps operate on the same principle. They use mercury vapour as the
basic gas but the spectrum is largely determined by the rare earth metals that
are added in their halide form. The principle metals used are thallium,
dysprosium and holmium, the latter two being the metals used in current HMI
bulbs.

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Fig. 4 HMI - Bulb

Wattage rating of HMI bulbs : HMI bulbs are available in a range of sizes 200
W, 1200 W, 2500 W and 4000 W. They have a luminous efficiency of
about 90 lumens/watt and are therefore much brighter than an equally
rated tungsten bulb.
Operation of HMI bulbs : A striking voltage of 24 kV is used with HMI to ensure
that the bulb can be instantly restarted when the lamp is hot. This voltage
is necessary to ensure the restrike with the high gas pressure inside the
hot bulb. This removes the major problem of CSI lamps
Like all other discharge source a choke is used to limit the current when the lamp is
running. HMI has a colour temperature of 60000 oK. it takes several minutes after first
striking for the lamp to reach this colour temperature. The initial colour is blue due to
the mercury vapour, but gradually the light "whitens" as the metal halides dissociate to
add more red and green content to the spectrum. When viewed with the naked eye or
colour camera the lamp could possible appear more magenta then daylight. In this case
a white flame green filter will assist in removing the magenta appearance of the lamp.
Filters may also be necessary to equalize the colour temperature of HMI bulbs.
With an orange filter the HMI bulb can be made to approximate to tungsten light, but the
main use of a high colour temperature source is to mix in with daylight.

High Frequency Fluorescent Light Sources

High frequency Fluorescent light sources emits 70 - 100 lumen/watt as compared to 25
lumen/watt of tungsten halogen lamps. Tungsten halogen has very poor efficiency and
converts lot of input into heat in the studios, whereas these lights convert 33% of the
input power into visible light as compared to 10 to 15% of the Tungsten halogen.
A firm of VIDESSENCE in USA has developed this system of high frequency fluorescent
lights. The range of fixture available is from 17 watt to 832 watt, with a range of colour
temperature from 2700o K, 3000o K, 3500o K & 4100o K.
Each fixture incorporate an integral dimmer and control electronics. The control
electronics produce app. 33 kHz drive for the lamps. 100% to 20% dimming is possible
without reduction in colour temperature. These lights are free from radiations and flicker.

Light Fitting Mountings

a)
b)
c)

Stands - portable with varying height.

Grids - hanging them with the help of clamps and safety chain on grids.
Various kind of grids :
Fixed
Moveable, mechanically or motorised
Teleclimbers i.e. motorised grid
Motorised Telescopic bar
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-

Movable vertical rods with varying heights mounted on a cat walk system
below ceiling.

Special Effects Light

-

Sun/Moon projector
Water roller
Strobe flicker light
Cloud projector
Running water project
Sequential chaser with manual/music control
Par - par lights having parabolic glass reflector to give confined beam.
Multi ten/Multi twenty - open face light. Size of the broad beam can be
changed with the movement of lamp.
Follow spot with a circular concentrated beam

Fresner lenses
This lens has series of sloped concentric ring cut away from its convexed surface. Each
ring thus acts as a small prism gathering energy from the lamp and reflecting it into
parallel rays. This lens is used on most of the hard spot lights.
Different Lighting Techniques
-

Eye light, Low intensity light on camera itself to get extra sparkle to an
actor's eye.
Rim light, to highlight actor's outline. It is an extra back on entire body at
camera level.
Kickkar light, extra light on shadow side of the face at an angle behind
and to the side of the actor.
Limbo Lighting, Only object is visible, no back ground light.
Silhouette lighting, No light on subject, background is highly lit.

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Fig. 5 Different types of Light Fittings

Fig. 6 Component of a hard Light

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Fig. 7 Different ways of Controlling Lights

Fig. 8 Lighting equipment in side a studio

4.

LIGHTING CONSOLE

In a television production, each scene will require its own lighting plan to give the desired
effect. In order to assist in setting up a particular lighting plan, a console should
provide :a)
b)
c)

One man operation and a centralised control desk with ability to switch any
circuit.
Facilities to obtain good balance with flexibility to have dimming on any circuit.
With all controls for power at low voltage and current.

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Modern lighting consoles also provide file and memory to enable the console operator to
store and recall the appropriate luminaries used for a particular lighting plot. These
console also provide Mimic panels to show which channels are in use and which
memories or files have been recalled.

Dimmers
Thee basic methods for dimming are :a)

Resistance : This is the simplest and cheapest form of dimmer. It consists of

a wire wound resistor with a wiper. It is used in series with the load.

b)

Saturable Reactor (System SR) : The basic principle of the saturable reactor
is to connect an iron cored choke in series with the lamp. The inductance of
the choke can be varied by saturating the iron core by means of D.C. supply
on a separate control winding. When the D.C. control current is high the iron
core gets saturated causing the change in inductance in series with the load.
This results in change in voltage and hence the dimming effect.

c)

Auto Transfer : A wiper sliding along the winding varies the turns ratio and
thus the lamp voltage.

These systems has the following disadvantages :

Low efficiency i.e. more power loss.

Operator to handle high voltages, not very safe
Costly and bulky

Advances in the technology have resulted in improved reliability, more efficient and
cheaper design of dimmers. The operators now have to handle low control voltage with
a maximum value of 20 V. These dimmers are called SCR (Silicon controlled rectifier)
based dimmers. SCR is basically a semi-conductor rectifier which does not conduct until
it has been "switched on" by a gating pulse. It is a 4 layer semi-conductor, with three
electrodes - anode and gate. It is connected in series with the load. Dimming is
achieved by varying the timing of the gate pulses to control the average load current.

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Thyristor or SCR
It is a unilateral device and conduction take place from anode to cathode under proper
conditions of bias. The other member of this family is called "Triac" which is a bilateral
device with three terminals and conducts in both directions. Thyristor and its action can
be considered by seeing it as two transistors connected back to back.
The presence of a positive gate pulse or potential on the base of TR2 turns it on and
current flows through TR2 via the base of TR1. This turns TR1 on and current flow
through TR1 and into the base of TR2, thus holding TR2 on. The gate pulse can now be
removed and the thyristor conduct until the supply is removed and the regenerative
action of TR1/TR2 is destroyed. The internal feed back makes the thyristor an extremely
efficient and fast switching device.

Fig. 9 Silicon Control Devices

Working of SCR circuit

Consider a variable control voltage applied at the gate of SCR device. At a particular
control voltage the SCR will get "on" thus passing the AC voltage to the connected load.
The AC to the load will be through only during the time this SCR is on. This will happen
after a control voltage has switched on this device. It can be seen from the waveform
that the power given to the load is only during the part of the positive half cycle. This
duration can be changed by changing the position of control voltage with respect to a
reference.
LOAD VOLTAGE
(HATCHED PORTION)
LOAD

LOAD
CURRENT

AC SUPPLY

SUPPLY
VOLTAGE

VC

Fig. 10 Working of a SCR Controlled Dimmer

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With electronically controlled dimmers, light output between Zero to maximum can be
obtained by changing the position of control or trigger pulses. The trigger pulse are
obtained by differentiating the output of a comparator. The comparator gives a pulse at
the moments of intersection of especially shaped ramp voltage, which is synchronized
with the line voltage, and the control voltage Vc which is variable and controlled by the
operator.
To improve the efficiency of the system a second thyristor is connected across the
original, so that both half cycles are utilised. Dimming is thus achieved by varying the
timing of the gate pulses to control the average load current.
AC LINE

SCRS
OR
TRAICS

RAMP
VOLTAGE
GENERATOR

PULSE
GENERATOR
UNIT

Vr

Vc

Fig. 11 Basic Thyristor Control System

Block Diagram of complete light Dimmer Control System

This block diagram shows three dimmer. Each dimmer is on different phase. Number of
such units may be connected in the actual system, depending upon the load
requirement. An additional block labeled time base unit provide a reference waveform to
the trigger pulse generator which then controls the dimmer units. Rest of the blocks are
self explanatory.

TO OTHER
DIMMER
UNITS

DIMMER
UNIT

DIMMER
UNIT

TO OTHER
DIMMER
UNITS
DIMMER
UNIT

R
CONTACTOR

S
T

TO OTHER
DIMMER
UNITS

S
T
TIME BASE
UNIT

REF. R
REF. S
REF. T

TRIGGER
PULSE
GEN. UNIT

POWER
SUPPLY
8V / 15V
CONTROL
DESK

CONTROL D.C. VOLTAGE 0-10V

Fig. 12 Block Schematic of a Typical Dimmer System

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Microprocessor Based DTL Data lite Systems used in CPC Doordarshan

The DTL Modular Memory Control System is capable of controlling up to 256 channels.
The DTL systems use multiple Z80 processors to calculate the required level for each
dimmer circuit.
The operational control panel surface is scanned by a local microprocessor which
reports any button pushes or fader movements to the processing electronics. The
processing electronics may be located away from the control surface, communication
between the two units is via a high speed serial link (56 kbit/sec). Each type of control
panel (memory controller, playback controller, channel controller, or group master
controller) has an associated CPU unit in the main electronics rack. The CPUs
associated with a given controller do the limited range of calculations for all of the
channels in the system. e.g., the playback controller handles all playback calculations for
all channels in the system. In block schematic the dotted lines show the logical
connections between the control surface and the CPUs in the processing electronics.
Because each processor handles only a part of the calculations needed for each
channel there must be some way for information to be shared and exchanged between
the CPUs. This data exchange is provided by the common memory block.
In addition to the controller processors two other CPUs make use of the common
memory - the Output Greatest CPU and the Video CPU. The output Greatest processor
scans the working stores set up by the controller CPUs and where a given channel is
selected in more than 1 controller the highest level is chosen to be output to the dimmer.
The video CPU scans the common memory manager CPU handles the storage of file
data and also manages the serial link to the operational control panels. Data from the
control surface is written into the common memory by the memory manager CPU. Any
changes required to the mimic displays on the control surface are written into the
common memory by the controller CPUs, the memory manager CPU reads the data
from the common memory and transmits it to the control surface.
How does the system avoid a two CPUs trying to access different addresses in the
common memory at the same instant in time ? The basic mechanism is to time division
multiplex the accesses. A central timer unit feds interrupt pulses to each CPU that
needs access to the common memory. As soon as the interrupt is received the CPU
transfers data between the common memory and its private workspace.
The frame interrupt signal is connected to all the processor cards in the main processing
unit, and synchronises the processes in the CPUs. All of the CPUs are able to execute
their software in the time interval between frame interrupts. Within the memory manager
CPU the first action on receipt of the frame interrupt is to transfer data received from the
serial interface into the common memory. The various line interrupt pulses cause further
accesses to the common memory. The first line interrupt pulse is used to initiate the
transfer of data between the CMOS file memory and the common memory whenever a
file operation is requested. The second line interrupt is used to ensure that any
background activities (flashes, link operations etc.) are kept active. The third line
interrupt causes the memory manager CPU to transfer mimic data, tallies etc. from the
common memory to the serial interface for transmission to the control surface. There is
a similar interrupt structure for the other CPUs in the system.
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SYSTEM
TIMER

SERIAL
INTERFACE

FRAME INT
LINE INT
LINE INT

INTERNAL ADDR BUS

DATA BUS

MEMORY
MANAGER
CPU

PLAYBACK
CPU
DATA BUS

CMOS RAM
(32k)
COMMON MEMORY ADDR BUS (16 BIT)
TO OTHER
PROCESSORS

CMOS RAM
(32k)

COMMON MEMORY

TO OTHER CMOS RAM CARDS

Fig. 13 System Busses and Interrupts in a Datalite System

OPERATORS DESK

SERIAL
INTERFACE
(PANEL)
RS
422

SERIAL
INTERFACE
CPU

MEMORY
CONTROLLER
FUNCTIONS

PLAYBACK
CONTROLLER

CHANNEL
CONTROLLER

GROUP
MASTER

MEMORY
MANAGER
PROCESSOR

PLABACK
PROCESSOR

CHANNEL
CONTROLLER
PROCESSOR

GROUP
MASTER
PROCESSOR

CMOS RAM
(32k)
COMMON MEMORY
CMOS RAM
(32k)
R
SERIAL
& HOLD
(D to A)

MEMORY
MANAGER
PROCESSOR

VIDEO
PROCE
-SSOR

VIDEO
GENERATION

R
S
S

TO DIMMERS

PROCESSING ELECTRONICS

Fig. 14 Block Diagram of Datalite Modular System

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The fade systems of the Datalite consoles are implemented entirely within the software
of the controller units. The fade algorithm used is the digital version of a dip less cross
fade :
o/p = A + (B-A) / 256)* n
The system timer generates regular pulses which are counted to generate the current
value for n. The processor then does a fast multiply to calculate (B-A)/256)*n. The
result is added to a copy of the initial level A and the total left for the output Greatest
processor to consider in conjunction with the output from the other controllers in the
system.
The file data in the Datalite system is held in battery backed CMOS memory. Each
CMOS card holds 32 kbytes of memory, and up to 192 kbytes of file memory can be
fitted (i.e. 6 cards). With a channel capacity of 1000 channels this means that about 200
lots of file data can be held in the CMOS memory. The operator is free to use any file
number up to 999 and therefore the storage system is divided into a heater area and a
data storage area. The header block contains the file numbers a header area and a
data storage area. The header block contains the file numbers of all the files that are
stored plus pointers to where the associated file data is to be found within the file
storage area.

5.

OPERATIONAL PRACTICE

The incident light level used in any television studio depends on the light required b y the
cameras in that studio to give depth of field consistent with types of programmes. A
dance sequence for example will need higher f - stop no. for more depth of field hence
requiring more light level in the studios.
Contrast Ratio
Contrast is the ratio between the luminance of the lightest and darkest part of the
subject or image. The scene contrast out-doors is on average 160:1 or even higher.
The use of lighting to create areas of light and shade, increases the overall contrast
ratio. In television the contrast should be restricted to about 20:1 and to ensure this
the colours used by Scenic Designers are selected from a range which have
reflectance between 3% and 60%. A television 'White' is a surface which has a
reflectance of 60%.
Illusion of Depth
This is the first artistic consideration, otherwise pictures will tend to look flat and
uninspiring. Subjects (artists and sets) are modeled by light, using shadows to
reveal the shape, form and texture. The greater the shadow areas the more solid
and three dimensional will the subject appear. Texture is revealed to a maximum
when the surface is edge lit. Tonal contrast can be used to create the illusion of
depth by arranging a recession of tones from the background (light) to foreground
(dark). In order to achieve control over the scenic contrast the scenery should,
whenever possible, be lit separately from the artists.
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Script
Script requirements have to be satisfied to create atmosphere and mood. The script
requirements are basically of two types.
a) Explicit - Day, Night, Interior, Exterior, etc.
b) Implicit - Mood or Artistic Impression visualized by Director and Lighting
Supervisor.
Compatibility
Lighting should be compatible with B/W sets.

Types of Luminaries
There are 3 basic types of luminaries :
i)

A soft-edged spotlight - Hard Source (Fresnel spotlight)

This is a focussed light source in which the position of the light source relative to
the lens can be increased or decreased to 'SPOT' or 'FLOOD's. Normally it is used
in the fully FLOODED condition to give the widest and most uniform illumination.
The beam has a soft edge which gives the name to the luminaries as soft edge
spot light and the lens used is a Fresnel lens.
Barn doors are fitted to these light to restrict illumination to specific areas. Usually
the luminaries are used in the fully flooded condition because this gives more
uniform illumination and makes the barn doors most effective.
ii)

A hard-edged spotlight - Hard Source (Effects spotlight)

This is a focussed light source in which the exist circular aperture of the light
housing is projected by a lens system to give a disc of light with a hard edge to it.
Alternatively, patterns cut from metal can be projected by inserting them near the
circular aperture.
iii)

Soft Source

Usually a large area diffused source of light, producing as few shadows as

possible. These light sources are not usually focussed, so often they are fitted with
louvers to reduce the sideways spill of light.

Basic Three Point Lighting

Key light : This is the principle of key light source of illumination. It gives shape and
modeling by casting shadows. It is treated like "sun" in the sky and it should
cast only one shadow. Normally it is a hard source.

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Fill Light : Controls the lighting contrast by filling in shadows. It can also provide catch
lights in the eyes. Normally it is a soft source.
Back light : Separates the body from the background, gives roundness to the subject
and reveals texture. Normally it is hard source.
Background Light : Separates the person from the background, reveals background
interest and shape. Normally it is a hard source.
In three point lighting the ratio of 3/2/1 (Back/Key/Fill) for mono and 3/2/2 for colour
provides good portrait lighting.

Position of Artist
At least 4', preferably 6' away from back ground to avoid artist's shadow on the
background and to ensure that the back light angle will not be too steep. To ensure
control of background lighting, whenever possible use barn doors to keep key light off
background.
Similarly avoid background light catching artist.
In colour, plain
background are often used care must be taken to ensure that on the monochrome
picture there is a difference in tonal value between the face and the background.
Lighting Balance
The Key or Mood of the picture is determined by the ratio of the relative intensities of
Key Filter, and the tonal distribution in the picture.
Low Key

Predominance of dark tones, large area of shadow.

Facial contrast approx. 5 : 1. Dramatic effect.

Medium Key

Facial contrast approx. 3 : 1.

High Key

Predominance of light tones, small areas of thin

shadows. An almost 2D effect giving a gay, light
mood. Contrast ratio less than 3:1.

The intensity of the backlight should be approx. the same as the key light but will also
depend on the subject.

Lighting the Set for Drama

Openings such as windows within a set should be highlighted without overstating them.
Where the walls having such feature should be lit to reveal these features but care must
be taken to ensure that there is only one shadow. The top of the set should be darkened
off by using the barn doors, this puts a ceiling on the set by giving the feeling of a roof.
If more than the top of the set is darkened, that gives enclosed feeling.

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Indoor day time

If there is a choice in the direction of the sun (Key) take the shortest route inside the
set to a wall, and if possible throw the shadow of window bars onto a door it usually
is in shot.
A patch of light on the floor inside the set, backlight from outside using a soft source
at steep elevation adds realism.

When a set does not have a window, a window pattern can be projected onto a wall
to produce a suitable window effect.

Roof and Ceiling Pieces - if they make lighting impossible, check if they can be
removed at the planning state. Light any ceiling pieces from outside, use a soft
source at ground level. If the ceiling has plaster moulding or ornamentation, a hard
source may be used.

Indoor night time

The outside of the window should be dark, except for a possible dim skyline if the
room is well above adjacent streets, or lit by an outside practical lamp i.e. street
lighting.

The wall with the window in it should be lit at night to be brighter than for the day
condition. Subjectively the walls appear brighter at night than at day time.

Practical lamp should be placed such that they are in shot i.e. a standard lamp by
a settee, table lamp by a wall. Where possible make the light from this practical
source.

Often a completely different feel to the set can be obtained by reversing the
direction of lighting in the set compared to that used for day.

General for night effects it is not a good plan to just simply dim the set lighting
when changing from day to night. This is because the excessive change in
colour temperature of the light source and the apparent increase in saturation of
surfaces at low luminance.

Outdoor daylight and Moonlight

The direction of the light is dictated by the position of the sun or moon. As a general
principle one should remember that sunlight (hard source) is accompanied by the
reflected sky light (soft source) whereas moon light is a single hard source. One of the
biggest problems when lighting exteriors is the maintenance of single shadow
philosophy double shadows on a long shot will quickly destroy the apparent realism
created in the set. A very large area filter light is ideal for exterior day light scenes. This
can be achieved by using a suspended white screen 12 x 8 where the filler would be
positioned then lighting it with hard light.

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The exact lighting treatment will depend on the situation but as a general rule, moonlight
effects are normally achieved by back lighting to give a more softer, romantic mood than
would be achieved than a frontal key.
In colour, to obtain a night effect, blue cinemoid is used over the luminaries. This gives a
stylized effect. An alternative is to use much more localized lighting than for day light
and light only the artists and odd part of the set.
Key light
The frontal key light may not suit both the demonstrator and his subjects. Its angle might
not provide optimum modeling for items on the table. Subjects may shadow each other.
The day light may also over illuminate the front of the table. The solution to these
problems is to use barn door on the main key, restricting it to the demonstrator, and
introduce additional localized lamps to the front and side of the table-top to light the
display more effectively.
Where an overload mirror is being used to provide a camera with top shots, we may also
be able to utilize it to redirect a spot light downwards, projecting appropriate modeling
light into items on the table.
Backlight
Backlight is always liable to cast the demonstrators shadow forward across the central
working area of the table, causing obscuring or distracting shadows over the subject he
is discussing. We may be able to avoid this by using a lower angle backlight, that is
barn doored to illuminate only the demonstrators head and shoulders. Shadows from a
low-intensity backlight may become sufficiently diluted by key lights to be quite
unobtrusive. Another approach is to use a soft backlight in order to avoid these shadows
altogether, but it can give less effective lighting, and its spill light is not so readily
controlled.
Reflections
Sometimes backlight bouncing forwards the camera, or multiple reflections of studio
lights, can prove troublesome. The only practical remedies, apart from removing or
covering the offending surface, are to try repositioning. Occasionally it may be possible
to switch off a lamp from an isolated shot, to prevent reflection.

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